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In g e n e r a l, e le c tr o n ic c irc u it u s in g tra n s is t o r s re q u ire a

s o u rc e o f D C p o w e r fo r e x a m p le in tu b e a m p lifie rs , D C
v o lta g e is n e e d e d fo r p la te , s c re e n g rid a n d c o n tr o l g rid .

S im ila r ly th e e m it te r a n d c o lle c to r b ia s in a tr a n s is to r m u s t

a ls o b e d ire c t c u rre n t. B a tte rie s a re r a re ly u s e d fo r th is

p u rp o s e a s th e y a r e c o s tly . In p r a c tic e D C p o w e r fo r

e le c tro n ic c ir c u it is m ost c o n v e n ie n t ly o b t a in e d fro m

c o m m e rc ia l A C lin e s b y u s in g re c tifie r-filte r s ys t e m , c a lle d

a DC p o w er s u p p ly . The r e c tifie r-filte r c o m b in a tio n

c o n s titu t e s a n o rd in a ry D C p o w e r s u p p ly . T h e D C v o lta g e

fro m a n o rd in a ry p o w e r s u p p ly re m a in s c o n s ta n t. S o lo n g

a s A C m a in s v o lta g e o r lo a d is u n a lte re d . H o w e v e r , in

m a n y e le c tro n ic a p p lic a tio n s , it is d e s ire d th a t D C v o lta g e

s h o u ld re m a in c o n s ta n t irre s p e c tiv e o f c h a n g e in AC

m a in s o r lo a d u n d e r s u c h s itu a t io n s , v o lta g e re g u la tin g

d e v ic e s a re used w it h o rd in a r y p o w er s u p p ly. T h is

c o n s titu t e s re g u la te d D C p o w e r s u p p ly a n d k e e p s th e D C

v o lta g e a t fa irly c o n s ta n t v a lu e .
C e rt ify th a t t h e p ro je c t e n t it le d “ v a ria b le r e g u la t e d p o w e r

s u p p ly ” s u b m itte d by SN OB ER M USHTAQ in p a rt ia l

fu lfillm e n t o f th e r e q u ire m e n t fo r t h e a w a rd o f “ D ip lo m a

in E le c tr ic a l E n g g . s t a te b o a r d o f T e c h n ic a l E d u c a tio n
J a m m u a n d k a s h m ir is a re c o rd s tu d e n t o w n p ro je c t w o rk

c a rrie d o u t u n d e r m y s u p e rv is io n .

E r. S U M A IY A R A F IQ

L e c tu r e r E le c tr ic a l E n g in e e rin g

G P C g a nd erb a l
 : - T h e low v olta g e A C o u tp u t is su ita b le for la m p s,

h e a ters a n d sp ec ia l A C m o to rs. It is n o t su ita b le fo r elec tro n ic

c irc u its unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.

: - T h e va ryin g D C o u tpu t is su ita b le fo r

la m p s, h e a ters and sta n d a rd m o to rs. It is not su ita b le fo r

e le ctro n ic c irc u its u n le ss th ey in clu d e a sm o oth in g ca p a c ito r.

 : - T h e sm o o th D C o u tp u t

h a s a sm a ll rip ple. It is su ita ble fo r m o st ele ctro n ic circ u its.

: - The

re gu la te d D C ou tp u t is v ery sm oo th w ith n o rip p le . It is su ita b le fo r

a ll e lec tron ic c ircu its.

 :- T ra n s fo rm e rs c o n v e rt AC

e le c tric ity fro m o n e v o lta g e to a n o th e r w ith little lo s s o f

p o w e r. T ra n s fo r m e rs w o rk o n ly w it h A C a n d th is is o n e o f

th e re a s o n s w h y m a in s e le c t ric ity is A C .

S te p -u p tra n s fo rm e rs in c re a s e v o lta g e , s te p -d o w n

tra n s fo rm e rs r e d u c e v o lta g e . M o s t p o w e r s u p p lie s u s e a

s te p -d o w n tr a n s fo rm e r to r e d u c e th e d a n g e ro u s ly h ig h

m a in s v o lt a g e (2 3 0 v ) to s a fe r lo w v o lta g e .
T h e in p u t c o il is c a lle d t h e p r im a ry a n d th e o u tp u t c o il is

c a lle d th e s e c o n d a ry . T h e re is n o e le c tr ic a l c o n n e c tio n

b e tw e e n th e tw o c o ils , in s te a d th e y a re lin k e d b y a n

a lte rn a tin g m a g n e tic fie ld

c re a te d in th e s o ft-ir o n c o r e o f t h e tra n s fo rm e r. T h e t w o

lin e s in th e m id d le o f th e c irc u it s y m b o l r e p re s e n t th e c o re .
T ra n s fo rm e rs w a s te v e r y litt le p o w e r s o t h e p o w e r o u t is

(a lm o s t ) e q u a l to th e p o w e r in . N o te t h a t a s v o lta g e is

s te p p e d d o w n c u r re n t is s te p p e d u p .

T h e r a tio o f th e n u m b e r o f t u rn s o n e a c h c o il, c a lle d th e

tu rn ’ s r a tio , d e t e r m in e s th e ra tio o f t h e v o lta g e s . A

s te p -d o w n tra n s fo rm e r h a s a la r g e n u m b e r o f t u rn s o n its

p rim a ry (in p u t ) c o il

w h ic h is c o n n e c te d to th e h ig h v o lt a g e m a in s s u p p ly, a n d

a s m a ll n u m b e r o f tu rn s o n its s e c o n d a r y (o u tp u t) c o il to

g iv e a lo w o u t p u t v o lta g e .

Vp Np p o w e r o u t = p o w e r in
tu r n s ra tio = = and
Vs Ns Vs × Is = V p × Ip

Vp = p rim a r y (in p u t) Vs = s e c o n d a ry (o u tp u t)

v o lt a g e v o lta g e
N p = n u m b e r o f tu r n s o n Ns = n u m b e r o f t u rn s on

p r im a ry c o il sec o nd a ry c o il

Ip = p r im a ry (in p u t) Is = sec o nd a ry (o u tp u t)

c u r re n t c u rre n t

: - T h e re a re s e v e r a l w a y s o f c o n n e c tin g d io d e s to

m a k e a re c tifie r to c o n v e rt A C to D C . T h e b rid g e re c tifie r is

th e m o s t im p o rt a n t a n d it p ro d u c e s fu ll-w a v e v a ry in g D C .

A fu ll-w a v e re c tifie r c a n a ls o b e m a d e fro m ju s t tw o

d io d e s if a c e n tre -ta p tra n s fo rm e r is u s e d , b u t th is m e th o d

is ra r e ly u s e d n o w th a t d io d e s a r e c h e a p e r. A s in g le d io d e

c a n b e u s e d a s a re c t ifie r b u t it o n ly u s e s t h e p o s itiv e (+ )

p a rt s o f th e A C w a v e to p ro d u c e h a lf-w a v e v a ry in g D C .

: - A b rid g e r e c tifie r c a n b e m a d e u s in g fo u r

in d iv id u a l d io d e s , bu t it is a ls o a v a ila b le in s p e c ia l

p a c k a g e s c o n ta in in g th e fo u r d io d e s re q u ire d . It is c a lle d a

fu ll-w a v e
re c tifie r b e c a u s e it u s e s a ll th e A C w a v e (b o th p o s itiv e a n d

n e g a tiv e s e c tio n s ). 1 .4 V is u s e d u p in th e b r id g e re c tifie r

b e c a u s e e a c h d io d e u s e s 0 .7 V w h e n c o n d u c tin g a n d th e re

a re a lw a y s tw o d io d e s c o n d u c tin g , a s sh ow n in th e

d ia g ra m b e lo w . W h e n A C s u p p ly is s w itc h e d o n . D u rin g

p o s itiv e h a lf c yc le te rm in a l A is p o s itiv e a n d B is n e g a tiv e .

T h is m a k e s d io d e D 1 & D 3 fo rw a rd b ia s e s & d io d e D 2 & D 4

re v e rs e b ia s e s a n d w e g e t p o s itiv e c y c le .

D u rin g – v e h a lf w a v e c y c le , th e A b e c o m e s – v e a n d B

b e c o m e s + v e . D u e to th is D 2 & D 4 c o m e u n d e r fo rw a rd

b ia s a n d d io d e D 1

& D 3 a re re v e r s e b ia s . T h e r e fo re , d io d e s D 2 & D 4 c o n d u c t

w h ile d io d e D 1 & D 3 d o n ’ t. th e s h a p e o f w a v e is s h o w n

in fig u r e .
H e n c e , w e c a n s a y t h a t t h e b r id g e w a v e r e c tifie r g iv e th e

p u ls a tin g D C v o lta g e w h ic h a re n o t s u it a b le fo r e le c tr o n ic s

c ir c u it.
 : - S m o o th in g is p e rfo r m e d b y a la rg e

v a lu e e le c tr o ly tic c a p a c ito r c o n n e c te d a c ro s s th e DC

s u p p ly to a c t a s a re s e r v o ir, s u p p ly in g c u rre n t to th e

o u tp u t w h e n th e v a ry in g D C v o lt a g e fr o m th e r e c tifie r is

fa llin g . T h e d ia g ra m s h o w s th e u n s m o o th e d v a ry in g D C

(d o tte d lin e ) and th e sm oo the d DC (s o lid lin e ). T h e

c a p a c it o r c h a rg e s q u ic k ly n e a r th e p e a k o f t h e v a ry in g D C ,

a n d th e n d is c h a rg e s a s it s u p p lie s c u rre n t to th e o u tp u t .

: - N o te th a t s m o o th in g s ig n ific a n tly in c re a s e s th e

a v e r a g e D C v o lta g e to a lm o s t th e p e a k v a lu e (1 .4 × RM S

v a lu e ).
S m o o th in g is n o t p e rfe c t d u e to th e c a p a c ito r v o lta g e

fa llin g a lit tle a s it d is c h a rg e s , g iv in g a s m a ll rip p le v o lta g e .

F o r m a n y c irc u its a rip p le w h ic h is 1 0 % o f t h e s u p p ly

v o lta g e is s a tis fa c to ry a n d th e e q u a t io n b e lo w g iv e s th e

re q u ire d v a lu e fo r t h e s m o o t h in g c a p a c ito r. A la rg e r

c a p a c it o r w ill g iv e le s s rip p le . T h e c a p a c ito r v a lu e m u s t b e

d o u b le d w h e n s m o o th in g h a lf-w a v e D C .

S o , in th is w e c o n c lu d e d th a t th e p u ls a t in g D C v o lta g e is

a p p lie d to the s m o o th in g c a p a c ito r. T h is s m o o th in g

c a p a c it o r re d u c e s t h e p u ls a tio n s in th e re c tifie r D C o u tp u t

v o lta g e .

T h e s m o o th D C o u tp u t h a s a s m a ll r ip p le . It is s u ita b le fo r

m o s t e le c tro n ic s c irc u its .

 : - V o lta g e re g u la to r IC s a re a v a ila b le

w it h fix e d o r v a ria b le o u tp u t v o lta g e s . T h e re g u la te d D C

o u tp u t is v e ry s m o o th w ith n o rip p le . It is s u ita b le fo r a ll

e le c tro n ic c irc u it s .

W h e n v o lta g e r e g u la t in g d e v ic e is a d d e d t o th is o rd in a ry

p o w e r s u p p ly , it tu rn s in to a re g u la te d p o w e r s u p p ly .
In th is we used a d ju s ta b le v o lt a g e re g u la to r. The

a d ju s ta b le v o lta g e re g u la t o r c a n b e a d ju s t e d to p ro v id e

a n y D C o u t p u t v o lta g e th a t is w ith in its tw o s p e c ifie d

lim its . T h e m o s t p o p u la r th re e te rm in a l IC a d ju s ta b le

v o lta g e r e g u la t o r is th e K A 3 1 7 . It h a s a n in p u t te r m in a l,

o u tp u t te r m in a l a n d a n a d ju s tm e n t t e rm in a l.

A n e x t e r n a l v o lta g e d iv id e r is u s e d t o c h a n g e th e D C

o u tp u t v o lt a g e o f t h e re g u la to r . B y c h a n g in g e x te r n a l

v o lta g e d iv id e r m e a n s v a ria b le re s is ta n c e , a w id e ra n g e o f

o u tp u t v o lt a g e c a n b e o b ta in e d . M o s t re g u la to rs in c lu d e

som e a u to m a tic p r o t e c tio n fro m e x c e s s iv e c u r re n t

(o v e rlo a d p r o te c tio n ) a n d o v e rh e a t in g
(T h e r m a l p ro te c t io n ).

▶ F irs t o f a ll re a d t h e g iv e n m a n u a l th o r o u g h ly a n d s tu d y

th e c irc u it g iv e n in t h e fig u re . A ls o h a v e a lo o k a t P C B

and c o m p o n e n ts s u p p lie d a lo n g w ith the k it . Each

c o m p o n e n t h a s t o b e s o ld e re d in it s p o s itio n o n P C B .

▶ Id e n tific a tio n o f re s is to rs is d o n e b y c o lo r-c o d in g . T h e

c o lo r b a n d o n e a c h re s is to r c o rr e s p o n d s to its e x a c t

v a lu e .

▶ T h e r e a re d iffe re n t m e t h o d s in w h ic h a re d e fin e d o n

c a p a c it o rs . B u t u s u a lly v a lu e s a r e s p e c ifie d n u m e r ic a lly

o n t h e m . R e fe r “ B a s ic E le c tro n ic s ” s e c tio n o f th e

m a n u a l fo r d e t a ils o f r e s is to r a n d c a p a c ito r id e n tific a tio n

m e th o d s .

▶ C a n yo u m a k e o u t t h e w h o le w o rk in g o f c irc u it a n d a r e

y o u a b le to id e n tify e a c h c o m p o n e n t s e p a ra t e ly a s to

w h e re e a c h o f th e m h a s t o b e p la c e d ?
▶ If y e s , o n ly th e n p ro c e e d fu rth e r to a c tu a lly m o u n t in g a n d

s o ld e rin g th e p a r ts re fe r t o “ S o ld e rin g In s tru c tio n s ”

s e c t io n .

▶ N o t IC ’ s b u t t h e ir s o c k e t s a re to b e s o ld e re d o n P C B .

T h is is to m a k e m o u n tin g a n d d is m o u n tin g o f IC ’ s easy

w h ile tro u b le s h o o tin g .

▶ S ta rt fro m le ft m o s t c o r n e r o f P C B and s o ld e r th e

c o m p o n e n ts o n e b y o n e o n t h e ir c o rre c t p o s itio n o f P C B .

▶ B e fo r e s o ld e rin g any c o m p o n ent see th a t yo u h ave

p la c e d it a t it s r ig h t p o s itio n a n d w it h c o rr e c t p o la rity .

G iv e d u e a tte n tio n t o d io d e s a n d e le c tro ly tic c a p a c ito rs ,

a s th e y a re p o la rity d e p e n d e n t.

▶ Do th e s o ld e rin g o f o th e r c o m p o n e n ts in t h e s a m e w a y

w h ile k e e p in g in m in d th a t c o m p o n e n t s w it h lo n g a n d

s e n s itiv e le a d s lik e c a p a c ito r s and t ra n s is to r s a re

s o ld e re d la s t.
The fabricating techniques used in this project can be broadly

classified into:

o Mechanical Fabricating, consisting of mechanical design.

o Electrical Fabricating, consisting of electrical design i.e.

making PCB, soldering, is making connection correctly etc.

S o ld e rin g is a p ro c e s s in w h ic h tw o o r m o re m e ta l ite m s a r e jo in e d

to g e th e r b y m e ltin g a n d flo w in g a fille r m e ta l in to th e jo in t, th e fille r

m e ta l in to th e jo in t, t h e fille r m e ta l h a v in g a re la tiv e lo w m e lt in g p o in t.

S o ft s o ld e r in g is c h a ra c t e r iz e d b y t h e m e ltin g p o in t o f th e fille r

m e ta l, w h ic h is b e lo w 4 0 0 0 C (7 5 2 0F ). T h e fille r m e ta l u s e d in th e

p ro c e s s is c a lle d s o ld e r.
S o ld e rin g is d is t in g u is h e d b ra z in g by use of a lo w e r

m e ltin g -t e m p e ra tu r e fille r m e ta l; it is d is tin g u is h e d fro m w e ld in g b y

th e b a s e m e ta ls n o t b e in g m e lt e d d u r in g th e jo in in g p ro c e s s . In a

s o ld e rin g p ro c e s s , h e a t is a p p lie d t o th e p a r ts to b e jo in t b y c a p illa ry

a c tio n a n d to b o n d to t h e m a te ria ls to b e jo in e d b y w e tt in g a c tio n .

A ft e r th e m e ta l c o o ls , t h e re s u ltin g jo in ts a re n o t a s s tro n g a s th e

b a s e m e ta l, b u t h a v e a d e q u a te s tre n g th , e le c tric a l c o n d u c tiv ity a n d

w a te r t ig h t n e s s fo r m a n y u s e s . s o ld ie rin g is a n a n c ie n t te c h n iq u e

m e n t io n e d in B ib le a n d t h e re is e v id e n c e th a t it w a s e m p lo ye d u p to

5 0 0 0 y e a rs a g o in M e s o p o t a m ia .
S o ld ie r in g is s o m e t h in g t h a t n e e d s to b e p ra c tic e d . T h e s e t ip s

s h o u ld h e lp yo u b e g a n s u c c e s s fu l s o y o u c a n s to p p ra c tic in g a n d

g e t d o w n to s o m e s e rio u s b u ild in g .

1. U s e h e a t s in k s . H e a t s in k s a re m u s t fo r th e le a d s o f s e n s it iv e

c o m p o n e n ts s u c h a s o n

2. K e e p t h e iro n t ip c le a n . A c le a n ir o n tip m e a n s b e tt e r h e a t

c o n d u c tio n a n d a b e t te r jo in t . U s e a w e t s p o n g e t o c le a n t h e t ip

b e tw e e n jo in ts .

3. D o u b le c h e c k p o in ts . It is g o o d id e a to c h e c k a ll th e s o ld ie rs

jo in ts w ith a n O h m m e t e r a fte r t h e y a re c o o le d . If th e jo in t
 m e a s u re s a n y m o re th a n a fe w te n th s o f a n o h m , th e n it m a y b e

a g o o d id e a to r e s o ld e r it.

4. U s e th e p r o p e r iro n . R e m e m b e r th a t b ig g e r jo in ts w ill ta k e lo n g e r

to h e a t u p w ith a n 3 0 W iro n th a n w it h a 1 5 0 w ir o n . W h ile 3 0 W is

g o o d fo r p r in te d c irc u it b o a rd s a n d th e lik e , h ig h e r w a tta g e s a r e

g re a t w h e n s o ld ie r in g to a h e a v y m e ta l c h a s e s .

5. S o ld e r s m a ll p a rts fir s t. S o ld e r re s is to r s , ju m p e r le a d s , d io d e s

a n d a n y o th e r s m a ll p a rts b e fo r e y o u s o ld e r la r g e r p a rt s lik e

c a p a c it o rs a n d t ra n s is to rs . T h is m a k e s a s s e m b ly m u c h e a s ie r.
1 . M ou nt the c o m p o n e n ts a t th e a p p r o p r ia te p la c e s b e fo r e

s o ld e rin g ; F o llo w th e c irc u it d e s c rip tio n a n d c o m p o n e n ts

d e ta ils , le a d s id e n tific a tio n e tc . D o n o t s t a rt s o ld e rin g

 b e fo r e m a k in g it c o n firm th a t a ll c o m p o n e n t s a re m o u n t e d

a t rig h t p la c e .

2 . D o n o t u s e a s p re a d s o ld e r o n b o a rd , it m a y c a u s e s h o rt

c ir c u it.

3 . D o n o t s it u n d e r th e fa n w h ile s o ld e rin g .

4 . P o s it io n th e b o a rd s o th a t g ra v it y t e n d s t o k e e p th e s o ld e r

w h e re y o u w a n t it.

5 . D o n o t o v e r h e a t t h e c o m p o n e n ts a t t h e b o a rd . E x c e s s h e a t

m a y d a m a g e the c o m p o ne nt o r b o a rd.

6 . T h e b o a rd s h o u ld n o t v ib ra t e w h ile s o ld e rin g o th e r w is e y o u

h a v e a d ry o r c o ld jo in t .

7 . D o n o t p u t th e k it u n d e r o r o v e r v o lta g e s o u rc e . B e s u re a b o u t

th e v o lta g e e ith e r d c o r a c w h ile o p e ra t in g th e g a d g e t.

T h e te s tin g s te p c o m e s a fte r t h e fa b ric a tio n s p ro c e s s e s o r w e c a n

s a y th is is t h e fin a l s te p o f o u r p r o je c t. In th is p ro c e s s w e h a v e d o n e

te s tin g o f o u r p ro je c t b y h a r d w a re s e c t io n .

H a rd w a re s e c tio n

In th e h a rd w a re s e c tio n , firs t o f a ll w e h a v e te s te d th e s o ld ie rin g

s e c t io n o f p o w e r s u p p ly, a fte r th a t in th is w e h a v e c h e c k e d t h a t w e

a r e re c e iv in g th e o u tp u t re q u ire d o r n o t, i.e . 5 V fro m th e p o w e r

s u p p ly s e c t io n . A fte r fo u n d in g th a t th e p o w e r s u p p ly s e c tio n is

w o rk in g a s p e r o u r re q u ire m e n t w e m o v e d t o a n o th e r s e c tio n fo r

te s tin g . W e t e s t e d th e c o n n e c tio n o f c a p a c ito rs , re s is to r s , tr a n s is to rs .

F in a lly w e h a d g o n e th r o u g h th e w h o le c irc u it a n d c h e c k if t h e r e a r e

n o lo o s e n e d w ire s , b r e a k in g o f tra c k s e t c . t h e t o o ls re q u ire d fo r

te s tin g th e h a rd w a re s e c tio n w a s :
✓ :- The s te p dow n tr a n s fo rm e r can

c o n v e rt h ig h v o lta g e A C in to lo w v o lta g e A C . B y s t e p d o w n

tra n s fo rm e r w e c a n ta k e d iffe re n t v a lu e s o f v o lt a g e a t o u t p u t.

In th is p ro je c t w e c a n u s e 1 2 -0 -1 2 s te p d o w n tra n s fo rm e r.
 In th is tr a n s fo rm e r w e g iv e h ig h A C v o lta g e b y tw o re d w ir e s

& ta k e lo w A C v o lt a g e o u tp u t b y e ig h t w ir e s . A t e ig h t w ir e s

w e c a n o b ta in v a rio u s o u tp u ts .

✓ : - In th e fu ll w a v e r e c tifie r w e c a n u s e fo u r

d io d e s . T h e s e re c tifie rs c a n c o n v e rt A C v o lta g e in to D C

v o lta g e . In th is c irc u it w e u s e fo u r d io d e s o f v a lu e 4 0 0 7 to

m a k e a fu ll w a v e re c t ifie r. T h e s e fo u r d io d e s g iv e fu ll w a v e a t

o u tp u t. O n e d io d e ta k e s 0 .7 v to o p e ra te .W e c a n u s e t w o
d io d e to t a k e fu ll w a v e a t o u tp u t b u t fo r th is w e re q u ire a

c e n te r ta p tra n s fo r m e r, th is is n o t g e n e ra lly u s e b e c a u s e

th e s e a re c h ip p e r . A t o u tp u t w e o b t a in p u ls a tin g D C v o lt.:-

✓ :- C a p a c ito r a re u s e fo r e ith e r to s to re t h e c h a r g e

o r fo r s m o o th in g p u rp o s e . B u t in th is c ir c u it we u se