Unit – I: Principal Stress and Strain

1. Stress on Inclined Planes

When a structural member is subjected to a direct axial pull (p), the stress on a section normal to the
pull is uniform. However, when considering an inclined plane at an angle θ to this normal section, the
stress is resolved into two components:

 Normal Stress (pn): The component acting perpendicular to the inclined plane, calculated as pn
=pcos2θ.

 Tangential (Shear) Stress (pt): The component acting along the surface of the plane, calculated
as pt=psinθcosθ.

The maximum shear stress on any plane is equal to half the applied direct stress (p/2) and occurs on
planes inclined at 45° and 135° to the normal section.

2. Principal Planes and Principal Stresses

At any point in a strained material, there are three mutually perpendicular planes called principal
planes. These planes are unique because they carry direct stresses only and have zero tangential (shear)
stress. The stresses acting on these planes are known as principal stresses, consisting of a maximum
(major) and a minimum (minor) value.

3. Elements Subjected to Combined Stresses

Structural elements are often subjected to combinations of direct and shear stresses. The sources detail
two primary cases for finding principal stresses (p1,2) and the inclination of principal planes (θ):

 Case I: Direct Stress (p) and Simple Shear (q):

o Magnitude: p1,2=2p±(2p)2+q2.

o Inclination: The angle of the principal planes is found using tan2θ=p2q.

 Case II: Two Perpendicular Direct Stresses (p,p′) and Simple Shear (q):

o Magnitude: p1,2=2p+p′±(2p−p′)2+q2.

o Inclination: The angle is determined by tan2θ=p−p′2q.

o The maximum shear stress in this combined state is (2p−p′)2+q2.

4. Mohr’s Circle for Stress Calculation

Mohr’s Circle is a graphical method used to determine normal and tangential stresses on any inclined
plane.
  Construction: Direct stresses (p1,p2) are plotted along the x-axis. A circle is described with the
distance between these points as the diameter.

 Usage: The coordinates (x,y) of any point on the circumference represent the normal stress (pn)
and tangential stress (pt) respectively for a plane inclined at an angle θ. The radius of the circle
represents the maximum shear stress.

5. Principal Strain

Strain is the deformation per unit length resulting from stress. In a complex stress system, the principal
strain in the direction of a principal stress (p1) is influenced by the other principal stresses (p2,p3) due to
the lateral effect (Poisson's ratio, 1/m).

 General Formula: The total strain (e1) in the direction of p1 is given by: e1=Ep1−mEp2−mEp3=E1
[p1−m1(p2+p3)].

 For a two-dimensional stress state (p1,p2), the strains are: e1=Ep1−mEp2 and e2=Ep2−mEp1.
Unit – II: Combined Direct and Bending Stress

1. Combined Direct and Bending Stresses

Structural members are frequently subjected to a combination of direct (axial) and bending (flexural)
stresses. This typically occurs in eccentrically loaded members, where the line of action of the load does
not pass through the centroid of the cross-section.

 Direct Stress (σd): Calculated as P/A, where P is the axial load and A is the area of the section.

 Bending Stress (σb): Calculated as M/Z (or My/I), where M is the moment created by the
eccentricity (M=P⋅e).

 Resultant Stress: The total stress at any point is the algebraic sum of the direct and bending
stresses: σ=σd±σb.

2. Eccentric Loading and the Middle Third Rule

 Eccentric Loading: Occurs when a load is applied at a distance e (eccentricity) from the
centroidal axis.

o Uni-axial Eccentricity: The load is eccentric along only one of the principal axes of the
section.

o Bi-axial Eccentricity: The load is eccentric along both principal axes, creating bending
moments about both axes.

 Middle Third Rule: In masonry structures (like columns or dam bases), it is critical that no
tension develops in the cross-section. For a rectangular section of width b, the resultant force
must fall within the middle third of the base (i.e., eccentricity e≤b/6) to ensure that the stress
remains compressive across the entire section.

3. Dams: Stresses and Stability

Dams are essentially retaining structures that must resist the combination of their own weight and the
pressure from stored water or earth.

 Application of Middle Third Rule: The rule is used to determine the base width of a dam. The
goal is to ensure that the resultant of the dam's weight and the hydrostatic pressure falls within
the middle third of the base to prevent the dam from lifting at the "heel" (upstream side).

 Stresses at the Base: The total stress at the base is a combination of the direct stress from the
dam's self-weight and the bending stress caused by the external pressure. The intensity of
normal pressure from retained materials (water/earth) varies linearly with height (p=γh).

 Stability Requirements: To ensure structural integrity, dams must be designed against two
primary failure modes:
 o Overturning: Resistance to the moment created by hydrostatic/earth pressures about
the downstream "toe".

o Sliding: Resistance to horizontal movement along the base, typically ensured by the
friction between the dam and its foundation.

4. Vertical Structures and Wind Forces

Vertical structures such as chimney shafts and tall walls are subjected to significant wind pressure,
which introduces bending moments.

 Wind Pressure: Wind forces are pressures exerted by wind flow. Because wind speed and
direction vary continuously, design codes provide standardized methods to estimate the
pressure applied to existing structures.

 Combined Stress in Chimneys: The stability of a chimney is analyzed by combining the direct
compressive stress (from self-weight) with the bending stress (from wind pressure). The
chimney must be proportioned such that the maximum compressive stress does not exceed the
material's strength and, ideally, no tension occurs on the windward side.
Unit-III: Strain Energy

1. Work and Strain Energy Principle

 Work Done by a Force: Work is defined as the product of a force and the distance traveled by
that force. If a force F is gradually applied to a linearly elastic structural system, the total work
done (W) is equal to the area under the load-deformation diagram: W=21FΔ, where Δ is the
resulting displacement.

 Strain Energy (U): According to the law of conservation of energy, the work done on a structural
system is stored within it as strain energy (W=U).

2. Strain Energy Stored in a Member

The sources provide specific formulations for energy stored due to different types of internal forces:

 Due to Axial Loading: For a member subjected to an axial force S, the strain energy is calculated
by integrating the force over its length: U=∫2AES2ds. For a straight prismatic member of length L
subjected to a constant axial force, this simplifies to U=2AES2L.

 Due to Bending (Flexure): When a member is subjected to a bending moment M, the work done
by M undergoing bending displacement results in stored energy: U=∫2EIM2ds.

 Uniform Bending Moment: In the specific case where a beam of length L is subjected to a
uniform (constant) bending moment M, the integration yields: U=2EIM2L.

3. Reciprocal Theorems

 Maxwell’s Law of Reciprocal Deflection: This theorem states that for a stable elastic structure,
the linear displacement at coordinate i due to a unit force acting at coordinate j is equal to the
displacement at coordinate j due to a unit force acting at coordinate i (δij=δji).

 Betti’s Law (Generalized Reciprocal Theorem): This law states that in a linearly elastic structure
in static equilibrium, the virtual work done by one system of forces (P) undergoing
displacements (Δ′) caused by a second system of forces (P′) is equal to the virtual work done by
the second system (P′) undergoing displacements (Δ) caused by the first system.
Mathematically: ∑PΔ′=∑P′Δ.

4. The First Theorem of Castigliano

Castigliano's first theorem relates strain energy to external forces. It states that the partial derivative of
the total strain energy (U) with respect to any displacement (Δj) at a coordinate j is equal to the force
(Pj) acting at that coordinate in the direction of the displacement.

 Mathematically: ∂Δj∂U=Pj.

5. Deflection of Truss Joints

The deflection of truss joints is typically calculated using the Virtual Work Method (also known as the
Unit-Load Method).

 Principle: An imaginary virtual unit load (Pv=1) is applied at the joint and in the direction where
the deflection (Δ) is required.

 Formula: The external work done by the virtual unit load is equated to the internal work done
by the virtual axial forces in each member: 1⋅Δ=∑AEnNL. Where:

o n = internal axial virtual force in each member due to the unit load.

o N = axial force in each member due to the real applied loads.

o L,A,E = length, area, and modulus of elasticity of the member.

Unit – IV: Moment Distribution Method and Slope Deflection Method

Slope Deflection Method involves solving simultaneous equations, the Moment Distribution Method is
an iterative, approximate approach.

1. Moment Distribution Method (Hardy Cross Method)

Developed by Hardy Cross in 1930, this method is a "deformation method" that avoids the need for
simultaneous equations by using successive approximations.

 Basic Proposition and Relative Stiffness:

o Stiffness Factor (k): This represents the resistance a member offers to even rotation. For
a prismatic member fixed at the far end, the stiffness is generally taken as k=I/L.

o Relative Stiffness: If the far end of a member is simply supported (hinged or roller), its
stiffness is reduced to 3/4 of its standard value (3I/4L) to simplify calculations.

o Distribution Factor (DF): This factor determines how an unbalanced moment at a joint is
shared among the connecting members. It is calculated as the ratio of a member's
stiffness to the sum of the stiffnesses of all members meeting at that joint: DF=k/∑k.

 Continuous Beams:

o Procedure: Analysis involves calculating Fixed-End Moments (FEM), determining

distribution factors, and then iteratively balancing unbalanced moments and carrying
over half of those moments to the far ends of the members.

o Fixed vs. Hinged Ends: The distribution process continues until the carried-over
moments become negligible. Fixed ends absorb moments without further rotation,
while hinged ends have zero final moment.

 Sinking of Support (Settlement):

o When a support settles by an amount Δ, it induces additional fixed-end moments in the

adjacent spans. For a member of length L and flexural rigidity EI, the induced moment is
6EIΔ/L2.

 Portal Frames:

o Without Sway: If the frame and loading are symmetric, or if lateral movement is
prevented, the analysis is identical to that of a continuous beam.

o With Sway: Analysis occurs in two stages: a non-sway stage (assuming no lateral
movement) and a sway stage (applying an arbitrary lateral force). A correction factor (η)
is then applied to the sway results to find the final moments.
2. Slope Deflection Method

Introduced by George A. Maney in 1915, this method relates the moments at the ends of a member to
its rotations and relative joint displacements.

 Basic Concepts and Unknowns:

o The primary unknowns are the joint rotations (θ) and the relative displacements (Δ).

o It accounts for flexural deformations while generally ignoring axial and shear
deformations.

o Sign Convention: Moments and rotations are considered positive if clockwise.

 Stiffness of Members (Far End Fixed or Hinged):

o Standard Case (Far end fixed/continuous): The member stiffness is represented by the
term 2EI/L within the standard equation.

o Modified Case (Far end hinged/roller): To reduce the number of unknown rotations, a
modified slope-deflection equation is used for spans with a pin or roller at the far end,
effectively eliminating the far-end rotation from the equation.

 Development of Slope Deflection Equations:

o The final end moment (MAB) is the sum of moments caused by joint rotations at both
ends, the relative settlement (chord rotation ψ=Δ/L), and the applied external loads
(Fixed-End Moments).

o Standard Equation: MAB=L2EI[2θA+θB−3ψ]+FEMAB.

o Modified Equation (Far end hinged at B): MAB=L3EI(θA−ψ)+(FEMAB−2FEMBA).

 Application to Beams and Frames:

o Step 1: Calculate all FEMs for external loads.

o Step 2: Write slope-deflection equations for each member end in terms of θ and Δ.

o Step 3: Establish joint equilibrium equations (where ∑M=0 at each joint) and, for sway
frames, shear/column equations.

o Step 4: Solve these eqn simultaneously for the unknown rotations and displacements.

o Step 5: Substitute these values back into the member equations to find the final
moments and draw Shear Force and Bending Moment diagrams.
Unit – V: Simple Trusses

A truss is a structural framework composed of straight, slender members connected at their ends by
frictionless pins or hinges, forming a system of triangles to support loads. In an ideal truss, loads are
applied only at the joints (panel points), resulting in members that carry only axial tension or
compression.

1. Types of Trusses

Trusses are categorized based on their construction and the specific needs of the span.

 Simple Truss: This is constructed by starting with a base triangular cell of three members and
adding two members at a time to create each new joint.

 King Post Truss: The simplest form of a truss, featuring a single central vertical member known
as the king post. It is typically adopted for short spans up to 8 meters (26 feet).

 Queen Post Truss: A lengthened version of the king post truss featuring two principal vertical
members separated by a horizontal member (straining beam). It is suitable for spans up to 10
meters (approx. 22 feet).

 Pratt Truss: Characterized by vertical web members in compression and diagonal braces in
tension. It is efficient when steel rods are used for the tension diagonals.

 Howe Truss: The "opposite" of a Pratt truss, where diagonal members are in compression and
vertical members are in tension. It is considered one of the most practical and efficient forms for
moderate spans.

 Fink Truss: Also known as a French truss in some contexts, it is economical for ordinary buildings
because its compression members are short. It is commonly used for spans ranging from 12 to
18 meters.

 Compound Fink Truss: Formed by joining smaller trusses together, this configuration is practical
for very long-span applications (up to 25 meters or more) because halves can be shop-
assembled and shipped for final field assembly.

 North-light Truss: An asymmetrical truss where the steep side is glazed and oriented toward the
north to provide uniform, glare-free natural light. It is extensively used in industrial buildings
and factories.

2. Calculation of Support Reactions

The support reactions for statically determinate trusses are found by treating the entire truss as a rigid
body in equilibrium.

 Equations of Equilibrium: For a planar structure, three equations are applied:

 1. ∑Fx=0: Sum of all horizontal forces equals zero.

2. ∑Fy=0: Sum of all vertical forces equals zero.

3. ∑M=0: Sum of all moments about any point equals zero.

 Procedure:

1. Sketch a Free-Body Diagram (FBD) of the structure, identifying all unknown reactions
with arrows.

2. Replace any distributed loads with a single resultant force acting through its centroid.

3. Apply the equilibrium equations to solve for the unknowns. If a result is negative, the
assumed direction of the reaction arrow must be reversed.

3. Calculation of Member Forces

Member forces are assumed to be axial only (tension or compression). Tension is denoted as positive,
while compression is negative.

 Method of Joints:

o Principle: If the entire truss is in equilibrium, every joint is also in equilibrium.

o Procedure: Select a joint with no more than two unknown member forces. Isolate the
joint and apply ∑Fx=0 and ∑Fy=0 to find the axial forces. Repeat for successive joints.

 Method of Sections:

o Principle: Useful when forces in specific members are needed rather than for the entire
truss.

o Procedure: Pass an imaginary section through the truss, cutting through the members
of interest and dividing the truss into two parts. Apply equilibrium equations (∑Fx,∑Fy
,∑M) to one of the isolated parts. Taking moments about a joint where two of the
unknown member forces intersect often allows for the immediate calculation of the
third force.

 Zero-Force Members: Computational effort is reduced by identifying members that carry no

load. For example, if two non-collinear members meet at an unloaded joint, both are zero-force
members.