STATIC FORCES

Comprehensive Study Notes | Medical Physics | Pre-Medical Two

Based on: Physics in Biology and Medicine (Davidovits) | Lecturer: Ing. A.M. Tholley

PART 1: EQUILIBRIUM AND STABILITY

1.1 Key Definitions
• Mechanics: branch of physics dealing with the effect of forces on motion of bodies.
• Static forces: forces acting on bodies that are NOT in motion (constant in time).
• Weight (W): total gravitational force on an object. Acts downward through the centre of gravity
(c.g.).
• Centre of gravity (c.g.) / centre of mass: the single point through which the entire weight of a
body is considered to act.
• Torque (moment): the turning effect of a force about a pivot point. Torque = Force ×
perpendicular distance from the pivot.

1.2 Conditions for Static Equilibrium

A body is in STATIC EQUILIBRIUM when TWO conditions are simultaneously satisfied:
• Condition 1 – Force balance: The vector sum of ALL forces acting = 0. (No net translation.)
• Condition 2 – Torque balance: The vector sum of ALL torques about ANY chosen pivot = 0. (No
net rotation.)
These two conditions give us the equations we solve for unknown forces.

1.3 Stability — What Makes a Body Stable?

Stability is governed by TWO factors:
• Position of the c.g. relative to the base of support.
• Width (area) of the base of support and height of the c.g.

Rule 1: Centre of Gravity Must Be Over the Base

Stable: c.g. is directly above the base of support → restoring torque brings body back if displaced.
Unstable: c.g. falls outside the base → toppling torque causes the body to fall.

Rule 2: Wider Base = More Stable

When a wide-based body is tilted, its weight still acts inside the base → restoring torque. A narrow-
based body tilted the same angle has its weight outside the base → toppling.

Rule 3: Lower c.g. = More Stable

A body is more stable if its centre of gravity is closer to the base. Lower c.g. means more angular
displacement is needed before the weight line moves outside the base.

1.4 Centre of Gravity of the Human Body

• For an erect person with arms at sides: c.g. is at approximately 56% of height from the floor.
• The c.g. shifts whenever the person moves, bends, or carries a load.
• Balance is maintained as long as the c.g. remains over the feet (the base of support).
• A person falls when the c.g. moves beyond the boundary of the feet.

Compensating for Uneven Loads

When carrying a weight in one hand: the opposite arm swings out and the torso bends away from the
load. This shifts the c.g. back over the feet. This compensatory bending, if chronic (e.g., in arm
amputees), can cause permanent spinal distortion — which is why artificial limbs are recommended
even if non-functional.

1.5 Toppling by an External Force — Worked Example

Consider a 70 kg person standing at rigid attention (Fig. 1.5 from textbook):
• Height to shoulder where force is applied: 1.5 m
• c.g. is 0.1 m from the pivot point (edge of foot, point A)
• Weight W = mg = 70 × 9.8 = 686 N

Torques about the pivot (point A):

• Restoring torque from weight: Tw = W × 0.1 m = 686 × 0.1 = 68.6 N·m
• Toppling torque from applied force: Ta = Fa × 1.5 m
Person topples when Ta = Tw:
Toppling force Fa = 68.6 / 1.5 = 45.7 N (≈ 10.3 lb) At rigid attention

A person can resist a much larger force by bending the torso away — this shifts the c.g. further from the
pivot, increasing the restoring torque. Spreading the legs also increases stability by moving the pivot
point further out, enlarging the base.

PART 2: SKELETAL MUSCLES & LEVERS

2.1 Structure of Skeletal Muscles
• Thousands of parallel fibres wrapped in a sheath that tapers at both ends into tendons.
• Tendons attach the muscle to bones at well-defined points.
• Each muscle connects TWO different bones across a joint.
• Muscles PULL (contract) — they CANNOT push. (Exception: tongue and genital member — da
Vinci.)
• Contraction occurs when individual fibres receive electrical nerve stimuli.
 • Stronger force = more fibres stimulated simultaneously.
• Maximum force ∝ cross-sectional area of the muscle. Typical value: 7 × 10⁵ Pa (≈ 102 lb/in²).

2.2 Levers — The Critical Concept

A lever is a rigid bar free to rotate about a fixed point called the FULCRUM. In the body, joints act as
fulcrums.

Key Lever Terms

• Fulcrum (F): the fixed pivot point (= joint in the body).
• Effort (E): the force applied by the muscle.
• Load (L): the weight or resistance being moved.
• d₁: distance from the LOAD to the FULCRUM.
• d₂: distance from the EFFORT (muscle) to the FULCRUM.

The General Lever Equation (applies to ALL three classes)

For equilibrium, torques must balance about the fulcrum:
Force to balance load F = W × d₁ / d₂ F=effort, W=load,
d₁=load arm, d₂=effort
arm

Mechanical Advantage M = W/F = d₂/d₁ M>1 = force advantage;

M<1 = speed advantage

Distance/Velocity ratio L₁/L₂ = d₁/d₂ and v₁/v₂ = d₁/d₂ Excursion & speed are
inversely proportional to
M

IMPORTANT: The Trade-off

Excursion (distance moved by the load) and velocity of the load are INVERSELY proportional to the
mechanical advantage. This is why the body, which mostly uses Class 3 levers (M < 1), sacrifices force
to gain SPEED. A small muscle contraction produces a large and fast movement of the limb.

2.3 Three Classes of Levers — Detail

Class 1 Lever — Fulcrum BETWEEN effort and load

• Mechanical advantage: can be >1 or <1 depending on distances.
• Example (everyday): crowbar, seesaw.
• Example (body): skull balanced on the atlas vertebra. Spine = fulcrum; neck muscles (trapezius,
sternocleidomastoid) = effort; weight of head = load.
If the load is placed CLOSE to the fulcrum (d₁ << d₂), M is very large — a small effort lifts a big load. If
the effort is closer, M < 1 but speed is gained.
Class 2 Lever — Load BETWEEN fulcrum and effort
• d₁ (load arm) is ALWAYS less than d₂ (effort arm).
• Therefore M = d₂/d₁ is ALWAYS GREATER THAN 1. (Force advantage.)
• Example (everyday): wheelbarrow, nutcracker.
• Example (body): standing on tip-toe. The toes are the fulcrum, the Achilles tendon provides the
effort at the heel end, and the body weight (load) acts between them.
Class 2 levers are the STRONGEST but produce the LEAST movement for a given muscle contraction.

Class 3 Lever — Effort BETWEEN fulcrum and load

• d₁ (load arm) is ALWAYS greater than d₂ (effort arm).
• Therefore M = d₂/d₁ is ALWAYS LESS THAN 1. (Speed/range advantage.)
• Example (everyday): tweezers, fishing rod, baseball bat.
• Example (body): the ELBOW. Elbow joint = fulcrum; biceps inserts 4 cm from joint (effort arm);
weight held in hand at 40 cm (load arm).
Most limb movements in the body are Class 3 levers. Nature prioritises SPEED over strength.

Summary Table: Three Classes of Levers

Class Arrangement Mech. Advantage Body Example Primary
Benefit
Class 1 Load — Fulcrum — Can be >1 or <1 Skull on atlas Versatile
Effort vertebra
Class 2 Fulcrum — Load — Always > 1 Tip-toe Force
Effort (Achilles)
Class 3 Fulcrum — Effort — Always < 1 Elbow (biceps) Speed & range
Load

PART 3: FORCE CALCULATIONS AT SPECIFIC JOINTS

3.1 The Elbow — Class 3 Lever
Setup (Fig. 1.12 from textbook): arm bent at 100°, weight W held in hand.
• Fulcrum: elbow joint.
• Effort: biceps muscle force Fm, inserting 4 cm from the fulcrum.
• Load: weight W held in hand, 40 cm from the fulcrum. (Also consider weight of arm itself.)
• Angle of muscle force (θ): 72.6° from the horizontal (calculated from geometry of the 100°
bend).

Why θ = 72.6°?
The biceps attaches to the forearm while the forearm makes a 100° angle with the upper arm. The
angle the muscle makes with the horizontal forearm is found trigonometrically: θ = 180° − 100° − (small
correction angle from insertion geometry) ≈ 72.6°. The key insight: only the PERPENDICULAR
(vertical) component of Fm produces a torque about the elbow joint.

Solving the Elbow (Three Unknowns: Fm, Fr, φ)

Three equations are needed: x-force balance, y-force balance, and torque balance.
• Torque about fulcrum (eliminates Fr because it acts at fulcrum, so its moment arm = 0):
Torque balance 4 cm × Fm sin θ = 40 cm × W Only perpendicular force
components create
torque

Simplifies to Fm sin θ = 10W → Fm = 10W / sin 72.6° = Muscle force is ~10.5×

10.5W the load!

Example: 14 kg weight in hand → W = 14 × 9.8 = 137.2 N

Fm = 10.5 × 137.2 ≈ 1440 N (325 lb)

The reaction force at the joint (Fr):

• x-component: Fr cos φ = Fm cos θ = 1440 cos 72.6° ≈ 430 N
• y-component: Fr sin φ = Fm sin θ − W = 1440 sin 72.6° − 137.2 ≈ 1240 N
Joint reaction force Fr = √(430² + 1240²) ≈ 1320 N (298 lb) φ = arctan(1240/430) =
70.9°

KEY INSIGHT: The muscle force (1440 N) is far greater than the weight being held (137 N). This is
always the case with Class 3 levers (M < 1). The body trades force for speed and range of movement.

3.2 The Hip — Mixed Lever Analysis

Setup (Fig. 1.14): person standing on one foot (as in slow walk). The hip muscles stabilise the pelvis.
• Muscle force Fm acts at 71° above horizontal.
• WL = weight of leg/foot/thigh = 0.185W (18.5% of body weight), acting at midpoint of limb (10
cm from joint).
• W = full body reaction force from ground, acting 18 cm from joint.
• Fm acts 7 cm from the hip joint (point A).

From torque balance about point A:

Hip torque balance FR sin θ × 7 cm + WL × 10 cm = W × 18 cm Solving gives FR sin θ =
2.31W

Muscle force Fm = 1.59W From y-force balance

using FR sin θ

Joint reaction force FR = 2.37W ≈ 2.4× body weight on

 the hip joint!

For a 70 kg person (W = 686 N): FR = 2.37 × 686 = 1625 N (366 lb). This is why hip replacements are
so important — normal walking generates enormous joint forces.

Limping (Injured Hip)

A person with an injured hip leans toward the injured side. This shifts the c.g. closer to directly above
the joint, reducing its moment arm. Result: Fm drops to 0.47W and FR drops to 1.28W — a significant
reduction from 2.37W during normal one-legged stance.

3.3 The Back — The Fifth Lumbar Vertebra

Setup (Fig. 1.16): trunk bent 60° from vertical, arms hanging freely.
• Pivot: 5th lumbar vertebra (point A).
• Back lever arm AB: weight of trunk W₁ = 320 N acts at midpoint; head+arm weight W₂ = 160 N
acts at top.
• Erector spinalis muscle attaches 2/3 up the spine, at 12° angle to the spine.

Key results from the textbook calculations:

• Muscle force required just to hold body upright: ~2000 N (450 lb).
• Compressional force on 5th lumbar vertebra: ~2230 N (500 lb).
• If person also holds 20 kg in hand: muscle force → 3220 N (725 lb), vertebra compression →
3490 N (785 lb).
This explains why backaches most commonly originate at the 5th lumbar vertebra, and why bending
forward to lift is dangerous.

3.4 Standing on Tip-Toe — Class 1 Lever (Foot)

Setup (Fig. 1.17): fulcrum at tibia contact; balancing force from Achilles tendon; load = body weight.
• Achilles tendon pulls at ~15° from vertical, 7 cm behind tibia.
• Body weight acts 25 cm in front of tibia.

Tibia compression ≈ 3.5W e.g., 70 kg person →

~2400 N on tibia

Achilles tension ≈ 2.5W e.g., 70 kg person →

~1715 N on Achilles
PART 4: KEY NUANCES THE LECTURER HIGHLIGHTED
4.1 Why Perpendicular Distance Matters for Torque
Torque = Force × perpendicular distance from the pivot to the LINE OF ACTION of the force. This is not
simply the straight-line distance to where the force is applied.
In the elbow calculation: Fm acts at angle θ = 72.6°. Only the VERTICAL component (Fm sin θ)
produces a torque about the horizontal forearm. The horizontal component (Fm cos θ) acts along the
forearm and passes through or parallel to the pivot — it produces no torque about the elbow joint.
Formula: Torque = F × d × sin(angle between F and the lever arm)

4.2 Mechanical Advantage and the Distance Rule

The SAME equation (F = Wd₁/d₂) applies to ALL three lever classes. The difference lies in where d₁
and d₂ sit relative to each other:
• Class 1: d₁ and d₂ can be varied — M can be anything.
• Class 2: d₁ < d₂ always → M > 1 always (force multiplier).
• Class 3: d₁ > d₂ always → M < 1 always (speed multiplier).
The trade-off: a lever with M > 1 amplifies force but the load moves less distance than the effort. A lever
with M < 1 requires more effort force but the load moves FURTHER and FASTER than the muscle
contracts. This is why a skilled baseball pitcher can release a ball at over 100 mph from a relatively
short muscle contraction.

4.3 The Three-Equation System

When analysing any joint in equilibrium with forces at angles, you always have three equations:
1. ΣFx = 0 (x-components of all forces sum to zero)
2. ΣFy = 0 (y-components of all forces sum to zero)
3. Στ = 0 (torques about a chosen pivot sum to zero)
Choose the pivot strategically — placing it at a point where an unknown force acts eliminates that
unknown from the torque equation (since a force at the pivot has zero moment arm). The elbow
calculation picks the elbow joint as pivot, which eliminates the unknown reaction force Fr from the
torque equation.

4.4 Why Muscle Forces Are Always Larger Than the Load
All skeletal muscles act through levers with mechanical advantage < 1 (Class 3 arrangement). This
means the muscle always exerts MORE force than the load it supports. The compensation is that a
small muscle contraction produces a large, fast movement of the limb extremity. Nature optimises for
speed and range of movement, not for force economy.

4.5 Dynamic Aspects — The Body Is Never Truly Static

• Simply standing still requires constant micro-adjustments (sway) to keep c.g. over the feet.
• Centre of pressure shifts by several centimetres on a ~0.5 second timescale.
• Small displacements (<1.5 cm) are corrected by ankle movements; larger or sideways
displacements require hip adjustments.
 • Walking is even more complex — support shifts from foot to foot.
• Balance information comes from: vision, vestibular system (inner ear), and somatosensory
system.
• Elderly people (>80) have ~60× higher accidental fall death rate than those under 70.

PART 5: PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Legend: [CONCEPTUAL] = understanding-based | [CALCULATION] = numerical answer required

Section A: Equilibrium and Stability

Q1. [CONCEPTUAL] Define the two conditions for static equilibrium and explain why both must
be satisfied simultaneously.

Q2. [CONCEPTUAL] A body has its centre of gravity outside its base of support. Describe what
happens and explain in terms of torques.

Q3. [CONCEPTUAL] Explain why a person carrying a heavy suitcase in one hand extends their
opposite arm and bends their torso. What mechanical principle governs this compensation?

Q4. [CALCULATION] A person of mass 70 kg stands at rigid attention. A horizontal force is

applied at shoulder height (1.5 m from the ground). The centre of gravity lies 0.1 m from the
pivot (toes). (a) Calculate the restoring torque due to body weight. (b) Calculate the minimum
force required to topple this person. (c) If the same person spreads their legs so the pivot-to-
c.g. distance becomes 0.45 m, what force is now needed to topple them?

Q5. [CONCEPTUAL] Why is a person more stable when they bend their knees and lower their
centre of gravity? Relate your answer to the geometry of tipping.

Section B: Lever Classes

Q6. [CONCEPTUAL] State the three classes of levers, describe the arrangement of fulcrum,
effort, and load in each, and give one example from the human body for each class.

Q7. [CALCULATION] For any lever in equilibrium: (a) Derive the expression F = Wd₁/d₂ from
the torque balance condition. (b) Define mechanical advantage M and write its expression in
 terms of lever arm distances. (c) Write the relationship between load and effort velocities and
explain what this means physically.

Q8. [CALCULATION] A Class 2 lever has the fulcrum at the left end, the load placed 0.3 m
from the fulcrum, and the effort applied at the right end 0.9 m from the fulcrum. A 200 N load
is placed on it. (a) Calculate the effort required to lift the load. (b) Calculate the mechanical
advantage. (c) If the effort end moves down 12 cm, how far does the load move?

Q9. [CONCEPTUAL] In a Class 3 lever system, the effort arm is always shorter than the load
arm. (a) What does this mean for the mechanical advantage? (b) Why does the human body
predominantly use Class 3 levers despite their force disadvantage?

Section C: The Elbow

Q10. [CONCEPTUAL] Using the lever diagram of the elbow (elbow bent at 100°, biceps inserts
4 cm from joint, weight held 40 cm from joint): (a) Identify the class of lever. (b) State why the
elbow joint is chosen as the pivot for the torque balance. (c) Write the torque balance
equation and explain what each term represents.

Q11. [CALCULATION] A 14 kg weight is held in the hand with the elbow bent at 100°. Using
the dimensions from Fig. 1.12 (d₁ = 40 cm, d₂ = 4 cm, θ = 72.6°): (a) Calculate the biceps
muscle force Fm. (b) Calculate the x and y components of the reaction force at the elbow
joint. (c) Calculate the magnitude and direction (angle φ) of the reaction force Fr.

Q12. [CALCULATION] A second 14 kg weight is hung from the MIDDLE of the forearm (20 cm
from the elbow joint) in addition to the 14 kg held in the hand (40 cm from joint). Both loads
are present simultaneously. Calculate the new biceps force required. Is this equal to the sum
of the individual forces calculated separately?

Q13. [CALCULATION] The diameter of the biceps is 8 cm. Given that muscle can exert 7 × 10⁵
Pa maximum pressure, (a) calculate the maximum force the biceps can exert, and (b)
calculate the maximum weight the arm can support in the position of Fig. 1.12.

Q14. [CALCULATION] The biceps contracts by 2 cm in 0.5 seconds. (a) What is the upward
displacement of the weight held in the hand? (b) Calculate the velocity of the tendon
attachment point and the velocity of the hand. (c) Show that the ratio of these velocities
equals d₁/d₂.
Section D: The Hip

Q15. [CALCULATION] Using the hip lever model (Fig. 1.14): muscle force at 71°, WL =
0.185W, lever dimensions 7 cm (muscle), 10 cm (leg c.g.), 18 cm (body weight): (a) Write
the three equilibrium equations. (b) Show that FR sin θ = 2.31W. (c) Calculate Fm and FR in
terms of W. (d) For a 70 kg person, what is the actual force on the hip joint in Newtons?

Q16. [CALCULATION] A person with an injured hip limps by leaning toward the injured side. (a)
Explain in terms of torques why this reduces the force on the hip joint. (b) The textbook
states Fm drops to 0.47W and FR to 1.28W. Compare this to the normal walking values and
calculate the percentage reduction in joint force.

Section E: The Back

Q17. [CALCULATION] For the bent-back model (60° from vertical): the erector spinalis muscle
attaches at 12° to the spine, 2/3 up its length. For a 70 kg man with W₁ = 320 N (trunk) and
W₂ = 160 N (head + arms): (a) Draw and label the lever model. (b) Write the torque balance
equation about the 5th lumbar vertebra. (c) Calculate the muscle force and the
compressional force on the vertebra.

Q18. [CALCULATION] The same 70 kg man now holds a 20 kg weight in his hands while bent
forward. (a) How does this additional weight appear in the torque equation? (b) Calculate the
new muscle force and vertebral compression force. (c) Explain clinically why this posture is
dangerous.

Section F: Tip-Toe and Dynamic Posture

Q19. [CALCULATION] For the tip-toe model (Fig. 1.17): Achilles tendon force at 15° from
vertical, heel-to-tibia = 7 cm, tibia-to-toe = 25 cm. (a) Identify the lever class. (b) Calculate
the tension in the Achilles tendon as a multiple of body weight W. (c) Calculate the
compressional force on the tibia. (d) Why is this position described as 'fairly strenuous'?

Q20. [CONCEPTUAL] Explain how the nervous system maintains balance while standing still.
Include all three sensory systems and describe what happens at the ankle vs. the hip for
different magnitudes of sway.
FORMULA QUICK REFERENCE

Weight W = mg m in kg, g = 9.8 m/s²

Torque τ = F × d⊥ = F × d × sin θ d⊥ = perpendicular

distance to line of action

Equilibrium (force) ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0 Sum of all force

components = 0

Equilibrium (torque) Στ = 0 about any point Choose pivot to eliminate

unknowns

Lever force balance F × d₂ = W × d₁ i.e. F = Wd₁/d₂

Mechanical advantage M = W/F = d₂/d₁ M>1: force gain | M<1:

speed gain

Velocity/distance ratio v₁/v₂ = d₁/d₂ Inversely proportional to

M

Muscle max force F_max = 7×10⁵ Pa × cross-section (m²) = 7×10⁶ dyn/cm²

End of Static Forces Study Notes