Introduc on to Embedded Systems 3

Introduction to
1 Embedded Systems

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LO 1 Know what an embedded system is

LO 2 Differen ate between embedded and general compu ng systems
LO 3
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Underline the history of embedded systems
LO 4 Classify embedded systems based on performance, complexity and the era in which
they evolved
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LO 5 Explain the domains and areas of applica ons of embedded systems
LO 6 Iden fy the different purposes of embedded systems
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LO 7 Analyse a real life example on the bonding of embedded technology with human
life
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Our day-to-day life is becoming more and more dependent on “embedded systems” and digital technologies.
Embedded technologies are bonding into our daily activities even without our knowledge. Do you know the
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fact that the refrigerator, washing machine, microwave oven, air conditioner, television, DVD players, and
music systems that we use in our home are built around an embedded system? You may be traveling by a
‘Honda’ or a ‘Toyota’ or a ‘Ford’ vehicle, but have you ever thought of the genius players working behind the
special features and security systems offered by the vehicle to you? It is nothing but an intelligent embedded
system. In your vehicle itself the presence of specialised embedded systems vary from intelligent head lamp
controllers, engine controllers and ignition control systems to complex air bag control systems to protect
you from a severe accident. People experience the power of embedded systems and enjoy the features and
comfort provided by them. Most of us are totally unaware or ignorant of the intelligent embedded systems
giving us so much comfort and security. Embedded systems are like reliable servants–they don’t like to reveal
their identity and neither they complain about their workloads to their owners or bosses. They are always
working behind the scenes and are dedicated to their assigned task till their last breath. This book gives you
an overview of embedded systems, the various steps involved in their design and development and the major
domains where they are deployed.
4 Introduc on to Embedded Systems

1.1 WHAT IS AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM?

An embedded system is an electronic/electro-mechanical system designed to
LO 1 Know what
perform a specific function and is a combination of both hardware and firmware
an embedded
(software).
system is
Every embedded system is unique, and the hardware as well as the firmware is
highly specialised to the application domain. Embedded systems are becoming an
inevitable part of any product or equipment in all fields including household appliances, telecommunications,
medical equipment, industrial control, consumer products, etc.

1.2 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS VS. GENERAL COMPUTING SYSTEMS

The computing revolution began with the general purpose computing
LO 2 Differentiate
requirements. Later it was realised that the general computing requirements are not
between embedded
sufficient for the embedded computing requirements. The embedded computing

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and general
requirements demand ‘something special’ in terms of response to stimuli, meeting
computing systems
the computational deadlines, power efficiency, limited memory availability, etc.
Let’s take the case of your personal computer, which may be either a desktop PC
or a laptop PC or a tablet PC. It is built around a general purpose processor like an Intel® Celeron/Core M or
a Duo/Quad* core or an AMD A-Series processor and is designed to support a set of multiple peripherals like
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multiple USB 3.0 ports, Wi-Fi, ethernet, video port, IEEE1394, SD/CF/MMC external interfaces, Bluetooth,
etc and with additional interfaces like a DVD read/writer, on-board Hard Disk Drive (HDD), gigabytes of
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RAM, etc. You can load any supported operating system (like Windows® 8.X/10, or Red Hat Linux/Ubuntu
Linux, UNIX etc) into the hard disk of your PC. You can write or purchase a multitude of applications for
your PC and can use your PC for running a large number of applications (like printing your dear’s photo using
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a printer device connected to the PC and printer software, creating a document using Microsoft® Office Word
tool, etc.) Now, let us think about the DVD player you use for playing DVD movies. Is it possible for you
to change the operating system of your DVD? Is it possible for you to write an application and download it
to your DVD player for executing? Is it possible for you to add a printer software to your DVD player and
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connect a printer to your DVD player to take a printout? Is it possible for you to change the functioning of
your DVD player to a television by changing the embedded software? The answers to all these questions are
‘NO’. Can you see any general purpose interface like Bluetooth or Wi-Fi on your DVD player? Of course
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‘NO’. The only interface you can find out on the DVD player is the interface for connecting the DVD player
with the display screen and one for controlling the DVD player through a remote (May be an IR or any
other specific wireless interface). Indeed your DVD player is an embedded system designed specifically
for decoding digital video and generating a video signal as output to your TV or any other display screen
which supports the display interface supported by the DVD Player. Let us summarise our findings from the
comparison of embedded system and general purpose computing system with the help of a table:

General Purpose Computing System Embedded System

A system which is a combination of a generic hardware A system which is a combination of special purpose
and a General Purpose Operating System for executing a hardware and embedded OS for executing a specific set
variety of applications of applications
(Contd.)

*The illustration given here is based on the processor details available till Dec 2015. Since processor technology is undergoing rapid
changes, the processor names mentioned here may not be relevant in future.
 Introduc on to Embedded Systems 5

General Purpose Computing System Embedded System

Contains a General Purpose Operating System (GPOS) May or may not contain an operating system for function-
ing
Applications are alterable (programmable) by the user (It is The firmware of the embedded system is pre-programmed
possible for the end user to re-install the operating system, and it is non-alterable by the end-user (There may be ex-
and also add or remove user applications) ceptions for systems supporting OS kernel image flashing
through special hardware settings)
Performance is the key deciding factor in the selection of Application-specific requirements (like performance, power
the system. Always, ‘Faster is Better’ requirements, memory usage, etc.) are the key deciding
factors
Less/not at all tailored towards reduced operating power Highly tailored to take advantage of the power saving modes
requirements, options for different levels of power man- supported by the hardware and the operating system
agement.

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Response requirements are not time-critical For certain category of embedded systems like mission
critical systems, the response time requirement is highly
critical
Need not be deterministic in execution behaviour Execution behaviour is deterministic for certain types of
embedded systems like ‘Hard Real Time’ systems
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However, the demarcation between desktop systems and embedded systems in certain areas of embedded
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applications are shrinking in certain contexts. Smart phones are typical examples of this. Nowadays smart
phones are available with RAM 2 to 3 GB and users can extend most of their desktop applications to the
smart phones and it invalidates the clause “Embedded systems are designed for a specific application” from
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the characteristics of the embedded system for the mobile embedded device category. However, smart phones
come with a built-in operating system and it is not modifiable by the end user. It makes the clause: “The
firmware of the embedded system is unalterable by the end user”, still a valid clause in the mobile embedded
device category.
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6 Introduc on to Embedded Systems

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

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LO 4 Classify It is possible to have a multitude of classifications for embedded systems,
embedded systems based on different criteria. Some of the criteria used in the classification of
based on performance, embedded systems are as follows:
complexity and the era (1) Based on generation
in which they evolved (2) Complexity and performance requirements
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(3) Based on deterministic behaviour
(4) Based on triggering.
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The classification based on deterministic system behaviour is applicable for ‘Real Time’ systems. The
application/task execution behaviour for an embedded system can be either deterministic or non- deterministic.
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Based on the execution behaviour, Real Time embedded systems are classified into Hard and Soft. We will
discuss about hard and soft real time systems in a later chapter. Embedded Systems which are ‘Reactive’ in
nature (Like process control systems in industrial control applications) can be classified based on the trigger.
Reactive systems can be either event triggered or time triggered.
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1.4.1 Classification Based on Generation

This classification is based on the order in which the embedded processing systems evolved from the
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first version to where they are today. As per this criterion, embedded systems can be classified into the
following:
[Link] First Genera on The early embedded systems were built around 8bit microprocessors like
8085 and Z80, and 4bit microcontrollers. Simple in hardware circuits with firmware developed in Assembly
code. Digital telephone keypads, stepper motor control units etc. are examples of this.
[Link] Second Genera on These are embedded systems built around 16bit microprocessors and 8 or
16 bit microcontrollers, following the first generation embedded systems. The instruction set for the second
generation processors/controllers were much more complex and powerful than the first generation processors/
controllers. Some of the second generation embedded systems contained embedded operating systems
for their operation. Data Acquisition Systems, SCADA systems, etc. are examples of second generation
embedded systems.
[Link] Third Genera on With advances in processor technology, embedded system developers started
making use of powerful 32bit processors and 16bit microcontrollers for their design. A new concept of
 Introduc on to Embedded Systems 7

application and domain specific processors/controllers like Digital Signal Processors (DSP) and Application
Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) came into the picture. The instruction set of processors became more
complex and powerful and the concept of instruction pipelining also evolved. The processor market was
flooded with different types of processors from different vendors. Processors like Intel Pentium, Motorola
68K, etc. gained attention in high performance embedded requirements. Dedicated embedded real time and
general purpose operating systems entered into the embedded market. Embedded systems spread its ground
to areas like robotics, media, industrial process control, networking, etc.
[Link] Fourth Genera on The advent of System on Chips (SoC), reconfigurable processors and
multicore processors are bringing high performance, tight integration and miniaturisation into the embedded
device market. The SoC technique implements a total system on a chip by integrating different functionalities
with a processor core on an integrated circuit. We will discuss about SoCs in a later chapter. The fourth
generation embedded systems are making use of high performance real time embedded operating systems
for their functioning. Smart phone devices, mobile internet devices (MIDs), etc. are examples of fourth

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generation embedded systems.
[Link] What Next? The processor and embedded market is highly dynamic and demanding. So ‘what
will be the next smart move in the next embedded generation?’ Let’s wait and see.
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8 Introduc on to Embedded Systems

1.5 MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

We are living in a world where embedded systems play a vital role in our day-
LO 5 Explain the
to-day life, starting from home to the computer industry, where most of the
domains and areas people find their job for a livelihood. Embedded technology has acquired a new
of applications of dimension from its first generation model, the Apollo guidance computer, to the
embedded systems latest radio navigation system combined with in-car entertainment technology
and the wearable computing devices (Apple watch, Microsoft Band, Fitbit fitness
trackers etc.). The application areas and the products in the embedded domain are countless. A few of the
important domains and products are listed below:
(1) Consumer electronics: Camcorders, cameras, etc.
(2) Household appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, fridge, microwave oven, etc.
(3) Home automation and security systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, intruder detection alarms, closed
circuit television cameras, fire alarms, etc.
(4) Automotive industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), engine control, ignition systems, automatic

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navigation systems, etc.
(5) Telecom: Cellular telephones, telephone switches, handset multimedia applications, etc.
(6) Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners, fax machines, etc.
(7) Computer networking systems: Network routers, switches, hubs, firewalls, etc.
(8) Healthcare: Different kinds of scanners, EEG, ECG machines etc.
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(9) Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multimeters, digital CROs, logic analysers PLC systems, etc.
(10) Banking & Retail: Automatic teller machines (ATM) and currency counters, point of sales (POS)
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(11) Card Readers: Barcode, smart card readers, hand held devices, etc.
(12) Wearable Devices: Health and Fitness Trackers, Smartphone Screen extension for notifications, etc.
(13) Cloud Computing and Internet of Things (IOT)
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16 Introduc on to Embedded Systems

The Typical Embedded

2 System

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LO 1 Iden fy the building blocks of a typical Embedded System

Learn about GPPs, ASIPs, Microprocessors, Microcontrollers, Digital Signal
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Processors, RISC & CISC processors, Harvard and Von-Neumann Processor
Architecture, Big-endian v/s Li le endian processors, Load Store opera on and
Instruc on pipelining
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Understand different PLDs like CPLDs, FPGAs, etc.
LO 2 Explain different memory technologies and memory types used in embedded system
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development
Learn about MROM, PROM, OTP, EPROM, EEPROM and FLASH memory
Describe SAM, SRAM, DRAM, and NVRAM
List the factors to be considered in the memory selec on
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LO 3 Analyse the role of sensors, actuators, and their interfacing with the I/O subsystems of
an embedded system
Learn about the interfacing of LEDs, 7-segment LED Displays, Piezo Buzzer,
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Stepper Motor, Relays, Optocouplers, Matrix keyboard, Push bu on switches,

Programmable Peripheral Interface Device (e.g. 8255 PPI), etc. with the I/O
subsystem of the embedded system
LO 4 Examine the different communica on interfaces of an embedded system
Understand the various chip level communica on interfaces like I2C, SPI, UART,
1-wire, parallel bus, etc.
Know the different wired and wireless external communica on interfaces like
RS-232C, RS-485, Parallel Port, USB, IEEE 1394, Infrared (IrDA), Bluetooth, Wi-Fi,
ZigBee, GPRS, etc.
LO 5 Describe what embedded firmware is and its role in embedded systems
LO 6 Know the different system components like Reset Circuit, Brown-out protec on circuit,
Oscillator Unit, Real-Time Clock (RTC) and Watchdog Timer unit
LO 7 Discuss the role of PCB in embedded systems
 The Typical Embedded System 17

A typical embedded system (Fig. 2.1) contains a single chip controller, which acts as the master brain of the
system. The controller can be a Microprocessor (e.g. Intel 8085) or a microcontroller (e.g. Atmel AT89C51)
or a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) device (e.g. Xilinx Spartan) or a Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
(e.g. Blackfin® Processors from Analog Devices) or an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)/
Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP) (e.g. ADE7760 Single Phase Energy Metreing IC from)
Analog Devices for energy metering applications).

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Fig. 2.1 Elements of an embedded system

Embedded hardware/software systems are basically designed to regulate a physical variable or to

manipulate the state of some devices by sending some control signals to the Actuators or devices connected
to the O/p ports of the system, in response to the input signals provided by the end users or Sensors which are
connected to the input ports. Hence an embedded system can be viewed as a reactive system. The control is
achieved by processing the information coming from the sensors and user interfaces, and controlling some
actuators that regulate the physical variable.
Key boards, push button switches, etc. are examples for common user interface input devices whereas
LEDs, liquid crystal displays, piezoelectric buzzers, etc. are examples for common user interface output
devices for a typical embedded system. It should be noted that it is not necessary that all embedded systems
should incorporate these I/O user interfaces. It solely depends on the type of the application for which the
embedded system is designed. For example, if the embedded system is designed for any handheld application,
such as a mobile handset application, then the system should contain user interfaces like a keyboard for
performing input operations and display unit for providing users the status of various activities in progress.
18 Introduc on to Embedded Systems

Some embedded systems do not require any manual intervention for their operation. They automatically
sense the variations in the input parameters in accordance with the changes in the real world, to which
they are interacting through the sensors which are connected to the input port of the system. The sensor
information is passed to the processor after signal conditioning and digitisation. Upon receiving the sensor
data the processor or brain of the embedded system performs some predefined operations with the help of the
firmware embedded in the system and sends some actuating signals to the actuator connected to the output
port of the embedded system, which in turn acts on the controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to
the desired level to make the embedded system work in the desired manner.
The Memory of the system is responsible for holding the control algorithm and other important
configuration details. For most of embedded systems, the memory for storing the algorithm or configuration
data is of fixed type, which is a kind of Read Only Memory (ROM) and it is not available for the end user for
modifications, which means the memory is protected from unwanted user interaction by implementing some
kind of memory protection mechanism. The most common types of memories used in embedded systems for
control algorithm storage are OTP, PROM, UVEPROM, EEPROM and FLASH. Depending on the control

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application, the memory size may vary from a few bytes to megabytes. We will discuss them in detail in the
coming sections. Sometimes the system requires temporary memory for performing arithmetic operations
or control algorithm execution and this type of memory is known as “working memory”. Random Access
Memory (RAM) is used in most of the systems as the working memory. Various types of RAM like SRAM,
DRAM, and NVRAM are used for this purpose. The size of the RAM also varies from a few bytes to
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kilobytes or megabytes depending on the application. The details given under the section “Memory” will give
you a more detailed description of the working memory.
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An embedded system without a control algorithm implemented memory is just like a new born baby. It is
having all the peripherals but is not capable of making any decision depending on the situational as well as
real world changes. The only difference is that the memory of a new born baby is self-adaptive, meaning that
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the baby will try to learn from the surroundings and from the mistakes committed. For embedded systems it
is the responsibility of the designer to impart intelligence to the system.
In a controller-based embedded system, the controller may contain internal memory for storing the control
algorithm and it may be an EEPROM or FLASH memory varying from a few kilobytes to megabytes. Such
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controllers are called controllers with on-chip ROM, e.g. Atmel AT89C51. Some controllers may not contain
on-chip memory and they require an external (off-chip) memory for holding the control algorithm, e.g. Intel
8031AH.
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2.1 CORE OF THE EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Embedded systems are domain and application specific and are built around a LO 1 Identify
central core. The core of the embedded system falls into any one of the following the building
categories: blocks of a typical
(1) General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors Embedded System
1.1 Microprocessors
1.2 Microcontrollers
1.3 Digital Signal Processors
(2) Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
(3) Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
(4) Commercial off-the-shelf Components (COTS)
If you examine any embedded system you will find that it is built around any of the core units mentioned
above.
 The Typical Embedded System 19

2.1.1 General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors

Almost 80% of the embedded systems are processor/controller based. The processor may be a microprocessor
or a microcontroller or a digital signal processor, depending on the domain and application. Most of the
embedded systems in the industrial control and monitoring applications make use of the commonly available
microprocessors or microcontrollers whereas domains which require signal processing such as speech coding,
speech recognition, etc. make use of special kind of digital signal processors supplied by manufacturers like,
Analog Devices, Texas Instruments, etc.
[Link] Microprocessors A Microprocessor is a silicon chip representing a central processing unit
(CPU), which is capable of performing arithmetic as well as logical operations according to a pre-defined set
of instructions, which is specific to the manufacturer. In general, the CPU contains the Arithmetic and Logic
Unit (ALU), control unit and working registers. A microprocessor is a dependent unit and it requires the
combination of other hardware like memory, timer unit, and interrupt controller, etc. for proper functioning.
Intel claims the credit for developing the first microprocessor unit Intel 4004, a 4bit processor which was

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released in November 1971. It featured 1K data memory, a 12bit program counter and 4K program memory,
sixteen 4bit general purpose registers and 46 instructions. It ran at a clock speed of 740 kHz. It was designed
for olden day’s calculators. In 1972, 14 more instructions were added to the 4004 instruction set and the
program space is upgraded to 8K. Also interrupt capabilities were added to it and it is renamed as Intel 4040.
It was quickly replaced in April 1972 by Intel 8008 which was similar to Intel 4040, the only difference was
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that its program counter was 14 bits wide and the 8008 served as a terminal controller. In April 1974 Intel
launched the first 8 bit processor, the Intel 8080, with 16bit address bus and program counter, and seven
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8bit registers (A-E,H,L: BC, DE, and HL pairs formed the 16bit register for this processor). Intel 8080 was
the most commonly used processors for industrial control and other embedded applications in the 1975s.
Since the processor required other hardware components as mentioned earlier for its proper functioning, the
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systems made out of it were bulky and were lacking compactness.

Immediately after the release of Intel 8080, Motorola also entered the market with their processor,
Motorola 6800 with a different architecture and instruction set compared to 8080.
In 1976 Intel came up with the upgraded version of 8080 – Intel 8085, with two newly added instructions,
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three interrupt pins and serial I/O. Clock generator and bus controller circuits were built-in and the power
supply part was modified to a single +5 V supply.
In July 1976 Zilog entered the microprocessor market with its Z80 processor as competitor to Intel.
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Actually it was designed by an ex-Intel designer, Frederico Faggin and it was an improved version of Intel’s
8080 processor, maintaining the original 8080 architecture and instruction set with an 8bit data bus and a
16bit address bus and was capable of executing all instructions of 8080. It included 80 more new instructions
and it brought out the concept of register banking by doubling the register set. Z80 also included two sets of
index registers for flexible design.
Technical advances in the field of semiconductor industry brought a new dimension to the microprocessor
market and twentieth century witnessed a fast growth in processor technology. 16, 32 and 64 bit processors came
into the place of conventional 8bit processors. The initial 2 MHz clock is now an old story. Today processors
with clock speeds over 3.0 GHz are available in the market. More and more competitors entered into the
processor market offering high speed, high performance and low cost processors for customer design needs.
Intel, AMD, Freescale, GLOBALFOUNDRIES, TI, Cyrix, NVIDIA, Qualcomm, MediaTek, etc. are
the key players in the processor market. Intel still leads the market with cutting edge technologies in the
processor industry.
Different instruction set and system architecture are available for the design of a microprocessor. Harvard
and Von-Neumann are the two common system architectures for processor design. Processors based on
20 Introduc on to Embedded Systems

Harvard architecture contains separate buses for program memory and data memory, whereas processors
based on Von-Neumann architecture shares a single system bus for program and data memory. We will
discuss more about these architectures later, under a separate topic. Reduced Instruction Set Computing
(RISC) and Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC) are the two common Instruction Set Architectures
(ISA) available for processor design. We will discuss the same under a separate topic in this section.

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[Link] Microcontrollers A Microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains a CPU, scratch
pad RAM, special and general purpose register arrays, on chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage,
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timer and interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports. Microcontrollers can be considered as a super set
of microprocessors. Since a microcontroller contains all the necessary functional blocks for independent
working, they found greater place in the embedded domain in place of microprocessors. Apart from this, they
are cheap, cost effective and are readily available in the market.
Texas Instrument’s TMS 1000 is considered as the world’s first microcontroller. We cannot say it as a fully
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functional microcontroller when we compare it with modern microcontrollers. TI followed Intel’s 4004/4040,
4 bit processor design and added some amount of RAM, program storage memory (ROM) and I/O support on
a single chip, there by eliminated the requirement of multiple hardware chips for self-functioning. Provision
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to add custom instructions to the CPU was another innovative feature of TMS 1000. TMS 1000 was released
in 1974.
In 1977 Intel entered the microcontroller market with a family of controllers coming under one umbrella
named MCS-48TM family. The processors came under this family were 8038HL, 8039HL, 8040AHL, 8048H,
8049H, and 8050AH. Intel 8048 is recognised as Intel’s first microcontroller and it was the most prominent
member in the MCS-48TM* family. It was used in the original IBM PC keyboard. The inspiration behind 8048
was Fairchild’s F8 microprocessor and Intel’s goal of developing a low cost and small size processor. The
design of 8048 adopted a true Harvard architecture where program and data memory shared the same address
bus and is differentiated by the related control signals.
Eventually Intel came out with its most fruitful design in the 8bit microcontroller domain–the 8051 family
and its derivatives. It is the most popular and powerful 8bit microcontroller ever built. It was developed in
the 1980s and was put under the family MCS-51. Almost 75% of the microcontrollers used in the embedded
domain were 8051 family based controllers during the 1980–90s. 8051 processor cores are used in more than

*
MCS-48TM is a trade mark owned by Intel
 The Typical Embedded System 21

100 devices by more than 20 independent manufacturers like Maxim, NXP, Atmel, etc. under the license
from Intel. Due to the low cost, wide availability, memory efficient instruction set, mature development tools
and Boolean processing (bit manipulation operation) capability, 8051 family derivative microcontrollers are
much used in high-volume consumer electronic devices, entertainment industry and other gadgets where
cost-cutting is essential.
Another important family of microcontrollers used in industrial control and embedded applications is the
PIC family micro controllers from Microchip Technologies (It will be discussed in detail in a later section of
this book). It is a high performance RISC microcontroller complementing the CISC (Complex Instruction Set
Computing) features of 8051. The terms RISC and CISC will be explained in detail in a separate heading.
Some embedded system applications require only 8bit controllers whereas some embedded applications
requiring superior performance and computational needs demand 16/32bit microcontrollers. Infineon,
Freescale, Philips, Atmel, Maxim, Microchip etc. are the key suppliers of 16bit microcontrollers. Philips
tried to extend the 8051 family microcontrollers to use for 16bit applications by developing the Philips XA
(eXtended Architecture) microcontroller series.

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8bit microcontrollers are commonly used in embedded systems where the processing power is not a big
constraint. As mentioned earlier, more than 20 companies are producing different flavours of the 8051 family
microcontroller. They try to add more and more functionalities like built in SPI, I2C serial buses, USB
controller, ADC, Networking capability, etc. So the competitive market is driving towards a one-stop solution
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chip in microcontroller domain. High processing speed microcontroller families like ARM Cortex M Series
are also available in the market, which provides solution to applications requiring hardware acceleration and
high processing capability.
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Freescale, Renesas, Zilog, Cypress (Spansion), Infineon, ST Micro Electronics, EPSON, Texas Instruments,
Toshiba, NXP, Microchip, Analog Devices, Daewoo, Intel, Maxim, Sharp, Silicon Laboratories, HOLTEK,
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LAPIS, CYROD, Atmel, etc. are the key players in the microcontroller market. Of these Atmel has got
special significance. They are the manufacturers of a variety of Flash memory based microcontrollers. They
also provide In-System Programmability (which will be discussed in detail in a later section of this book) for
the controller. The Flash memory technique helps in fast reprogramming of the chip and thereby reduces the
product development time. Atmel also provides another special family of microcontroller called AVR (it will
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be discussed in detail in a later chapter), an 8bit RISC Flash microcontroller, fast enough to execute powerful
instructions in a single clock cycle and provide the latitude you need to optimise power consumption.
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The instruction set architecture of a microcontroller can be either RISC or CISC. Microcontrollers are
designed for either general purpose application requirement (general purpose controller) or domain- specific
application requirement (application specific instruction set processor). The Intel 8051 microcontroller is a
typical example for a general purpose microcontroller, whereas the automotive AVR microcontroller family
from Atmel Corporation is a typical example for ASIP specifically designed for the automotive domain.
[Link] Microprocessor vs Microcontroller The following table summarises the differences between
a microcontroller and microprocessor.

Microprocessor Microcontroller
A silicon chip representing a central processing unit (CPU), A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains a
which is capable of performing arithmetic as well as logical CPU, scratchpad RAM, special and general purpose register
operations according to a predefined set of instructions arrays, on chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage,
timer and interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports
(Contd.)
22 Introduc on to Embedded Systems

Microprocessor Microcontroller
It is a dependent unit. It requires the combination of other It is a self-contained unit and it doesn’t require external
chips like timers, program and data memory chips, interrupt interrupt controller, timer, UART, etc. for its functioning
controllers, etc. for functioning
Most of the time general purpose in design and operation Mostly application-oriented or domain-specific
Doesn’t contain a built in I/O port. The I/O port functionality Most of the processors contain multiple built-in I/O ports
needs to be implemented with the help of external program- which can be operated as a single 8 or 16 or 32 bit port or
mable peripheral interface chips like 8255 as individual port pins
Targeted for high end market where performance is im- Targeted for embedded market where performance is not so
portant critical (At present this demarcation is invalid)
Limited power saving options compared to microcon- Includes lot of power saving features
trollers

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[Link] RISC vs. CISC Processors/Controllers The term RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set
Computing. As the name implies, all RISC processors/controllers possess lesser number of instructions,
†
Blackfin® is a Registered trademark of Analog Devices Inc.
 The Typical Embedded System 23

typically in the range of 30 to 40. CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computing. From the definition
itself it is clear that the instruction set is complex and instructions are high in number. From a programmers
point of view RISC processors are comfortable since s/he needs to learn only a few instructions, whereas for
a CISC processor s/he needs to learn more number of instructions and should understand the context of usage
of each instruction (This scenario is explained on the basis of a programmer following Assembly Language
coding. For a programmer following C coding it doesn’t matter since the cross-compiler is responsible for the
conversion of the high level language instructions to machine dependent code). Atmel AVR microcontroller
is an example for a RISC processor and its instruction set contains only 32 instructions. The original version
of 8051 microcontroller (e.g. AT89C51) is a CISC controller and its instruction set contains 255 instructions.
Remember it is not the number of instructions that determines whether a processor/controller is CISC or
RISC. There are some other factors like pipelining features, instruction set type, etc. for determining the
RISC/CISC criteria. Some of the important criteria are listed below:

RISC CISC

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Lesser number of instructions Greater number of Instructions
Instruction pipelining and increased execution speed Generally no instruction pipelining feature
Orthogonal instruction set (Allows each instruction to oper- Non-orthogonal instruction set (All instructions are not
ate on any register and use any addressing mode) allowed to operate on any register and use any addressing
C mode. It is instruction-specific)
Operations are performed on registers only, the only Operations are performed on registers or memory depend-
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memory operations are load and store ing on the instruction
A large number of registers are available Limited number of general purpose registers
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Programmer needs to write more code to execute a task Instructions are like macros in C language. A programmer
since the instructions are simpler ones can achieve the desired functionality with a single instruc-
tion which in turn provides the effect of using more simpler
single instructions in RISC
Single, fixed length instructions Variable length instructions
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Less silicon usage and pin count More silicon usage since more additional decoder logic is
required to implement the complex instruction decoding.
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With Harvard Architecture Can be Harvard or Von-Neumann Architecture

I hope now you are clear about the terms RISC and CISC in the processor technology. Isn’t it?
84 Introduc on to Embedded Systems

Embedded Systems—
4 Application-
and Domain-Specific

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LO 1 Illustrate the applica on specific aspect of embedded systems with examples

LO 2 Know the domain specific aspect of embedded systems in automo ve industry
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Learn about HECUs and LECUs employed in automo ve applica ons
Learn about the CAN, LIN and MOST communica on buses used in automo ve
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applica ons
Know the semiconductor chip providers, tools and pla orm providers, and
solu on providers for automo ve embedded applica ons
SY
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As mentioned in the previous chapter on the characteristics of embedded systems, embedded systems are
application and domain specific, meaning; they are specifically built for certain applications in certain domains
like consumer electronics, telecom, automotive, industrial control, etc. In general purpose computing, it is
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possible to replace a system with another system which is closely matching with the existing system, whereas
it is not the case with embedded systems. Embedded systems are highly specialised in functioning and are
dedicated for a specific application. Hence, it is not possible to replace an embedded system developed for a
specific application in a specific domain with another embedded system designed for some other application
in some other domain. The following sections are intended to give the readers some idea on the application
and domain specific characteristics of embedded systems.

4.1 WASHING MACHINE—APPLICATION-SPECIFIC EMBEDDED SYSTEM

People experience the power of embedded systems and enjoy the features
LO 1 Illustrate
and comfort provided by them, but they are totally unaware or ignorant of the
the application
intelligent embedded players working behind the products providing enhanced
specific aspect of
features and comfort. Washing machine is a typical example of an embedded
embedded systems
system providing extensive support in home automation applications (Fig. 4.1).
with examples
 Embedded Systems—Applica on- and Domain-Specific 85

As mentioned in an earlier chapter, an embedded system

contains sensors, actuators, control unit and application-specific
user interfaces like keyboards, display units, etc. You can see
all these components in a washing machine if you have a closer
look at it. Some of them are visible and some of them may be
invisible to you.
The actuator part of the washing machine consists of a
motorised agitator, tumble tub, water drawing pump and inlet
valve to control the flow of water into the unit. The sensor
part consists of the water temperature sensor, level sensor,
etc. The control part contains a microprocessor/controller
based board with interfaces to the sensors and actuators. The
sensor data is fed back to the control unit and the control unit
generates the necessary actuator outputs. The control unit also

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provides connectivity to user interfaces like keypad for setting
the washing time, selecting the type of material to be washed
Fig. 4.1 Washing Machine – Typical example of like light, medium, heavy duty, etc. User feedback is reflected
an embedded system through the display unit and LEDs connected to the control
(Photo courtesy of Electrolux Corpora on
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board. The functional block diagram of a washing machine is
([Link]/au))
shown in Fig. 4.2.
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Fig. 4.2 Washing machine – Functional block diagram

Washing machine comes in different designs, like top loading and front loading machines. In top loading
models the agitator of the machine twists back and forth and pulls the cloth down to the bottom of the tub.
86 Introduc on to Embedded Systems

On reaching the bottom of the tub the clothes work their way back up to the top of the tub where the agitator
grabs them again and repeats the mechanism. In the front loading machines, the clothes are tumbled and
plunged into the water over and over again. This is the first phase of washing.
In the second phase of washing, water is pumped out from the tub and the inner tub uses centrifugal force
to wring out more water from the clothes by spinning at several hundred Rotations Per Minute (RPM). This is
called a ‘Spin Phase’. If you look into the keyboard panel of your washing machine you can see three buttons
namely* Wash, Spin and Rinse. You can use these buttons to configure the washing stages. As you can see
from the picture, the inner tub of the machine contains a number of holes and during the spin cycle the inner
tub spins, and forces the water out through these holes to the stationary outer tub from which it is drained off
through the outlet pipe.
It is to be noted that the design of washing machines may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, but
the general principle underlying in the working of the washing machine remains the same. The basic controls
consist of a timer, cycle selector mechanism, water temperature selector, load size selector and start button.
The mechanism includes the motor, transmission, clutch, pump, agitator, inner tub, outer tub and water inlet

.IN
valve. Water inlet valve connects to the water supply line using at home and regulates the flow of water into
the tub.
The integrated control panel consists of a microprocessor/controller based board with I/O interfaces and
a control algorithm running in it. Input interface includes the keyboard which consists of wash type selector
namely* Wash, Spin and Rinse, cloth type selector namely* Light, Medium, Heavy duty, and washing time
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setting, etc. The output interface consists of LED/LCD displays, status indication LEDs, etc. connected to the
I/O bus of the controller. It is to be noted that this interface may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and
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model to model. The other types of I/O interfaces which are invisible to the end user are different kinds of
sensor interfaces, namely, water temperature sensor, water level sensor, etc. and actuator interface including
motor control for agitator and tub movement control, inlet water flow control, etc.
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4.2 AUTOMOTIVE–DOMAIN SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

The major application domains of embedded systems are consumer, industrial,
LO 2 Know the
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automotive, telecom, etc., of which telecom and automotive industry holds a

domain specific
big market share.
aspect of embedded
Figure 4.3 gives an overview of the various types of electronic control units
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systems in
employed in automotive applications.
automotive industry

4.2.1 Inner Workings of Automotive Embedded Systems

Automotive embedded systems are the one where electronics take control over the mechanical and electrical
systems. The presence of automotive embedded system in a vehicle varies from simple mirror and wiper
controls to complex air bag controller and Anti-lock Brake Systems (ABS). Automotive embedded systems
are normally built around microcontrollers or DSPs or a hybrid of the two and are generally known as
Electronic Control Units (ECUs). The number of embedded controllers in an ordinary vehicle varies from
20 to 40 whereas a luxury vehicle like Mercedes S and BMW 7 may contain over 100 embedded controllers.
Government regulations on fuel economy, environmental factors and emission standards and increasing
customer demands on safety, comfort and infotainment forces the automotive manufactures to opt for
sophisticated embedded control units within the vehicle. The first embedded system used in automotive
application was the microprocessor based fuel injection system introduced by Volkswagen 1600 in 1968.

* Name may vary depending on the manufacturer.

 Embedded Systems—Applica on- and Domain-Specific 87

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Fig. 4.3 Embedded system in the automotive domain
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(Photo courtesy of Honda Siel Car India ([Link]))

The various types of electronic control units (ECUs) used in the automotive embedded industry can be
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broadly classified into two–High-speed embedded control units and Low-speed embedded control units.
[Link] High-speed Electronic Control Units (HECUs) High-speed electronic control units (HECUs)
are deployed in critical control units requiring fast response. They include fuel injection systems, antilock brake
systems, engine control, electronic throttle, steering controls, transmission control unit and central control unit.
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[Link] Low-speed Electronic Control Units (LECUs) Low-Speed Electronic Control Units (LECUs)
are deployed in applications where response time is not so critical. They generally are built around low cost
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microprocessors/microcontrollers and digital signal processors. Audio controllers, passenger and driver door
locks, door glass controls (power windows), wiper control, mirror control, seat control systems, head lamp
and tail lamp controls, sun roof control unit, etc. are examples of LECUs.

4.2.2 Automotive Communication Buses

Automotive applications make use of serial buses for communication, which greatly reduces the amount of
wiring required inside a vehicle. The following section will give you an overview of the different types of
serial interface buses deployed in automotive embedded applications.
[Link] Controller Area Network (CAN) The CAN bus was originally proposed by Robert Bosch,
pioneer in the Automotive embedded solution providers. It supports medium speed (ISO11519-class B with
data rates up to 125 Kbps) and high speed (ISO11898 class C with data rates up to 1Mbps) data transfer.
CAN is an event-driven protocol interface with support for error handling in data transmission. It is generally
employed in safety system like airbag control; power train systems like engine control and Antilock Brake
System (ABS); and navigation systems like GPS. The protocol format and interface application development
for CAN bus will be explained in detail in another volume of this book series.
88 Introduc on to Embedded Systems

[Link] Local Interconnect Network (LIN) LIN bus is a single master multiple slave (up to 16
independent slave nodes) communication interface. LIN is a low speed, single wire communication interface
with support for data rates up to 20 Kbps and is used for sensor/actuator interfacing. LIN bus follows the
master communication triggering technique to eliminate the possible bus arbitration problem that can occur
by the simultaneous talking of different slave nodes connected to a single interface bus. LIN bus is employed
in applications like mirror controls, fan controls, seat positioning controls, window controls, and position
controls where response time is not a critical issue.
[Link] Media Oriented System Transport (MOST) Bus The Media Oriented System Transport
(MOST) is targeted for high-bandwidth automotive multimedia networking (e.g. audio/video, infotainment
system interfacing), used primarily in European cars. A MOST bus is a multimedia fibre-optic point-to-point
network implemented in a star, ring or daisy-chained topology over optical fibre cables. The MOST bus
specifications define the physical (electrical and optical parameters) layer as well as the application layer,
network layer, and media access control. MOST bus is an optical fibre cable connected between the Electrical

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Optical Converter (EOC) and Optical Electrical Converter (OEC), which would translate into the optical
cable MOST bus.

4.2.3 Key Players of the Automotive Embedded Market

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The key players of the automotive embedded market can be visualised in three verticals namely, silicon
providers, solution providers and tools and platform providers.
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[Link] Silicon Providers Silicon providers are responsible for providing the necessary chips which are
used in the control application development. The chip may be a standard product like microcontroller or DSP
or ADC/DAC chips. Some applications may require specific chips and they are manufactured as Application
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Specific Integrated Chip (ASIC). The leading silicon providers in the automotive industry are:
Analog Devices ([Link]) Provider of world class digital signal processing chips, precision
analog microcontrollers, programmable inclinometer/accelerometer, LED drivers, etc. for automotive signal
processing applications, driver assistance systems, infotainment, powertrain body and chassis, etc.
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Xilinx ([Link]) Supplier of high performance FPGAs, CPLDs, and automotive specific IP cores
for GPS navigation systems, driver information systems, distance control, collision avoidance, rear seat
entertainment, adaptive cruise control, voice recognition, etc.
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Atmel ([Link]) Supplier of cost-effective high-density Flash controllers and memories. Atmel
provides a series of high performance microcontrollers, namely, ARM®†, AVR®‡, and 80C51. A wide range
of Application Specific Standard Products (ASSPs) for chassis, body electronics, security, safety and car
infotainment and automotive networking products for CAN, LIN, and FlexRay are also supplied by Atmel.
Maxim/Dallas ([Link]) Supplier of world class analog, digital and mixed signal
products (Microcontrollers, ADC/DAC, amplifiers, comparators, regulators, etc), RF components, etc. for all
kinds of automotive solutions.
NXP Semiconductor ([Link]) Supplier of 8/16/32 Flash microcontrollers, CAN/LIN/FlexRay
transceivers, LED controllers, LCD drivers, Audio amplifiers, Angular/Rotational/Temperature sensors,
automotive lighting control and discrete components etc.
Renesas ([Link]) Provider of high speed microcontrollers, battery control systems, powertrain
solutions, chassis and safety solutions, body control solutions, instrument cluster solutions, etc.
† ARM® is the registered trademark of ARM Holdings.
‡ AVR® is the registered trademark of Atmel Corporation.
 Embedded Systems—Applica on- and Domain-Specific 89

Texas Instruments (www. .com) Supplier of microcontrollers, digital signal processors, and automotive
communication control chips for Local Inter Connect (LIN) bus products, Advanced Driver Assistance
Systems, Body Electronics and Lighting Solutions, Hybrid, Electric and Power train systems, Infotainment,
Meter cluster and safety solutions, etc.
Fujitsu ([Link]) Fujitsu is the global leader in graphics display controllers (GDCs), including
instrument clusters, in-dash navigation, heads-up displays and rear-seat entertainment. Fujitsu also offers the
world’s first automotive controller for HD video in vehicle networks and delivers CAN microcontrollers that
are used widely for critical automotive functions.
Infineon ([Link]fi[Link]) Supplier of high performance microcontrollers and customised application
specific chips for body and convenience, safety, powertrain, security systems.
Freescale Semiconductor ([Link]) Solution provider for Advanced Driver Assistance Systems
(ADAS), Body Electronics, Chassis and Safety, Infotainment, Instrument Cluster, Powertrain and Hybrid systems
Microchip ([Link]) Supplier of robust automotive grade microcontroller, analog and memory

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products, CAN/LIN transceivers, etc.
There are lots of other silicon manufactures which provides various automotive support systems like
power supply, sensors/actuators, optoelectronics, etc. Describing all of them is out of the scope of this book.
Readers are requested to use the Internet for finding more information on them.
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[Link] Tools and Pla orm Providers Tools and platform providers are manufacturers and suppliers
of various kinds of development tools and Real Time Embedded Operating Systems for developing and
debugging different control unit related applications. Tools fall into two categories, namely embedded software
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application development tools and embedded hardware development tools. Sometimes the silicon suppliers
provide the development suite for application development using their chip. Some third party suppliers
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may also provide development kits and libraries. Some of the leading suppliers of tools and platforms in
automotive embedded applications are listed below.
ENEA ([Link]) Enea Embedded Technology is the developer of the OSE Real-Time operating
system. The OSE RTOS supports both CPU and DSP and has also been specially developed to support multi-
core and fault-tolerant system development.
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The MathWorks ([Link]) It is the world’s leading developer and supplier of technical
software. It offers a wide range of tools, consultancy and training for numeric computation, visualisation,
VT

modelling and simulation across many different industries. MathWork’s breakthrough product is MATLAB–a
high-level programming language and environment for technical computation and numerical analysis.
Together MATLAB, SIMULINK, Stateflow, and Real-Time Workshop provide top quality tools for data
analysis, test & measurement, application development and deployment, image processing and development
of dynamic and reactive systems for DSP and control applications.
Keil So ware ([Link]) The Integrated Development Environment Keil Microvision from Keil
software is a powerful embedded software design tool for ARM, 8051 & C166 family of microcontrollers.
Lauterbach (h p://[Link]/) It is the world’s number one supplier of debug tools, providing
support for processors from multiple silicon vendors in the automotive market.
Atego Modeling Tools (h p://[Link]) Is the leading supplier of collaborative modeling tools for
requirements analysis, specification, design and development of complex applications.
Microso ([Link] .com) Is a platform provider for automotive embedded applications. Microsoft’s
Windows Embedded Automotive is an extensible technology platform for automakers and suppliers to deliver
in-car experiences that keep drivers connected and informed. Leveraging a range of devices, services and
technology, the platform extends work and home into the vehicle through connected car scenarios.
90 Introduc on to Embedded Systems

[Link] Solu on Providers Solution providers supply OEM and complete solution for automotive
applications making use of the chips, platforms, and different development tools. The major players of this
domain are listed below.
Bosch Automo ve ([Link]) Bosch is providing complete automotive solution ranging
from body electronics, diesel engine control, gasoline engine control, powertrain systems, safety systems,
in-car navigation systems, and infotainment systems.
DENSO Automo ve ([Link]) Denso is an Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) and
solution provider for engine management, climate control, body electronics, driving control & safety, hybrid
vehicles, embedded infotainment, and communications.
Infosys Technologies ([Link]) Infosys is a solution provider for automotive embedded hardware
and software. Infosys provides the competitive edge in integrating technology change through cost-
effective solutions.
Delphi ([Link]) Delphi is the complete solution provider for engine control, safety, infotainment,

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etc., and OEM for spark plugs, bearings, etc.
……and many more. The list is incomplete. Describing all providers is out of the scope of this book.

Summary
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Embedded systems designed for a particular application for a specific domain cannot be replaced
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with another embedded system designed for another application for a different domain LO1
Consumer, industrial, automotive, telecom, etc. are the major application domains of
embedded systems. Telecom and automotive industry are the two segments holding a big LO2
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market share of embedded systems

Automotive embedded systems are normally built around microcontrollers or DSPs or a hybrid of
the two and are generally known as Electronic Control Units (ECUs) LO2
High speed Electronic Control Units (HECUs) are deployed in critical control units
requiring fast response, like fuel injection systems, antilock brake system, etc. LO2
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Low speed Electronic Control Units (LECUs) are deployed in applications where response
time is not so critical. They are generally built around low cost microprocessors/
microcontrollers and digital signal processors. Audio controllers, passenger and driver LO2
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door locks, door glass controls, etc., are examples for LECUs.
Automotive applications use serial buses for communication. Controller Area Network (CAN),
Local Interconnect Network (LIN), Media Oriented System Transport (MOST) bus, etc. LO2
are the important automotive communication buses.
CAN is an event driven serial protocol interface with support for error handling in data transmission.
It is generally employed in safety system like airbag control, powertrain systems like LO2
engine control and Antilock Brake Systems (ABS).
LIN bus is a single master multiple slave (up to 16 independent slave nodes) communication
interface. LIN is a low speed, single wire communication interface with support for data LO2
rates up to 20Kbps and is used for sensor/actuator interfacing.
The Media Oriented System Transport (MOST) bus is targeted for automotive audio video
equipment interfacing. MOST bus is a multimedia fibre-optic point-to-point network
LO2
implemented in a star, ring or daisy-chained topology over optical fibres cables
The key players of the automotive embedded market can be classified into ‘Silicon Providers’,
‘Tools and Platform Providers’ and ‘Solution Providers’ LO2
 Embedded Systems—Applica on- and Domain-Specific 91

Keywords
ECU: Electronic Control Unit. The generic term for the embedded control units in automo ve applica on
[LO 2]
HECU: High-speed Electronic Control Unit. The high-speed embedded control unit deployed in automo ve
applica ons [LO 2]
LECU: Low-speed Electronic Control Unit. The low-speed embedded control unit deployed in automo ve
applica ons [LO 2]
CAN: Controller Area Network. An event driven serial protocol interface used primarily for automo ve
applica ons [LO 2]
LIN: Local Interconnect Network. A single master mul ple slave, low speed serial bus used in automo ve
applica on [LO 2]
MOST: Media Oriented System Transport Bus. A mul media fibre-op c point-to-point network implemented

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in a star, ring or daisy-chained topology over op cal fibres cables [LO 2]

Objec ve Ques ons

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1. In Automotive systems, High-speed Electronic Control Units (HECUs) are deployed in
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(a) Fuel injection systems (b) Antilock brake systems
(c) Power windows (d) Wiper control
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(e) Only (a) and (b)

2. In Automotive systems, Low speed electronic control units (LECUs) are deployed in
(a) Electronic throttle (b) Steering controls
(c) Transmission control (d) Mirror control
3. The first embedded system used in automotive application is the microprocessor based fuel injection system
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introduced by ______ in 1968

(a) BMW (b) Volkswagen 1600
(c) Benz E Class (d) KIA
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4. CAN bus is an event driven protocol for communication. State True or False
(a) True (b) False
5. Which of the following serial bus is (are) used for communication in Automotive Embedded Applications?
(a) Controller Area Network (CAN)
(b) Local Interconnect Network (LIN)
(c) Media Oriented System Transport (MOST) bus
(d) All of these
(e) None of these
6. Which of the following is true about LIN bus?
(a) Single master multiple slave interface (b) Low speed serial bus
(c) Used for sensor/actuator interfacing (d) All of these
(e) None of these
7. Which of the following is true about MOST bus?
(a) Used for automotive audio video system interfacing
(b) It is a fibre optic point-to-point network
92 Introduc on to Embedded Systems

(c) It is implemented in star, ring or daisy-chained topology

(d) All of these
(e) None of these
8. Which of the following is (are) example(s) of Silicon providers for automotive applications?
(a) Maxim/Dallas (b) Analog Devices (c) Xilinx (d) Atmel
(e) All of these (f) None of these

Review Ques ons

1. Explain the role of embedded systems in automotive domain. [LO 1, LO 2]
2. Explain the different electronic control units (ECUs) used in automotive systems. [LO 2]
3. Explain the different communication buses used in automotive application. [LO 2]

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4. Give an overview of the different market players of the automotive embedded application domain. [LO 2]

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