Chapter-1

Cell: The fundamental unit of life

What are the Components of Living Organisms?

Answer: Cells are the building blocks of all living beings. Complex
organisms' primary structural and functional unit is the cell.

History of Cell:

 Cells were discovered for the first time in 1665 by Robert Hooke
using a crude microscope.
 With a better microscope, Leeuwenhoek observed free-living cells in
pond water for the first time in 1674.
 The nucleus of the cell was found by Robert Brown in 1831
 Purkinje created the name "protoplasm" for the cell's fluid portion in
1839
 The cell theory, presented by Schleiden in 1838 and Schwann in
1839, states that all plants and animals are made up of cells.
 In 1855, Rudolf Virchow advanced the cell hypothesis by claiming
that all cells originate from pre-existing cells.
 The discovery of the microscopic universe was made possible by the
invention of magnifying lenses. Unicellular creatures have a single
cell that performs all tasks such as nourishment, respiration,
excretion, and reproduction. Amoeba, Chlamydomonas,
Paramecium, and Bacteria, for example, have solitary cells that
make up the entire organism.
 Multicellular organisms are organisms with a large number of cells
that perform many roles. Multicellular organisms might exhibit
themselves as a single cell or as a group of cells.
 Fungi, plants, and mammals, for example, have many cells that form
tissues. A single cell gave rise to every multicellular organism.
 As a result, all cells are derived from pre-existing cells. Cells of
various types can also be found in some creatures.
 The shape and size of a cell are determined by the function it
performs. Some cells alter their appearance. Amoeba, for example.
In other situations, the cell shape may be more or less fixed and
unique to a specific cell type. Eg: nerve cells.
 Every live cell has the ability to carry out certain basic operations
that are common to all living things. In multicellular organisms like
 humans, there is a division of labour. This means that various
regions of the human body serve diverse purposes.
 Within a single cell, the division of work is also visible. In reality,
each of these cells has unique components known as cell organelles.
Each type of cell organelle has a distinct purpose. These organelles
allow a cell to live and accomplish all of its activities. The basic unit
of the cell is made up of these organelles.

What are the Components of a Cell? What is a Cell's Structural

Organisation?

Answer: Every cell has three distinct features: a plasma membrane, a

nucleus, and a cytoplasm. Due to these characteristics, all activity within
the cell and exchanges between the cell and its environment are feasible.

 The plasma membrane, also known as the cell membrane, is the

cell's outermost layer, which separates the cell's contents from its
surroundings. It is made up of organic molecules called lipids and
proteins and is flexible. The cell membrane's flexibility also allows
the cell to take in food and other materials from its surroundings.
Endocytosis is the term for such a process. Amoeba, for example.
 It allows some substances to pass into and out of the cell. It also
inhibits some other materials from moving. As a result, it's known as
a selectively permeable membrane.
 Diffusion, osmosis, and other processes can move chemicals
through this semi-permeable barrier.
 The difference between diffusion and osmosis is as below:

Osmosis Diffusion
 Movement of substances  It is the movement of
from the region of high substances from the
concentration to low region of high
concentration through a concentration to low
semi permeable concentration.
membrane.
 It is applicable for liquids  It is applicable for all type
only. of mediums i.e., solid,
liquid, and gaseous
molecules.
 This process requires  There is no requirement
selectively permeable of selectively permeable
membrane. membrane.
 It depends on the  It depends on the kinetic
concentration of water energy and concentration
molecules in the system. of the molecules of
diffusing substance only.

 If we place an animal or plant cell in a hypotonic solution, it would

most certainly swell. If the cell is kept in an isotonic solution, it
will maintain its size. The cell will shrink if the solution is
hypertonic.
 Osmosis is a process through which unicellular freshwater
organisms and most plants obtain water.
 Cell wall: The cell wall is only found in plant cells. Cell walls are
made of cellulose and are porous. It keeps the contents of the cell
distinct from the rest of the world. It gives the cell its form and
protects it.
 Plants, fungi, and bacteria have cell walls that allow them to survive
very dilute external media without bursting.
 Plasmolysis is the process by which cells in a hypertonic solution
lose water.
 Nucleus: The nucleus is protected by a double-layered membrane
known as the nuclear membrane. The nuclear membrane has pores
that allow material to pass from the inside to the outside.
Chromosomes, which are made up of Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and proteins, are found in the nucleus. The nucleus is in
charge of the cell's entire activity.
 The nucleus is important in cell division and development because it
contains genetic information in the form of DNA. Genes are the
functional portions of DNA. Protein synthesis and character
transmission from one generation to the next are crucial functions of
the nucleus. It is important for cellular reproduction. In some
organisms, the nuclear membrane is missing, leaving only nucleic
acids (nucleoids) in the nuclear area. Prokaryotes are such
creatures. Bacteria, for example. Eukaryotes are organisms that
have a nuclear membrane in their cells.

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

 The size of the cell is very  The size of cell is generally
small, varying from 1um to between 5um to 100um.
10um.
 Well-defined nucleus is  Well-defined nucleus(true
absent. nucleus) is present.
 Nucleoid is present.  Nucleoid is absent.
 It has usually one circular  It has more than one
chromosome and also has chromosome and plasmid is
plasmids. absent.
 There is no nucleolus.  There is nucleolus present
inside the nucleus.
 Nuclear membrane is absent.  Nuclear membrane is
present.
 Membrane bound cell  Membrane bound cell
organelles are absent. organelles are present.
 Examples: Cyanobacteria,  Examples: protozoans, fungi,
bacteria planta and animals.
 Cytoplasm: The fluid content inside the plasma membrane is
referred to as cytoplasm. It's a vicious jelly-like substance that
covers the entire cell save the nucleus. It also contains a variety of
specialised cell organelles, each of which serves a specific purpose
for the cell.
 The endoplasmic reticulum, Ribosomes, Golgi apparatus,
Mitochondria, Plastids, Lysosomes, and Vacuoles are examples of
cell organelles. They're vital since they perform some of the most
important jobs in cells.
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): The ER, or endoplasmic reticulum, is
a vast network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets. It acts as a
conduit for the movement of materials, particularly proteins,
between distinct cytoplasmic organs or between the cytoplasm and
the nucleus. It also serves as a cytoplasmic scaffolding that provides
a surface for certain of the cell's metabolic operations. Rough
endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum are the
two forms of ER.

a) RER: These are rough on the outside and are linked to

ribosomes. Protein synthesis is carried out by these cells.
b) SER: These are smooth on the outside and have nothing to do
with ribosomes. It aids in the production of fat molecules, also
 known as lipids. It also aids in the detoxification of a variety of
toxins and medications.
 Membrane biogenesis: EF produces proteins and lipids that
aid in the formation of the cell membrane. Membrane
biogenesis is the name given to this process.
 The Golgi Apparatus is named after Camillo Golgi, a
scientist who was the first to describe it. A stack of
membrane-bound cisternae makes up the Golgi.

 These membranes are frequently connected to the membranes of

the ER, and so form part of a complex cellular membrane system. Its
responsibilities include storing, modifying, and packing items in
vesicles. It has a role in the development of lysosomes as well.
 Lysosomes: Lysosomes are enzyme-filled membranous sacs. RER
produces these enzymes. They are a type of cell waste disposal
device. They aid in the cleaning of the cell by digesting foreign
substances as well as worn-out cell organelles.
 Hydrolytic enzymes in lysosomes are capable of digesting cellular
macromolecules. When a cell is damaged, the lysosome may burst,
allowing the cell's enzymes to digest it. As a result, lysosomes are
referred to as ‘suicidal bags'.
  Mitochondria are cellular organelles that are known as the
"powerhouses of the cells." A double membrane separates these
from the rest of the body. The exterior membrane is smooth, and the
inner membrane is folded into cristae folds. The cristae expands the
cellular respiration area. Mitochondria produce ATP molecules, which
are used to release energy. ATP is referred to as the cell's "energy
currency." Mitochondria have their own DNA (DNA ribosomes) and
are capable of producing some proteins.

 Plastids are a type of bacterium found solely in plant cells. There are
two varieties of these: chromoplasts (coloured plastids) and
leucoplasts (white plastids) (white or colourless plastids).
Chloroplasts are plastids that contain the pigment chlorophyll. These
are necessary for plant photosynthesis. Chromoplasts are organelles
that contribute vibrant colours to plant structures such as buds,
flowers, and leaves.
 Organelles that store starch, oils, and protein granules are known as
leucoplasts. Plastids are made up of several membrane layers that
are encased in the stroma. Plastids have DNA and ribosomes of their
own.
 Vacuoles: Plant and animal cells both have vacuoles, which are
membrane-bound compartments. These are solid or liquid-filled
storage sacs. In animal cells, they are small, whereas in plant cells,
they are larger. Plant cells have sap-filled vacuoles that give the cell
turgidity and stiffness. Water, waste materials, and compounds
including amino acids, carbohydrates, and proteins are all stored in
these organelles. Specialised vacuoles serve a vital function in the
expulsion of excess water and certain wastes from the cell in some
unicellular organisms.

Difference Between Plant Cells and Animal Cells:

The difference between plant and animal cells is enlisted below:

Plant Cell Animal Cell

  Plant cells are generally  Animal cells are generally
bigger in size. smaller in size.
 They have a cell wall as an  They do not contain cell wall.
additional layer.
 Plastids are present.  Plastids are absent.
 Vacuoles are big and  Vacuoles are either small or
prominent. absent and are temporary.
 Small dictyosomes as  Golgi Apparatus are
subunits of Golgi Apparatus prominent.
are present.
 Lysosomes are fewer in  Large number of lysosomes
number. are present.
 Centrosomes are present.  Centrosomes are present.
 Centriole is absent.  Centriole is present.


Cell Division:

Cell division is the process by which new cells are formed in organisms for
growth, replacing old, dead, and injured cells, and for reproduction. There
are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.

 Mitosis is the type of cell division responsible for growth and tissue
repair. In mitosis, a mother cell divides into two identical daughter
cells, each having the same number of chromosomes as the mother
cell.
 Meiosis occurs in the reproductive organs to form gametes, which
are necessary for sexual reproduction. Meiosis results in four new
cells, each with half the number of chromosomes compared to the
mother cell.

This reduction is important to maintain the chromosome number in

offspring after fertilisation. The reduction in chromosome number during
meiosis ensures that when gametes combine, the offspring have the
correct number of chromosomes.