Quality Control and Quality Assurance BCV657D

Module 3
Statistical Quality Control
Statistical Quality Control is a method of consistently ensuring that products and services are meeting quality
provisions by means of application of statistical techniques. The act of statistical quality control means measuring and
quantifying to see that objects are manufactured correctly. It ensures that every product produced in a facility is the
same and quality perfect. Correlates are checked on checklist-things like weight, size, shape, etc. If an error is seen to
crop up, it can be rectified in time so that there are no further errors. This assures consumers of high-quality products
that are safe. Further, it also gives a cost advantage to the factory in saving time and materials.
Importance of SQC in construction
Statistical Quality Control (SQC) in construction uses data-driven, probabilistic methods like control
charts and acceptance sampling to monitor, control, and improve quality. It minimizes rework, reduces material
waste, and ensures structural components meet specified standards by analyzing variation in materials and processes.
Statistical Process Control (SPC): Uses tools such as control charts to monitor construction activities (e.g., concrete
strength, steel reinforcement placement) in real-time to ensure stability and detect deviations.
Acceptance Sampling: Evaluates a sample from a batch of materials (e.g., bricks, concrete blocks) to decide whether
to accept or reject the entire lot based on predefined quality levels.
Key Tools:
1. Control Charts: Monitor process variability over time.
2. Histograms: Visualize the distribution of data, such as concrete strength tests.
3. Cause-and-Effect Diagrams: Identify root causes of quality issues.
4. Pareto Charts: Focus on the most significant causes of defects.
Applications and Advantages
 Concrete Quality: Monitoring concrete compressive strength results over time to detect shifts in mix
performance.
 Reduced Rework: Identifying defects early prevents costly, time-consuming remediation.
 Enhanced Reliability: Ensures that materials and workmanship conform to safety standards.
 Process Stability: Helps differentiate between random variation and assignable causes (errors)

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Statistical Parameters
In quality control (like concrete testing), we cannot test every single unit produced without destroying the
entire structure. Statistics bridge this gap, allowing us to make highly accurate assumptions about the whole
based on a small selection.
1. Population and Sampling
 Population: The complete set of items or data points under consideration (e.g., the entire volume of
concrete poured for a building slab).
 Sample: A strictly selected subset drawn from the population, used to represent the characteristics
of the whole.
 Sampling: The actual process of selecting that subset. To be mathematically valid, sampling must
be randomized, ensuring that every portion of the batch has an equal chance of being tested.

2. Measures of Central Tendency

These metrics help identify the "center" or typical value of a dataset.
 Mean (Average): The sum of all values divided by the number of values. This is the most critical
metric in structural concrete acceptance.
 Median: The exact middle value when a dataset is arranged in ascending order.
 Mode: The value that occurs most frequently in the dataset.
3. Measures of Variability (Dispersion)
Central tendency only tells half the story; we also need to know how scattered or consistent the data is.
High variability in concrete strength indicates poor quality control at the batching plant.
 Range: The simple difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset.
 Variance: The average of the squared differences from the Mean.
 Standard Deviation: The square root of the variance. It is the most widely used measure of
dispersion, showing how closely the individual tests cluster around the mean. A lower $\sigma$
means better quality control.

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 Coefficient of Variation (CV): The ratio of the standard deviation to the mean, usually expressed
as a percentage.

IS 456:2000 Recommendations for Concrete

The IS 456:2000 code uses the above statistical parameters to dictate how concrete should be sampled, tested,
and ultimately accepted or rejected on-site.
1. Sampling of Concrete (Clause 15.2.2)
Random sampling is mandated. A single "sample" for testing does not mean one block of concrete; one
sample consists of 3 distinct test specimens (typically 150 mm cubes) taken from the same concrete batch.
The minimum frequency of sampling depends heavily on the volume of concrete being poured:
Quantity of Concrete in Work
Minimum Number of Samples
(m³)

1–5 1

6 – 15 2

16 – 30 3

31 – 50 4

4 + 1 for each additional 50 m³ (or part

51 and above
thereof)

Note: At least one sample must be taken per shift. When dealing with continuous Ready Mix Concrete (RMC),
the frequency can be mutually agreed upon.
2. Testing Criteria (Clause 15.3 & 15.4)
 Age of Test: The cubes are standard tested at 28 days for characteristic compressive strength. While 7-
day tests are often done to get early indications, only the 28-day strength dictates final acceptance or
rejection.
 Averaging: The test result of the sample is the average of the 3 specimens.
 Invalidation Rule: The individual strength variation of any of the 3 cubes must not be more than
±15% of the average. If a cube fluctuates beyond this limit, the test result for that sample is invalid.
3. Acceptance Criteria for Compressive Strength (Clause 16)
Concrete is not accepted merely because a single cube passed. For grades M15 and above, the concrete is
deemed compliant only if both of the following statistical conditions are met:
Condition A: Mean of Group of 4 Non-Overlapping Consecutive Test Results

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The running average of 4 consecutive test results must be greater than or equal to the characteristic strength
plus a statistical margin. It must meet the greater of these two equations:

(Where sigma is the established standard deviation)

OR

Condition B: Individual Test Result Limit

Even if the average is excellent, no single sample is allowed to drop drastically low. Any individual test result
must satisfy:

If the concrete fails Condition A but meets Condition B, it may sometimes be accepted at a lower grade or
require further non-destructive testing (like core cutting). If it fails Condition B, it is structurally deficient and
usually rejected

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Answer: C
1. Statistical Quality Control (SQC)
primarily focuses on: 6. In construction, SQC helps in:

A) Increasing production speed A) Increasing aesthetic appeal

B) Reducing labor cost B) Monitoring concrete strength
C) Ensuring product quality using statistical C) Designing buildings
techniques D) Advertising projects
D) Improving marketing strategies
Answer: B
Answer: C
7. Which chart is based on the 80/20
2. Which of the following is an example of principle?
a quality parameter in SQC?
A) Histogram
A) Color of machinery B) Control Chart
B) Weight and size of product C) Pareto Chart
C) Salary of workers D) Flow Chart
D) Number of supervisors
Answer: C
Answer: B
8. A histogram is used to:
3. What is the main purpose of Statistical
Process Control (SPC)? A) Identify root causes
B) Monitor process stability
A) Increase profit margins C) Show frequency distribution of data
B) Monitor and control process variation D) Compare worker performance
C) Hire skilled labor
D) Design structures Answer: C

Answer: B 9. Cause-and-Effect Diagram is also known

as:
4. Which tool is used to monitor process
variability over time? A) Bar Chart
B) Fishbone Diagram
A) Histogram C) Pie Chart
B) Pareto Chart D) Line Graph
C) Control Chart
D) Scatter Diagram Answer: B

Answer: C 10. One major advantage of SQC in

construction is:
5. Acceptance Sampling is used to:
A) Increased labor requirement
A) Inspect every product B) Reduced rework and material waste
B) Improve worker efficiency C) Higher project delays
C) Decide acceptance or rejection of a batch D) Increased design complexity
D) Reduce production time
Answer: B

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11. In statistical quality control, what does the 16. Which of the following describes the 'mode'?
term 'population' refer to? A) The value that occurs most frequently
A) A randomly selected subset of data B) The square root of variance
B) The complete set of items under consideration C) The lowest value in the dataset
C) The middle value of a dataset D) The average of the highest and lowest values
D) The average of all values Correct Answer: A
Correct Answer: B
17. How is the 'range' of a dataset calculated?
12. What is a 'sample' in the context of statistics? A) Summing all values
A) The entire batch of concrete B) Difference between highest and lowest values
B) A strictly selected subset drawn from the C) Dividing standard deviation by the mean
population D) Squaring the standard deviation
C) The most frequent value in a set Correct Answer: B
D) The difference between the highest and lowest
values 18. What is the relationship between standard
Correct Answer: B. deviation (\(\sigma\)) and variance?
A) Standard deviation is the square of variance
13. To be mathematically valid, how must B) Standard deviation is the square root of
sampling be conducted? variance
A) Subjectively C) They are unrelated
B) Only from the top layer D) Variance is half of the standard deviation
C) Randomized Correct Answer: B
D) Based on appearance
Correct Answer: C 19. What does a lower standard deviation in
concrete strength tests indicate?
14. Which measure of central tendency is the A) Poor quality control
sum of all values divided by the number of B) Lower average strength
values? C) Better quality control
A) Median D) The concrete will definitely fail
B) Mode Correct Answer: C
C) Range
D) Mean 20. What is the Coefficient of Variation (CV)?
Correct Answer: D A) The ratio of standard deviation to the mean
B) The ratio of the mean to the median
15. What does the median represent in a dataset? C) The difference between mean and mode
A) The average of all squared differences D) The square root of the mean
B) The exact middle value when arranged in order Correct Answer: A
C) The highest value
D) The most frequent value 21. According to IS 456, one 'sample' for testing
Correct Answer: B consists of how many distinct test specimens?

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A) 1 A) 1 additional sample for each 10 m³

B) 2 B) 4 + 1 sample for each additional 50 m³ or part
C) 3 thereof
D) 4 C) 1 sample per truckload
Correct Answer: C) D) No additional samples required
Correct Answer: B
22. What is the minimum number of samples
required for 1 to 5 cubic meters of concrete? 27. A continuous pour requires 80 cubic meters
A) 1 of concrete. How many samples must be taken?
B) 2 A) 4
C) 3 B) 5
D) 4 C) 6
Correct Answer: A D) 8
Correct Answer: B
23. for 10 cubic meters of concrete, how many
samples must be taken? 28. If pouring 120 cubic meters of concrete, how
A) 1 many samples are required?
B) 2 A) 4
C) 3 B) 5
D) 4 C) 6
Correct Answer: B D) 7
Correct Answer: C
24. If you pour 25 cubic meters of concrete, what
is the minimum sampling frequency? 29. What is the absolute minimum number of
A) 1 samples that must be taken per shift?
B) 2 A) 0, if pour is small
C) 3 B) 1
D) 4 C) 3
Correct Answer: C D) 4
Correct Answer: B
25. For a concrete pour of 45 cubic meters, how
many samples are required? 30. for continuous Ready Mix Concrete (RMC),
A) 2 the frequency of sampling:
B) 3 A) Is fixed at 1 per truck
C) 4 B) Can be mutually agreed upon
D) 5 C) Is not required
Correct Answer: C D) Must be double the normal rate
Correct Answer: B
26. For concrete quantities above 51 cubic
meters, how are additional samples calculated? 31. At what age are concrete cubes standardly

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tested for characteristic compressive strength D) Needs a 4th cube

(f_ck)? Correct Answer: C
A) 3 days
B) 7 days 36. What is the standard size of a concrete test
C) 14 days cube as per IS recommendations?
D) 28 days A) 100 mm
Correct Answer: D B) 150 mm
C) 200 mm
32. Why are 7-day tests often performed if 28- D) 300 mm
day tests dictate final acceptance? Correct Answer: B
A) They replace the 28-day test
B) To get early indications of concrete quality 37. Which of the following describes 'Condition
C) To reduce testing costs A' for acceptance criteria (for M15 and above)?
D) Because IS 456 strictly mandates only 7-day A) It checks a single random test result
testing B) It evaluates the mean of a group of 4 non-
Correct Answer: B overlapping consecutive test results
C) It ensures 100% of cubes pass
33. How is the final test result of a single 'sample' D) It relies solely on the 7-day strength
determined? Correct Answer: B
A) By taking the highest value of the 3 specimens
B) By taking the lowest value of the 3 specimens 38. In Condition A of the acceptance criteria, the
C) By averaging the results of the 3 specimens mean must be greater than or equal to f_ck plus:
D) By choosing the median value A) 0.825 × σ
Correct Answer: C B) 1.65 × σ
C) 3 × σ
34. What is the maximum allowed variation of an D) σ / 2
individual specimen's strength from the average Correct Answer: A
of the sample?
A) ± 5% 39. Condition A states the mean must be greater
B) ± 10% than or equal to f_ck + 0.825 × σ, OR another
C) ± 15% value. What is the other value?
D) ± 20% A) f_ck + 1 N/mm²
Correct Answer: C B) f_ck + 3 N/mm²
C) f_ck + 5 N/mm²
35. If the average strength of 3 cubes is 30 D) f_ck exactly
N/mm², and one cube has a strength of 20 N/mm², Correct Answer: B
what is the status of this test result?
A) Valid and acceptable 40. When comparing f_ck + 0.825 × σ and f_ck +
B) Valid but weak 3 N/mm² for Condition A, which value must the
C) Invalid mean satisfy?

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A) The lesser of the two D) The tests are repeated on the same cubes
B) The greater of the two Correct Answer: C
C) The average of the two
D) Only the standard deviation formula 45. What is the standard implication if concrete
Correct Answer: B fails Condition B?
A) It is structurally deficient and usually rejected
41. What is 'Condition B' designed to prevent in B) It is accepted at a higher grade
concrete quality control? C) It only needs curing for 7 more days
A) High average strengths D) The standard deviation is updated
B) A single drastically low sample passing Correct Answer: A
unnoticed in a good average
C) Overuse of cement 46. Why does IS 456 rely on statistical quality
D) Testing cubes before 28 days control rather than demanding every single batch
Correct Answer: B exceeds the exact characteristic strength?
A) Because math is easier than testing
42. What is the mathematical requirement for an B) To account for unavoidable natural variations
individual test result under Condition B? in materials and mixing
A) Individual Result ≥ f_ck + 3 N/mm² C) To allow contractors to save cement
B) Individual Result ≥ f_ck D) Because 100% testing is possible but
C) Individual Result ≥ f_ck - 3 N/mm² expensive
D) Individual Result ≥ f_ck - 5 N/mm² Correct Answer: B
Correct Answer: C
47. If you have poured 30 m³ of concrete, how
43. If you are testing M25 grade concrete, what many total test cubes will you need to cast to
is the absolute minimum acceptable strength for satisfy the minimum sampling requirement?
any single individual test sample (Condition B)? A) 3 cubes
A) 25 N/mm² B) 6 cubes
B) 22 N/mm² C) 9 cubes
C) 20 N/mm² D) 12 cubes
D) 28 N/mm² Correct Answer: C
Correct Answer: B
48. For a concrete batch to be considered
44. What usually happens if concrete fails compliant, how many statistical conditions must
Condition A (average is slightly low) but passes it meet under IS 456 Clause 16?
Condition B (no individual result is drastically A) Only Condition A
bad)? B) Only Condition B
A) It is immediately demolished C) Either Condition A or Condition B
B) It is accepted unconditionally D) Both Condition A and Condition B
C) It may be accepted at a lower grade or require Correct Answer: D
NDT

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49. If the characteristic strength (f_ck) is 30 MPa

and the established standard deviation (σ) is 5 50. In the ± 15% invalidation rule, what is the
MPa, what is the threshold for Condition A using baseline value used to calculate the 15%?
the standard deviation formula? A) The characteristic strength (f_ck)
A) 34.125 MPa B) The lowest cube strength
B) 35 MPa C) The average of the 3 specimens in that sample
C) 33 MPa D) The standard deviation
D) 25 MPa Correct Answer: C
Correct Answer: A)

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