Secondary Science Academic Reviewer

COMPREHENSIVE STUDY GUIDE FOR GRADE 9 & 10 ADVANCED BIOLOGY AND

GENETICS

Science 9 — Module 1

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system is responsible for supplying the body's cells with oxygen and discarding toxic carbon dioxide
metabolic waste.

Mechanism of Breathing
Breathing is the mechanical process of getting oxygen into and expelling carbon dioxide from the body. This
process relies strictly on pressure gradients between the lungs and the atmosphere:

• Inspiration (Inhaling): The diaphragm contracts and moves downward, increasing thoracic cavity volume.
This creates low pressure in the lungs relative to the atmosphere, forcing outside air to rush inwards.
• Expiration (Exhaling): The diaphragm relaxes and moves upward, decreasing thoracic volume. This
generates high pressure in the lungs, forcing carbon-dioxide-rich air out into the atmosphere.

Secondary Science Reviewer • Systems & Genetics Page 1 of 11

Anatomical Structures and Functions

Organ / Structure Primary Biological Function

The primary gateway where atmospheric air enters the body through the external
Nose & Nostrils
nostrils into the nasal cavity, where it is warmed, moistened, and filtered.

Serves as a common shared passageway for both food and air. It is structurally
Pharynx (Throat) subdivided into three distinct continuous regions: the Nasopharynx, Oropharynx,
and Hypopharynx.

Commonly called the voice box. It houses the muscular vocal cords which vibrate
Larynx
when air passes through them to produce acoustic sounds and speech.

A rigid, main windpipe tube supported by C-shaped structural trachea cartilages to

prevent collapse. It is lined internally with microscopic cilia and mucus that
Trachea
continuously trap and sweep out bacteria and dust particles. Its base contains a highly
sensitive internal ridge called the carina.

The two-way passageway of air created by the bifurcation of the trachea, channeling
Bronchi
air separately into the left and right lungs.

Microscopic, highly branched smaller extensions sweeping off from the bronchi that
Bronchioles
deeper penetrate all lobes of the lungs.

Tiny, functional, balloon-like dynamic air sacs wrapped tightly in capillary networks.
Alveoli
This is the exact site where actual gas exchange occurs via diffusion.

Lungs The primary soft, light, spongy, and highly elastic paired respiratory organs of the body.

Asymmetry of the Human Lungs

The human lungs are asymmetrical to structurally accommodate the heart within the chest cavity:

• The Left Lung is smaller than the Right Lung and contains only two lobes (Superior and Inferior)
separated by an oblique fissure, and features a distinct indent called the cardiac notch where the apex of
the heart rests.
• The Right Lung is larger and consists of three lobes (Superior, Middle, and Inferior) separated by
horizontal and oblique fissures.

Science 9 — Module 2

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system acts as the primary transport system of the body. It utilizes specialized fluid tissue—blood
—to continuously transport dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide gases, metabolic nutrients, hormones, and cellular
waste products throughout the entire organism.

Secondary Science Reviewer • Systems & Genetics Page 2 of 11

Components of the Blood

Blood is composed of 55% liquid Plasma and 45% Formed Cellular Elements:

• Plasma: A yellowish fluid consisting of 90% liquid water and 10% inorganic substances (salts, nutrients,
proteins, wastes). It suspends blood cells, collects metabolic wastes, and nourishes cells.
• Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): Specialized biconcave discs lacking nuclei when mature. They contain the
iron-rich, oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin, which imparts the signature red color. They are primarily
synthesized inside the bone marrow of long bones, as well as the spleen and liver.
• White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): Considerably larger than red blood cells and possess large distinct nuclei.
Their primary imperative is to seek out and attack pathogenic germs, viruses, and foreign bacteria.
• Platelets (Thrombocytes): Small cellular fragments vital for blood vessel repair. They undergo a specialized
process called hemostasis to plug internal and external vascular wounds.

Leukocyte Subtypes & Functions

• Lymphocytes: Core pillars of adaptive immunity. Divided into B-cells (synthesize specific protective
antibodies/immunoglobulins) and T-cells (cellular defenders mediating direct immune response).
• Monocytes: Macrophagic phagocytes that clean up debris and dead cellular remains after an antigen
threat is neutralized.
• Neutrophils: The rapid-response white blood cells that primarily target and destroy bacterial and fungal
infections.
• Basophils: Mediate acute inflammatory responses and trigger actions during severe allergic and antigen
reactions.
• Eosinophils: Specially deployed to neutralize infections precipitated by complex parasites.

The Three Stages of Hemostasis (Wound Repair)

When a blood vessel is ruptured, platelets coordinate a precise three-step cascade to prevent exsanguination:

1. Vasoconstriction: The immediate mechanical narrowing or constriction of the damaged blood vessel
walls to minimize downstream localized blood flow.
2. Platelet Plug Formation: Rapid aggregation and adherence of local thrombocytes to the exposed
collagen fibers of the open vessel, forming a temporary baseline seal.
3. Blood Clotting (Coagulation): A complex chemical cascade transforming liquid blood into a sturdy,
fibrous, semisolid gel mesh that permanently seals the breach during tissue repair.

Secondary Science Reviewer • Systems & Genetics Page 3 of 11

Cardiac Anatomy and Internal Conduction

The Heart is the central muscular pumping engine of the cardiovascular system. It is enveloped by a protective
fluid-filled membrane called the pericardium and internal chambers are separated down the middle by a thick
muscular wall called the septum.

• The Atria (Upper Chambers): Thin-walled collection chambers divided into the Left and Right Atrium. They
receive incoming blood returning from the body and lungs.
• The Ventricles (Lower Chambers): Extremely thick, muscular pumping chambers divided into the Left and
Right Ventricle. They receive blood from the atria above and forcefully pump it out of the heart into massive
systemic and pulmonary arteries.
• Cardiac Valves: Four unidirectional flaps that explicitly prevent the backflow of blood: the Tricuspid valve,
Pulmonary valve, Bicuspid (Mitral) valve, and Aortic valve.

The Intrinsic Electrical System of the Heart

• Sinoatrial Node (SA Node): Known universally as the natural pacemaker of the heart located in the
upper right atrium. It generates spontaneous electrical impulses regulating the rhythm and contraction
timing of the atria and ventricles.
• Atrioventricular Node (AV Node): Positioned at the junction between the atria and ventricles. It catches
the electrical wave from the SA node, briefly delays it to allow total atrial emptying, and then forcefully
contracts the ventricle walls.

The Vascular Network

• Arteries: Thick-walled, elastic vessels that carry highly oxygenated blood away from the heart to systemic
tissues (Exception: The Pulmonary Artery carries deoxygenated blood). Arteries split into smaller arterioles.
• Veins: Thinner-walled vessels carrying deoxygenated blood back toward the heart (Exception: Pulmonary
Veins carry oxygenated blood). They possess micro-valves inside to combat gravity and explicitly prevent
backflow. Veins split into smaller venules.
• Capillaries: The absolute smallest, single-cell-thick microscopic vessels connecting arterioles to venules. They
are the exclusive sites that facilitate gas, nutrient, and waste exchange between blood and tissue cells.

Science 9 — Module 3

CHROMOSOMES, GENES, AND MEIOSIS

Organisms present unique distinguishing physical or physiological characteristics known as traits. These traits are
defined, driven, and passed down across generations by discrete heritable factors called genes.

Secondary Science Reviewer • Systems & Genetics Page 4 of 11

 The Structural Hierarchy of Genetic Material
• Gene: The fundamental basic unit of heredity. It is a specific functional segment of a larger
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule.
• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): A macromolecule shaped like a long, twisted ladder known structurally as
a double helix. It is constructed from subunits called nucleotides, containing a deoxyribose sugar, a
phosphate backbone, and one of four nitrogenous bases (Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine).
• Chromosomes: High-order organized structures located within the cell nucleus. They are formed when
incredibly long strands of DNA coil tightly around spherical packaging proteins called histones.
• Nucleosomes: Bead-like complexes of DNA wrapped tightly around histones. When in this densely
packed state, the genes inside are physically tight, making them completely inaccessible and silent.
Tight coiling is mandatory to prevent tangles and ensure DNA is distributed properly during cell
division.
• Locus (plural: Loci): The definitive, fixed physical coordinates or location of a specific gene on the arm
of a chromatid.

Chromosomal Structures & Terminology

• Chromatid: One-half of a replicated chromosome. Following replication, two identical halves are bound
together at a central junction called a centromere, forming identical sister chromatids.
• Homologous Chromosomes: A matched pair of chromosomes carrying identical gene sequences at
corresponding loci, where one chromosome is inherited from the male parent (paternal homologue) and
the other from the female parent (maternal homologue).

Cellular Pledges: Mitosis vs. Meiosis

Somatocytes (body cells) are Diploid cells (2n), meaning they carry two matching complete sets of chromosomes.
Specialized sexual reproductive cells (spermatozoa in males and ova in females) are Haploid cells (n), retaining
precisely half the chromosomal count of the parent organism.

Meiosis is the specialized form of cell division that shuffles genetic lineages and halves chromosome numbers to
produce four non-identical haploid gametes. During Prophase I of Meiosis, homologous non-sister chromatids
intertwine at points called a chiasma (plural: chiasmata) to undergo crossing over, an essential mechanism
ensuring physical genetic variation.

Secondary Science Reviewer • Systems & Genetics Page 5 of 11

 Allelic Variations
Genes that dictate a single trait have multiple localized variants known as alleles. These are categorized
based on their manifestation potency:

• Dominant Allele: The "stronger" allele variant; it completely manifests its physical trait even if only a
single copy is present, masking any alternative options. Represented by capital letters (e.g., A).
• Recessive Allele: The "weaker" masked variant; it can only manifest its physical trait if the organism
inherits two identical copies of this allele. Represented by lowercase letters (e.g., a).
• Zygosity Combinations: Organisms can be Homozygous Dominant (AA), Heterozygous (Aa - where
the dominant trait masks the recessive), or Homozygous Recessive (aa).

Science 9 — Module 4

MENDELIAN AND NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE

The foundations of classical genetics were established by Gregor Johann Mendel through careful breeding
experiments with the garden pea plant (Pisum sativum), chosen because it grows rapidly, produces massive
offspring tallies, and contains bisexual anatomy capable of controlled self-fertilization.

The Three Mendelian Principles

1. Law of Dominance: In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting traits, only one form of the trait
will appear in the next generation (F1). The recessive allele remains hidden and masked by the
dominant counterpart.
2. Law of Segregation and Recombination: Allele pairs randomly segregate during gamete formation
(gametogenesis) and recombine randomly at the moment of fertilization, generating brand-new genetic
arrangements.
3. Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles controlling different independent traits separate completely
independently from one another during gamete formation; the inheritance of one trait does not skew or
affect the inheritance of another.

Genetic tracking uses specific terms: Genotype describes the raw internal genetic makeup of an allele pair (e.g.,
GG, Gg, gg), whereas Phenotype denotes the explicit, visible physical expression of that trait (e.g., Green pod,
Yellow pod).

Mendelian Hybrid Ratios

• A Monohybrid Cross tracks the inheritance of a single isolated trait. Crossing two heterozygous individuals (Aa
× Aa) yields a predictable Phenotypic ratio of 3:1 and a Genotypic ratio of 1:2:1.
• A Dihybrid Cross simultaneously monitors two distinct traits. Crossing two double-heterozygous plants (RrYy ×
RrYy) yields a classic Phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1.

Secondary Science Reviewer • Systems & Genetics Page 6 of 11

Non-Mendelian Extensions

Many complex traits do not adhere to classic Mendelian dominance rules, demonstrating unique phenotypic
variations:

Inheritance Pattern Biological Mechanism and Examples

Neither allele is completely dominant over the other. The heterozygous genotype
displays an intermediate, blended phenotype.
Incomplete Dominance
Example: Red snapdragon (RR) × White (rr) produces a completely Pink (Rr)
flower.

Two different alleles of a gene are both fully and simultaneously expressed in
the phenotype without blending.
Codominance
Example: Short-horn cattle inheriting Red and White alleles exhibit a patched,
dual-colored Roan coat.

A genetic phenomenon where the phenotypic expression of one gene alters,

modifies, or completely masks the expression of an entirely separate gene.
Epistasis
Example: An internal gene for total baldness completely masks separate genes
coding for hair color (Blond/Red).

Traits determined exclusively by genes physically located on the sex

chromosomes (primarily the X or Y chromosomes).
Sex-linked Traits
Example: Hemophilia A and Red-Green Colorblindness are X-linked recessive
traits, rendering them vastly more prevalent in males.

Controlled by standard autosomal chromosomes (pairs 1–22) but their

phenotypic expression is heavily influenced by sex hormones (estrogen,
Sex-influenced Traits testosterone).
Example: Pattern Baldness occurs in both sexes but is rampant in males
because the trait is accelerated by testosterone.

Traits that are strictly expressed in only one sex due to clear anatomical or
physiological constraints, even though both sexes carry the underlying genes.
Sex-limited Traits
Example: Lactation/milk production genes are carried by both sexes but
exclusively manifest in females.

A trait arises from the additive interaction and joint action of multiple pairs of
Polygenic Inheritance
different genes working together (e.g., Human skin pigmentation, height).

A single gene locus has more than two potential allele variants circulating within
Multiple Alleles a population, seen clearly in the human ABO Blood Group System which
showcases both multiple alleles and codominance.

Secondary Science Reviewer • Systems & Genetics Page 7 of 11

 Modern DNA Biotechnology Applications
• Recombinant DNA: Methods combining DNA molecules sourced from completely different organisms to
craft unique genetic combinations not found in nature.
• Transgenic Organisms: Living things containing artificially introduced foreign genetic material from other
species to acquire novel traits (e.g., GloFish).
• Cloning: The highly precise process of creating a laboratory copy of a cell, tissue, or whole multi-cellular
organism that is entirely genetically identical to the original donor.

Science 10 — Module 5

DNA AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

The flow of genetic blueprints inside a living cell travels in an absolute direction known as The Central Dogma of
molecular biology: DNA → RNA → Protein.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

• Acts as the definitive "blueprint of the cell" • A dynamic macromolecule that is single-
confined strictly inside the protective nucleus. stranded, found operating inside both the
• Exists structurally as a long double-stranded nucleus and cellular cytoplasm.
helix. • Contains a five-carbon ribose sugar backbone.
• Contains a deoxyribose sugar backbone. • Nitrogenous base pairing: Adenine (A) pairs
• Nitrogenous base pairing: Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U); Guanine (G) pairs with
with Thymine (T); Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C).
Cytosine (C).

The Three Essential Variants of RNA

• mRNA (Messenger RNA): Transcribes genetic codes directly off nuclear DNA and carries these codes out as
triplet letters called codons to cytoplasmic ribosomes.
• tRNA (Transfer RNA): Scout molecules that forage inside the cytoplasm to harvest individual amino acids,
carrying them to the active ribosome. They align precisely to mRNA via a complementary triplet loop called an
anticodon.
• rRNA (Ribosomal RNA): Structural and catalytic molecular components that physically bind together to
construct functional ribosomes.

The Mechanics of Gene Expression

Gene Expression relies on a highly coordinated two-step process to transform linear nucleotide codes into
functional physical proteins:

Secondary Science Reviewer • Systems & Genetics Page 8 of 11

 Step 1: Transcription (RNA Synthesis)
The molecular process where specific codes on a nuclear DNA strand are converted into a complementary
single strand of mRNA. This takes place within the nucleus and is driven by the enzyme RNA Polymerase
over three distinct phases:

• Initiation: RNA polymerase successfully scans, locates, and binds tightly to a specific regional sequence
on the DNA strand called the promoter, unwinding the double helix.
• Elongation: RNA polymerase glides seamlessly along the template DNA strand, adding matching
complementary RNA nucleotides one by one to extend the growing mRNA strand.
• Termination: The enzyme hits a distinct genetic stop sign called a terminator sequence, immediately
halting transcription and releasing the fresh mRNA molecule.

Step 2: Translation (Protein Construction)

The downstream process where cytoplasmic ribosomes read the sequential codons of the incoming mRNA
strand to construct a precise amino acid sequence joined by tight peptide bonds.

• Translation initializes exclusively at a specific Start Codon (AUG), which always codes for the amino acid
Methionine.
• Elongation continues until the ribosomal machinery reads one of three terminal Stop Codons (UAA, UAG,
or UGA), which do not code for any amino acid, causing the finalized protein chain to release.

Science 9 — Module 6

MUTATIONS AND THEIR EFFECTS

A mutation is any permanent, structural change in the DNA sequence of a gene. Mutations can materialize
completely naturally due to spontaneous metabolic errors or be induced by hazardous external environmental
elements called mutagens.

Secondary Science Reviewer • Systems & Genetics Page 9 of 11

Core Classifications of Gene Mutations

1. Point Mutation (Substitution)

Occurs when one single DNA base is swapped or replaced by another base. Point mutations present
three potential downstream outcomes:

• Silent Mutation: The swapped base still codes for the exact same amino acid; thus, the protein is
unaffected.
• Missense Mutation: The base change causes a codon to call for a different amino acid, changing
protein configuration.
Severe Example: Sickle Cell Anemia, where a single missense mutation produces abnormal hemoglobin,
turning fluid red blood cells into stiff, sticky sickle shapes that dangerously jam blood vessels.
• Nonsense Mutation: The base substitution accidentally creates a premature stop codon, causing
translation to halt early, truncating the protein into a useless fragment.

2. Frameshift Mutation
Caused by the physical insertion or deletion of nitrogenous bases. Because ribosomes read mRNA in
strict triplets, adding or dropping a single base shifts the entire downstream reading frame, radically altering
every single amino acid that follows.

• Insertion Mutations: (e.g., Fragile X Syndrome, causing facial elongation, prominent ears, low IQ, social
anxiety, and ADHD).
• Deletion Mutations: (e.g., Cri du Chat Syndrome, caused by a deletion on the short arm of chromosome
5; presenting microcephaly, widely spaced eyes, and a signature high-pitched cat-like cry).

Etiology: Somatic vs. Germline Mutations

• Inherited Mutations (Germline Mutations): Present inside parent egg or sperm gametes. They are
permanently passed down to offspring and exist inside every cell of the child's body.
• Acquired Mutations (Somatic Mutations): Occur in isolated body cells during an organism's life. Precipitated
by replication errors, UV radiation, X-rays, or highly reactive chemical compounds known as free radicals.
Somatic mutations can trigger uncontrolled cell division, leading directly to tumors and cancer.

Secondary Science Reviewer • Systems & Genetics Page 10 of 11

Phenotypic Effects of Mutations

Effect Category Mechanism and Clinical Examples

Have zero impact on natural survival or protein efficiency.

Neutral Mutations
Examples: Detached earlobes, tongue-rolling ability, or a widow's peak hairline.

Enhance an organism's survival parameters in specific environments.

Examples: EPAS1 gene mutation providing deep high-altitude hypoxia adaptation; LCT
Beneficial
gene mutation allowing lactase persistence into adulthood; PCSK9 loss-of-function
Mutations
drastically lowering bad LDL cholesterol and heart disease risk; or heterozygous Sickle Cell
Trait (HbAS) conferring robust resistance against severe Malaria.

Directly compromise health, creating a severe functional problem known as a Genetic

Disorder.
• Huntington's Disease: Incurable, fatal neurodegenerative decay caused by an HTT gene
mutation.
• Tay-Sachs Disease: Rapid, fatal early childhood neurodegeneration due to lysosomal
Harmful Mutations storage failures (HEXA gene).
• Cystic Fibrosis: CFTR mutation filling the respiratory and digestive tracts with thick,
dehydrating mucus plugs.
• Achondroplasia: Severe bone growth inhibition leading to classic dwarfism (FGFR3
mutation).
• Hemophilia A: Severe blood bleeding disorder caused by a Factor VIII (F8) gene mutation.

Genetic Mutation vs. Genetic Disorder: The mutation is the physical molecular change in the DNA code; the
disorder is the detrimental health problem resulting from that change.

Secondary Science Reviewer • Systems & Genetics Page 11 of 11