Chapter One

Continuity, Energy and Momentum Principle

You are already familiar with numerous conservation laws such as the laws of conservation of mass,
conservation of energy, and conservation of momentum. Historically, the conservation laws are first
applied to a fixed quantity of matter called a closed system or just a system, and then extended to regions
in space called control volumes. The conservation relations are also called balance equations since any
conserved quantity must balance during a process.

1.1 Conservation of Mass

The conservation of mass principle is one of the most fundamental principles in nature.
Mass, like energy, is a conserved property, and it cannot be created or destroyed during a process.
However, mass m and energy E can be converted to each other according to the well-known formula
proposed by Albert Einstein (1879–1955):

𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐
We are all familiar with this principle, and it is not difficult to
understand. As the saying goes, You cannot have your cake and eat it
too! A person does not have to be a scientist to figure out how much
vinegar-and oil dressing will be obtained by mixing 100 g of oil with
25 g of vinegar. Even chemical equations are balanced on the basis of
the conservation of mass principle. When 16 kg of oxygen reacts with
2 kg of hydrogen, 18 kg of water is formed (Fig. 5–2). In an electrolysis
process, the water will separate back to 2 kg of hydrogen and 16 kg of
oxygen.
However, for all energy interactions encountered in practice, with the exception of nuclear reactions,
the change in mass is extremely small and cannot be detected by even the most sensitive devices.
For closed systems, the conservation of mass principle is implicitly used by requiring that the mass of
the system remain constant during a process. For control volumes, however, mass can cross the
boundaries, and so we must keep track of the amount of mass entering and leaving the control volume.

1.2 Mass and Volume flow rates

Fig 5-3: The normal velocity 𝑉𝑛 for a surface is the component of velocity perpendicular to the surface
The amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time is called the mass flow rate and is
denoted by 𝑚̇. The dot over a symbol is used to indicate time rate of change. A fluid flows into or out
of a control volume, usually through pipes or ducts. The differential mass flow rate of fluid flowing
across a small area element 𝑑𝐴𝑐 in a cross section of the pipe is proportional to 𝑑𝐴𝑐 itself, the fluid
density 𝜌, and the component of the flow velocity normal to 𝑑𝐴𝑐 , which we denote as 𝑉𝑛 , and is
expressed as (Fig. 5–3)

𝛿𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴𝑐

Note that both 𝛿 and d are used to indicate differential quantities, but 𝛿 is typically used for quantities
(such as heat, work, and mass transfer) that are path functions and have inexact differentials, while d is
used for quantities (such as properties) that are point functions and have exact differentials.
The mass flow rate through the entire cross-sectional area of a pipe or duct is obtained by integration:

𝑚̇ = ∫ 𝛿𝑚̇ = ∫ 𝜌𝑉𝑛 𝑑𝐴𝑐 (𝑘𝑔/𝑠)

𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐

For compressible flow, we can think of 𝜌 as the bulk average density over the cross section, and then
Eq. 5–7 can still be used as a reasonable approximation. For simplicity, we drop the subscript on the
average velocity. Unless otherwise stated, V denotes the average velocity in the flow direction. Also,
𝐴𝑐 denotes the cross-sectional area normal to the flow direction.
 𝑉̇
where 𝑉 is the specific volume. This relation is analogous to 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉̇ = 𝑣 , which is the relation
between the mass and the volume of a fluid in a container.

EXAMPLE 1 (Water Flow through a Garden Hose Nozzle)

A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill a 10-gal bucket. The inner diameter of the
hose is 2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at the nozzle exit. If it takes 50 s to fill the bucket with
water, determine (a) the volume and mass flow rates of water through the hose, and (b) the
average velocity of water at the nozzle exit.

Solution:
A garden hose is used to fill a water bucket. The volume and mass flow rates of water and the
exit velocity are to be determined.

Assumptions:
1. Water is an incompressible substance.
2. Flow through the hose is steady.
3. There is no waste of water by splashing
1.2.1 Conservation of Mass Principle/Continuity Equation
It states that the time rate of change of mass within the control volume plus the net mass flow rate
through the control surface is equal to zero. Which is also known as general form of continuity
equation.
1.2.2 Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained
within a control volume does not change with time (𝑚𝐶𝑉 =
constant). Then the conservation of mass principle requires that
the total amount of mass entering a control volume equal the total
amount of mass leaving it.
When dealing with steady-flow processes, we are interested in the
amount of mass flowing per unit time, that is, the mass flow rate
𝑚̇. The conservation of mass principle for a general steady-flow
system with multiple inlets and outlets can be expressed in rate
form as –
Steady flow: ∑𝑚̇ = ∑ 𝑚̇ (𝑘𝑔/𝑠)
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

It states that the total rate of mass entering a control volume is equal to the total rate of mass
leaving it.
Many engineering devices such as nozzles, diffusers, turbines, compressors, and pumps involve
a single stream (only one inlet and one outlet). For these cases, we denote the inlet state by the
subscript 1 and the outlet state by the subscript 2, and drop the summation signs. Then the
above reduces, for single-stream steady-flow systems, to
Steady flow (single stream): 𝑚̇1 = 𝑚̇ 2 → 𝜌1 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 𝐴2
This can be written in a more general form as:
𝜌𝐴𝑉 = constant

1.2.3 Incompressible flow (Special Case)

The conservation of mass relations can be simplified even further
when the fluid is incompressible, which is usually the case for
liquids. Canceling the density from both sides of the general
steady-flow relation gives –

Steady, incompressible flow: ∑𝑉̇ = ∑ 𝑉̇ (𝑚3 /𝑠)

𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡

For single-stream steady-flow systems it becomes –

Steady, incompressible flow (single stream): 𝑉1̇ = 𝑉2̇ →
𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2
This equation can be written in general form as:
𝐴𝑉 = constant
Now, if Q is the volume flow rate, the above equation can be expressed as:
Q = AV = constant
This equation is known as the equation of continuity.
It should always be kept in mind that there is no such thing as a “conservation of volume”
principle. Therefore, the volume flow rates into and out of a steady-flow device may be
different. The volume flow rate at the outlet of an air compressor is much less than that at the
inlet even though the mass flow rate of air through the compressor is constant (Fig. 5–11). This
is due to the higher density of air at the compressor exit. For steady flow of liquids, however,
the volume flow rates, as well as the mass flow rates, remain constant since liquids are
essentially incompressible (constant-density) substances.

1.2.4 Differential Form of the Continuity Equation

One way to analyze the mass in a system is by using a control volume. In turn, this will result
𝑑
in the continuity equation, ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉 + ∫ 𝜌(𝑉 ⃗ . 𝑛⃗)𝑑𝐴 = 0.
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

Using this method, however, will only allow you to analyze fluid that passes through the control
surface of the control volume. As a result, it will not consider the fluid inside the control
volume. Contrarily, to analyze the fluid inside the control volume you will need to obtain the
differential form of the continuity equation.
To derive the differential form of the continuity equation let’s take a look at a small, stationary
cubical element. This element in essence will represent the control volume. At the center of
element there will be a fluid density ρ, and the velocity coordinate components u, ν, and w.

Hence the volume integral of the small fluid element is -

𝜕 𝜕𝜌
∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑉 = 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 ……………….. (1)
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝜕𝑡

For the figure above, the mass rate of flow through the right face (in +x direction) of the fluid
element –
𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝛿𝑥
𝜌𝑢|𝑥+𝛿𝑥 = 𝜌𝑢 + ……………… (2)
2
𝜕𝑥 2

Again, the mass rate of flow through the left face (in -x direction) of the fluid element –
𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝛿𝑥
𝜌𝑢|𝑥−𝛿𝑥 = 𝜌𝑢 − ………………. (3)
2
𝜕𝑥 2

Now multiply equn (2) & (3) with area 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧. By doing this we will be able to define the net
rate of mass out flow through the element.
𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝛿𝑥 𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝛿𝑥
Hence, Net rate of mass flow in x direction = [ 𝜌𝑢 + ] 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 − [𝜌𝑢 − ] 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕(𝜌𝑢)
= 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 ………… (4)
𝜕𝑥
Similarly,
𝜕(𝜌𝑣)
Net rate of mass flow in y direction = 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 …………. (5)
𝜕𝑦

𝜕(𝜌𝑤)
and, Net rate of mass flow in z direction = 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 ………….. (6)
𝜕𝑧

Now combining equations 4 – 6 will derive the total net rate of mass flow –
𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤)
Hence, Net rate of mass flow = [ + + ] 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 ……… (7)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Finally, the differential equation for conservation of mass is derived after combining the
continuity equation of a control volume with equations 1 and 7.
𝜕𝜌 𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤)
𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 + [ + + ] 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜌 𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕(𝜌𝑣) 𝜕(𝜌𝑤)

or, + + + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝜌
or, ⃗ .𝑉
+ 𝜌(∇ ⃗)=0
𝜕𝑡

This is the equation of continuity in differential form. The conservation of mass or continuity
equation is one of the fundamental equations of fluid mechanics. As a result, it will work for
steady and unsteady flow. In addition, it will also work for both compressible and
incompressible fluids.