Chapter- Cell
A) Cell - Cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of life. It is called structural unit as all living
organism are made up of cells and functional unit as it is the smallest structure capable of performing
basic life processes.
B) Cell Theory is a landmark concept that defines what makes up a living organism. It was primarily
proposed by Schleiden, Schwann, and later expanded by Virchow.
The three main postulates are:
(1) All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. (The cell is the structural unit of life).
(2) The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living beings. (Everything a body does is the
result of cell activity).
(3) All cells arise from pre-existing cells. (Cells do not appear spontaneously; they divide to create new
ones—expressed by Virchow as "Omnis cellula-e cellula").
Who discovered cell-It was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. Robert Hooke examined a thin
slice of cork, which is a substance obtained from the bark of a tree. While observing the slice under
a primitive, self-designed microscope, Hooke noticed that the cork resembled the structure of a
honeycomb, consisting of many little compartments or boxes.
Hooke called these boxes "cells". In Latin, cellula means a "little room."
Other discoveries about cell are:
a) Robert Brown –Nucleus of the cell in 1831
b) Anton Van Leeuwenhoek – Free living cells in pond water (bacteria) in 1674
c) Purkinje – Fluid substance of cell (Protoplasm) in 1839
d) [Link]- Expanded cell theory (all cells arise from pre-existing cells) in 1855
e) M.J. Schleiden and T. Schwann – Gave cell theory (cell is basic unit of life) in 1838-39
f) The discovery of electron microscope in 1940 helped to understand complex structure of cell and its
organelles.
Activity:5.1
This activity proves that the onion (a living organism) is made up of discrete units called cells. It shows
that while the organism might be large, its basic "building blocks" are these microscopic structures.
We can try preparing temporary mounts of peels of onions of different sizes. What do we observe? Do we see
similar structures or different structures?
The size of the onion does not affect the size or shape of its cells.
This tells us that these tiny structures are the basic building blocks of the onion. Whether the plant is large or
small, it is made up of the same fundamental units called cells.
The invention of magnifying lenses led to the discovery of the microscopic world. It is now known that a
single cell may constitute a whole organism as in Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramoecium and bacteria.
These organisms are called unicellular organisms (uni = single). On the other hand, many cells group together
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in a single body and assume different functions in it to form various body parts in multicellular organisms
(multi = many) such as some fungi, plants and animals.
Every multi-cellular organism has come from a single cell. Cells divide to produce cells of their own
kind. All cells thus come from pre-existing cells.
Feature Unicellular Organisms Multicellular Organisms
1. Cell Representation Represented by a single Consist of a large number
cell of cells
All activities performed A single cell performs one
2. Activity Performance
by a single cell or a few activities
No division of labor; a Cells are specialized for
single cell performs all different functions,
3. Division of Labor life activities leading to a division of
labor within cells
Only germ cells participate
Reproduction involves a in reproduction; somatic
single cell
4. Reproduction cells remain intact.
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Life span of an individual Lifespan of an
5. Lifespan is short. individual is long
Activity 5.2
(a) Shape and size: No, they vary. (e.g., onion cells are rectangular, while guard cells are
kidney-shaped).
(b) Structure: No, they are not identical. Some have chloroplasts (leaves), while others do not (roots).
(c) Differences: Yes, cells are modified based on their function in different plant parts (storage, support, or
photosynthesis).
(d) Similarities: All possess a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and a large central vacuole.
Conclusion: While the "basic plan" is the same, cell shape and size are related to the specific function they
perform.
Cell shape and size are determined by their specific function, ranging from the changing shape of Amoeba to
the fixed, elongated structure of nerve cells.
(4) What are cell organelles- Each cell has got certain basic components within it known as cell organelles.
Each kind of cell organelle performs a special function that is why a cell is able to live and perform all
its function in any organism. These organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm.
(5) Basic components of cell- Plasma membrane, Nucleus and cytoplasm.
(6) PLASMA MEMBRANE:
a) It is the outermost layer of animal cell.
b) It gives shape to the cell and provides mechanical support and protection to the inner contents of
the cell.
c) It is protective covering of the cell.
d) It is called selectively permeable membrane as it allows the entry and exit of some materials in
and out of the cell.
e) The significance of membranes can be illustrated with the example of viruses. Viruses lack any
membranes and hence do not show characteristics of life until they enter a living body and use
its cell machinery to multiply.
f) It is highly flexible, living membrane made up of organic molecules- proteins and lipids.
What is Endocytosis – It is the process which enables the cell to engulf in food and other material
from its external environment. It takes place as cell membrane is highly flexible. Example –
Unicellular organism Amoeba acquires its food through this process.
g)
DIFFUSION OSMOSIS
1. The process of movement of 1. The process of movement of
molecules from a region of water molecules from region of higher
higher concentration to lower concentration to lower concentration
concentration to spread through semi-
uniformly in given space. permeable membrane.
2. It is seen in solids, liquids and 2. It is seen only in liquids.
gases.
3. It helps in exchange of gases 3. It helps in absorption of water by
like CO2 and O2 between cell as well as plant cells and unicellular organisms.
its external environment.
4. 4.
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane.
Unicellular freshwater organisms and most plant cells tend to gain water through osmosis. Absorption of
water by plant roots is also an example of osmosis.
h) What happens when we put an animal cell into a solution of salt or sugar?
** Solute + Solvent---------------- SOLUTION
Three things can happen-
a) Higher water concentration than a cell in surrounding medium i.e. the solution is dilute- forms
hypotonic solution-Cell gains water and swells up (becomes turgid)-process is Endosmosis.
b) Lower concentration of water than a cell in surrounding medium i.e. the solution is concentrated-
forms Hypertonic solution- Cell loses water and shrinks (plasmolysed i.e. becomes flaccid)-process is
Exosmosis.
c) Same concentration inside and outside the cell-forms Isotonic solution- No change and remains
normal cell.
Conclusion: Osmosis is special kind of diffusion through plasma membrane which can be
affected by the amount of substance dissolved in water.
What is Plasmolysis- When living plant cell loses water through osmosis, there is shrinkage or contraction of
the contents of the cell away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is called as PLASMOLYSIS.
When a strong sugar or salt solution is applied to a mounted leaf on a slide, the cell contents will shrink
away from the cell wall, a process called plasmolysis. This happens because water moves out of the cell via
osmosis, towards the higher solute concentration outside the cell, causing the cell membrane to shrink and
pull away from the rigid cell wall.
Now place some Rhoeo leaves in boiling water for a few minutes. This kills the cells. Then mount one leaf
on a slide and observe it under a microscope.
As the Rheo leaf is boiled, the cells within it are dead. Dead cells are not able to perform osmosis.
Therefore, such a leaf will not show osmosis and hence plasmolysis will not be seen in this dead
leaf peel.
i) CELL WALL-
a) It is composed of cellulose i.e. Complex carbohydrate. It provides structural strength and rigidity to
plants.
b) Cell walls are present in the following organisms:
Plants: Made primarily of cellulose.
Fungi: Made of chitin.
Bacteria (Prokaryotes): Made of peptidoglycan.
c) It gives proper shape to the cell.
d) It protects aquatic plants living in hypotonic medium by preventing them from bursting.
In such media the cells tend to take up water by osmosis. The cell swells, building up pressure against the
cell wall. The wall exerts an equal pressure against the swollen cell. Because of their walls, such cells can
withstand much greater changes in the surrounding medium than animal cells.
NUCLEUS-
Activity 5.7
Observation: You see scattered, irregularly shaped cells with a thin outer boundary (cell membrane).
Cell Shape: Unlike the rectangular onion cells, cheek cells are polygonal or roughly circular because they lack
a cell wall.
The Nucleus: A darkly stained, spherical/oval dot is clearly visible, usually located near the center of the cell.
4 and cheek cells, confirming it is a fundamental feature of
Comparison: Similar nuclei are present in both onion
all eukaryotic cells.
a) It is known as the brain of the cell as it regulates all major activities of the cell.
b) It is surrounded by double layered covering called as nuclear membrane which has tiny pores called
NUCLEOPORES which allow the transfer of material from inside the nucleus to its outside, that is,
to the cytoplasm.
c) The fluid within the nucleus is called NUCLEOPLASM. It contains two types of nuclear structures-
NUCLEOLUS and CHROMATIN.
d) In the nucleoplasm thread like coiled structures are present called chromatin network.
e) When a cell divides the chromatin condenses to form short thread like structures called chromosomes
which are composed of DNA (Deoxy-Ribo Nucleic Acid) and proteins. Chromosomes contain
information for inheritance of characters from parents to next generation in the form of DNA
(Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules. Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein. DNA
molecules contain the information necessary for constructing and organising cells.
f) There is small spherical structure called NUCLEOLUS is also present. It is a site where ribosomes
are formed.
g) Nucleus also regulates cell division (formation of cells from one cell), synthesis and storage of
proteins.
h) Functional segments of the chromosomes are called genes, which are the carriers of hereditary
information from one generation to the next.
What is difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes?
PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
1) Don’t have a well organized 1) They have well organized
nucleus. nucleus.
2) Don’t have nuclear membrane. 2) They have a nuclear membrane.
3) E.g. bacteria, blue green algae. 3) E.g. Amoeba, onion cell.
4) Size of cell is small i.e. 1-10 microns. 4) Size of cell is large i.e. 5-100 microns.
5) The nucleus region is with a nuclear 5) The nucleus region is well defined area
membrane and so it is called nucleoid. surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
6) A single chromosome is present 6) More than one chromosome is
present
7) Membrane bound cell organelles are 7) Membrane bound cell organelles are
absent. present.
Prokaryotic cells also lack most of the other cytoplasmic organelles present in eukaryotic cells. Many of the
functions of such organelles are also performed by poorly organized parts of the cytoplasm. The chlorophyll
in photosynthetic prokaryotic bacteria is associated with membranous vesicles (bag like structures) but not
with plastids as in eukaryotic cells.
CYTOPLASM- When we look at the temporary mounts of onion peel as well as human cheek cells, we can see a
large region of each cell enclosed by the cell membrane. This region takes up very little stain. It is called the
cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane. It also contains many specialized cell
organelles.