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Chapter 13
Thermal Conversion
Technologies
Fundamentals of Thermal Processing
Thermal processing is the conversion of solid wastes into
gaseous, liquid and solid conversion products with the
concurrent or subsequent release of heat energy.
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Thermal Conversion Technologies
Conversion Primary Secondary
Technology Products Products
Product
Recovery
Chemicals
Pyrolysis Char Extraction
Upgrading Gasoline
Synthesis
Tars & Oils Methanol
Energy
Feedstock Gasification Recovery Ammonia
Gas Gas Turbine
Engine
Combustion Heat Fuel Cell
Boiler Power
Potential energy of different materials
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Combustion
Combustion can be defined as the thermal processing of
solid fuels by chemical oxidation with stoichiometric or excess
amounts of air.
Because of the inconsistent nature (moisture) of solid waste, it
is virtually impossible to combust solid waste with
stoichiometric amounts of air.
Excess air has to be used to promote mixing and turbelence,
thus ensuring that air can reach all parts of the waste.
Combustion
The use of excess air for combustion affects the temperature
and composition of the combustion products.
End products include hot combustion gases, composed of
primarily of N2, CO2 and water vapour (flue gas) and non-
combustible residue (ash).
Energy can be recovered by heat exchange from the hot
combustion gases.
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Combustion Systems
SW combustion systems can be designed to operate with;
Mass-fired (commingled SW)
Minimal processing is given to SW before it is placed in the
charging hopper of the system.
Refuse derived fuel (RDF)-fired (Processed SW)
Compared to the uncontrolled nature of unprocesses MSW, RDF
can be produced with fair consistency to meet specifications for
energy, moisture and ash content
The RDF can be produced in shredded or fluff form or as
densified pellets or cubes
1. Mass-fired combustion
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Grate systems used in mass-fired
combustion (Figure 13-3)
2. RDF-fired boiler system
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Comparison of combustion systems
Mass-fired combustion RDF-fired boiler
800-850 oC
No NOx
control
Acid gas,
particulates and
NOx control
Fluidized Bed Combustion
FBC is an alternative design to conventional combustion
system.
It consists of a vertical steel cylinder with a sand bed, a
supporting grid plate and air injection nozzles (tuyeres).
When air is forced up through the nozzles, the bed fluidizes
and expands up to twice its resting volume.
In operation, auxiliary fuel (natural gas or fuel oil) is used to
bring the bed up to operating temperature (800-950 oC).
After start-up, auxiliary fuel is usually not needed.
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Fluidized Bed Combustion
Figure 13-5. Typical fluidized bed Figure 13-6. Schematic of a FBC for wastewater sludge,
combustion (FBC) system RDF and wood waste
Heat Recovery Systems
Energy can be recovered from the hot flue gases generated by
combusting MSW or RDF by;
Waterwall combustion chambers
Waste heat boilers
Either hot water or steam can be generated.
Steam can be used for both heating and generation of
electricity
When heat recovery is applied, 50 to 100% excess air is
adequate, thus reducing size of air pollution control devices.
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Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the thermal processing of waste in the complete
absence of oxygen.
Pyrolysis systems use an external source of heat to drive
endothermic pyrolysis reactions in an O2 free environment.
In pyrolysis, upon heating, most organic substances split
through a combination of thermal cracking and condensation
reactions into gaseous, liquid and solid fractions.
The term destructive distillation is often used as an
alternative term for pyrolysis.
Pyrolysis system
O2 free
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Products of pyrolysis
Major component fractions resulting from pyrolysis process;
A gas stream, containing primarily H2, CH4, CO, CO2 and
various other gases, depending on organic characteristics of
the material pyrolyzed.
A liquid fraction, consisting of a tar or oil stream containing
acetic acid, acetone, methanol and complex oxygenated
hydrocarbons. With additional processing, the liquid fraction
can be used as a synthetic fuel oil.
A char, consisting of almost pure carbon plus any inert
material originally present in the solid waste.
Products of pyrolysis
The energy content of pyrolytic oils has been estimated to be
5000 kcal/kg.
Under conditions of maximum gas production (900 oC) it has
been estimated that the energy contents of the resulting gas
(30-33% H2, 10-11% CH4, 2-3% C2H4 and ~1% C2H6) would
be about 6200 kcal/m3.
Industrial uses of pyrolysis such as production of charcoal
from wood, coke and coke gas from coal are very common.
Pyrolysis of mixed plastic waste has high application potential
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Gasification
Gasification process has only recently been applied to the
processing of SW although it was discovered in 19th century.
It is the process of partial combustion in which fuel is
deliberately combusted with less than stoichiometric air.
A combustible fuel gas rich in CO, H2 and some saturated
hydrocarbons, principally CH4 is generated.
This fuel gas can then be combusted in an internal combustion
engine, gas turbine or boiler under excess air conditions.
Gasification theory
During gasification process, five principal reactions occur;
C + O2 CO2 Exothermic
C + H2O CO + H2 Endothermic
C + CO2 2CO Endothermic
C + 2H2 CH4 Exothermic
CO + H2O CO2 + H2 Exothermic
The heat to sustain the process is derived from the exothermic
reactions, whereas the combustible components are primarily
generated by endothermic reactions.
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Products of gasification
Gasifiers operated at atmospheric pressure with air produce;
A low calorific value (~1300 kcal/m3) gas containing 10% CO2,
20% CO, 15% H2 and 2% CH4 with the balance of N2.
A char containing carbon and inerts originally in SW.
Condensable liquids resembling pyrolytic oil.
Air blown gasifiers are quite stable with a fairly constant quality
of gas produced over a broad range of air input rates
When pure O2 is used instead of air, a gas with an energy
content of ~2700 kcal/m3 is generated
Types of gasifiers
Vertical Fixed Bed Gasifiers
Simple and relatively low capital costs
Requires uniform, homogeneous fuels such as densified RDF
Fuel flow through the gasifier is by gravity, with air and fuel
flowing concurrently through the reactor
End products are low-cal (~1300 kcal/m3) gas and char
With simplified control devices low air pollution emissions are
achieved.
Also operated with pure oxygen as an oxidant instead of air
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Vertical fixed bed gasifiers
Figure 13-10. Schematic drawing of batch-fed vertical fixed bed gasifier
Types of gasifiers
Horizontal Fixed Bed Gasifiers
It is the most commercially available type.
Also known as starved air combustor, controlled air combustor,
or pyrolytic combustor.
Composed of primary and secondary combustion chambers
In primary combustion, waste is gasified by partial combustion
under substoichiometric producing a low-cal gas.
In secondary chamber, low-cal gas is combusted with excess
air at high temperatures (650-900 oC).
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Horizontal fixed bed gasifiers
Figure 13-14. Modular combustion unit for MSW and selected industrial waste
Types of gasifiers
Fluidized Bed Gasifiers
With minimal modifications, a FBC can be operated in
substoichiometric mode as a FBG.
The low-cal gas generated may be used in boilers for the
production of steam and electricity.
Some form of RDF processing to remove metals & other inerts
is required to improve performance and reduce air emissions
Due to their lower emissions, as compared to excess-air
combustion systems, FBG may hold the most potential for
future development.
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Fluidized bed gasifier
Fluidized bed gasifier
Circulating Fluidized Bed Gasifier
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Pyrolysis & Gasification
Both systems are used to convert solid waste into gaseous,
liquid and solid fuels.
Gasification process is highly exothermic and therefore self
sustaining
Pyrolysis process is highly endothermic and requires an
external heat source.
Pyrolysis reactions take place in an oxygen free environment
and gasification systems use air or oxygen for the partial
combustion of solid waste.
Combustion-Gasification-Pyrolysis
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Environmental Control Systems
Air Emissions
Criteria pollutants indentified include;
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) is formed by rxns between N2 and O2 in
the air used for combustion.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is formed by the combustion of fuels
containing sulfur.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is formed during the combustion of
carbonaceous materials when insufficient oxygen is present
Particulate matter (PM) formed during incomplete combustion
of fuel and physical entrainment of non-combustables
Environmental Control Systems
Air Emissions
Metals. MSW is a heterogeneous mixture and contains metallic
elements. After combustion, metals are either emitted as PM or
vaporized into their gaseous form. Cd, Cr, Hg, and Pb are
metals of particular concern from a public health viewpoint.
Acid gases. The combustion of wastes containing fluorine and
chlorine leads to the generation of acid gases HF and HCl.
Dioxins and furans. PCDD (polychlorinated dibenzodioxins)
and PCDF (polychlorinated dibenzofuran) like cancer-causing
organic compounds are formed in thermal processing of MSW
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Air pollution control systems
PM control: Electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, electro-
static gravel bed filters
NOx control: Source separation, combustion control, flue gas
treatment
SO2 and acid gas control: Source separation, wet or dry
scrubbing
CO and HC control: Combustion controls
Non-criteria pollutant controls: Source separation, combustion
controls, particulate control
Energy Recovery Systems
Principle components used for energy recovery;
Steam turbines: Steam is produced in a boiler by burning
MSW, RDF or gaseous and liquid conversion products and
used to drive the steam turbine which drives an electrical
generator. Used in larger systems (10 to 50 MW).
Gas turbines: It is similar to a jet engine and consists of a
compressor to increase the density of gas/air mixture, a
combustor, and a turbine connected to an electrical generator
to convert hot combustion gases to mechanical energy. Widely
used in landfill gas systems.
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Energy Recovery Systems
Internal combustion engine: ICEs using pistons and a
crankshaft are an alternative ro gas turbines for gaseous or
liquid for the thermal or biological processing of SW. It is a
modified version of industrial engines designed for natural gas
or propane.
Cogeneration is the generation of both thermal and electrical
power. Cogeneration systems are used widely in industry to
generate electricity and process or building heat at the same
time. Applications in energy recovery from SW are limited
becuase heat recovered must be used at the site.
Energy Recovery Systems (Figure 13-25)
ERS using a steam turbine ERS using an internal combustion engine
ERS using a gas turbine
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Co-generation systems (Figure 13-26)
CS using a gas turbine CS using a steam turbine
CS using an internal combustion engine
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