LECTURE NOTE

COURSE CODE: BIO 102

Part: 2
A GENERALIZED SURVEY OF THE PLANT KINGDOM
Introduction
Plants comprise a diverse and extensive array of organisms, with nearly 300,000 species identified
and catalogued. Among these, approximately 260,000 are seed producing plants. Included within
the plant kingdom are mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants. Predominantly, plants are
photosynthetic organisms, although some are chemosynthetic or parasitic. Plants are characterized
by cell walls composed of cellulose. While sexual reproduction is common among plants, they
also employ various methods of asexual reproduction.
CHARACTERISTICS
1. Multicellular Organization: Plants are multicellular organisms composed of different types of
cells organized into tissues, organs, and organ systems.
2. Cell Wall: Plant cells have rigid cell walls primarily composed of cellulose, providing structural
support and protection.
3. Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis: Plants contain chloroplasts, which are organelles
responsible for photosynthesis. They capture sunlight and convert it into chemical energy,
producing glucose and releasing oxygen as a byproduct.
4. Alternation of Generations: Most plants undergo an alternation of generations life cycle,
alternating between a multicellular haploid gametophyte phase and a multicellular diploid
sporophyte phase.
Alternation of generations between the 1n gametophyte and 2n sporophyte.
5. Reproduction: Plants reproduce sexually through the production of gametes (sperm and egg
cells) and fertilization. They also reproduce asexually through various methods such as
fragmentation, budding, or the production of specialized structures like runners or rhizomes.
6. Plant Adaptations to Life on Land: As plants adapt to life on land, they have to contend with
several challenges in the terrestrial environment. In terrestrial ecosystems, four major adaptations
are found which are:
i. Alternation of generations,
ii. A sporangium in which spores are formed,
iii. A gametangium that produces haploid cells, and,
iv. Apical meristem tissue in roots and shoots (in vascular plants).

General Classification of Plants

1. Non-Vascular Plants (Bryophytes): These are plants with no vascular tissues for water and
nutrient transport and are typically found in moist environments. They are the simplest plants and
include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.
2. Vascular Plants: These are plants with vascular tissues for water and nutrient transport and are
typically found in moist environments. They are are grouped into two:
a. Seedless Vascular Plants (Pteridophytes): These are plants with vascular tissues (xylem and
phloem) for efficient water and nutrient transport but reproduce via spores rather than seeds. These
include ferns, horsetails, and clubmosses.
b. Seed Producing Plants (Spermatophytes):
i. Gymnosperms: Gymnosperms produce naked seeds that are not enclosed within a fruit. They
include conifers (pines, spruces, firs), cycads, ginkgoes, and gnetophytes.
ii. Angiosperms: Angiosperms produce seeds enclosed within fruits. They are the most diverse
group of plants and include trees, shrubs, herbs, and grasses.

Hiererchiechal Classification of Plants

Kingdom plantae is subdivided into two divisions;
DIVISION: CRYPTOGAMIA
This consists of the cryptogams i.e plants having “hidden reproductive organ”. Hence the name
“Crypto” means hidden, and “gam”, reproductive parts. Many of the characteristic features of the
different groups of cryptogam are microscopic. Cryptogamae is subdivided into Thallophyta,
Bryophyta and Pteridophyta.
SUB DIVISION: THALLOPHYTA
These are plants with no distinct roots, stems and leaves. The plant body is thallus like
(undifferentiated plant body). They lack vascular tissues. They are mostly found in aquatic
environment. They include algae (pigmented thallophytes), fungi (nonpigmented thallophytes)
and lichens (symbiotic association between algae and fungi).
SUB DIVISION: BRYOPHYTA
They are simplest non vascular land plants with undifferentiated plant body. They are known as
the amphibians of the plant kingdom because these plants can live in soil but are dependent on
water for sexual reproduction. They usually occur in damp, humid and shaded localities. They play
an important role in plant succession on bare rocks/soil.
Characteristics
• They have vegetative bodies with no vascular tissues.
• They are terrestrial living in moist, shady organic rich soils.
• The body is thallus or differentiated into simple stems and simple leaves.
• The plants (gametophyte) have rhizoids for anchorage and there are no true roots, stems
and leaves while the sporophyte is attached and is partially dependant on the gametophyte
for nutrition.
• They show alteration of generation in their life cycle so that when one generation is weak
it can depend on another one e.g. the sporophyte depends on gametophyte for nutrition and
support. This is the occurrence of the phages in the cycle of the organism (plant) whereby
a haploid gametophyte producing gametes (sexual phase) alternates with a diploid
sporophyte producing spores (asexual phase). In the lower plants i.e. bryophyte the
gametophyte phase is dominant over the sporophyte phase. Thus the sporophyte is attached
to and semi dependant on gametophyte for its nutrition.
• They exhibit autotrophic mode of nutrition. They have chlorophyll (gametophyte is green
and the sporophyte) thus can photosynthesize.
 • The gametophyte also has multicellular rhizoids for absorption of water and mineral salts.
Also anchores the plant to the soil.
• The reproductive structures i.e. antheridia and archegonia are protected by sterile hair.
• The plant can exploit both sexual and asexual reproduction
• The capsule of the sporophyte posseses peristome and annuls cells which aid in dispersal
of the spores. It also has an operculum which acts as a lid covering the capsule.
Examples are moss, liver worts, horn worts etc.

Bryophytes (Moss and Liverworts)

Economic Importance
• They are food for herbaceous animals.
• Sphagnum (Moss) - in form of peat is used as fuel.
• It is also used for trans-shipment of living material because of its water holding capacity
• Prevent soil erosion.
• Along with lichens they are the first colonizers on barren rocks.
• They decompose rocks making substrate for the growth of higher plant (Succession).

SUB DIVISION: PTERIDOPHYTA

The Pteridophytes include horsetails and ferns. The pteridophytes are found in cool, damp, shady
places though some may flourish well in sandy-soil conditions
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUB DIVISION PTERIDOPHYTA
• The main plant body is a sporophyte which is differentiated into true root, stem and leaves.
• Sporophyte has a well developed vegetative body with extensive adventitious roots,
underground stem, rhizomes, and large leaves (the fronds)
• The leaves are called fronds because they are relatively larger than the stem and roots.
• The young leaves show circinate fashion.
• The sporophyte has a well developed vascular tissue primitive (siphonostele) hence the
xylem contains tracheids with no vessels and the phloem has no companion cells.
• The spores are found underneath the leaves in cluster forming the sori.
• They also show alternation of generation with the sporophyte being dominant and
gametophyte (pro thallus) short lived. Both sporophyte and gametophyte are independent.
Ecological Importance of Pteridophyta
• Pteridophytes are used for medicinal purposes and as soil-binders.
• They are also frequently grown as ornamentals.
.
Adaptation of Fern to Mode of Life
• The sporophyte is well developed with roots for anchorage and for absorption of water and
mineral salts.
• Have stems for support and leaves with rachis for upward transport of water and mineral
salts.
• They also possess chlorophyll thus can photosynthesize.
 • The roots also serve as parenting organ for vegetative propagation.
• The rachis and young leaves possess ramenta for protection from mechanical injury and
desiccation.
• They possess cuticle on their leaves to prevent excessive loss of water through
transpiration.
• They have mechanical tissue (scterenchyma and collenchyma) for support a conducting
tissue (phloem and xylem) for transport.
• The sori are found on the underside of the leaf, this prevents them from direct sunlight thus
desiccation. The sori in turn are protected by inducium.
• The leaves are large in size to increase area for absorption of sun light.
• The sporangium has mechanism for dispersing the spores due to the presence of annulus
cells and stadium cells.

DIVISION: PHANEROGAMIA
SUB – DIVISION GYMNOSPERMAE
The gymnosperms (gymnos: naked, sperma : seeds) are plants in which the ovules are not enclosed
by any ovary wall and remain exposed, both before and after fertilisation. The seeds that develop
post-fertilisation, are not covered, i.e., are naked. Gymnosperms include medium-sized trees or
tall trees and shrubs.
Gymnosperms are classified into four classes:
• 1. Coniferopsida eg: Pinus
• [Link] E.g: Cycas
• 3. Gnetopsida: E.g: Gnetum.
• 4. Gingopsida- Ginko

SUB – DIVISION ANGIOSPERMAE

The angiosperms or flowering plants produce the pollen grains and ovules which are developed in
specialised structures called flowers. In angiosperms, the seeds are enclosed in fruits. The
angiosperms are an exceptionally large group of plants occurring in wide range of habitats.
General Characteristics
 • The sporophyte is well differentiated into roots for anchorage and absorption of water and
mineral salts, stem for support and transport and leaves for photosynthesis (i.e. they have
chloroplast).
• They show alternation of generation with the sporophyte being dominant over the
gametophyte, i.e. the gametophyte is reduced.
• Have well developed vascular tissues which consist of xylem with tracheids and vessels
for transport of water and mineral salts and support and the phloem has got companion
cells and sieve tubes.
• They are heterosporous (microspore/pollen grain and megaspore/embryo)
• Fertilization does not depend on water because the male gamete is connected to the ovum
by the pollen tube formed by germination of pollen grain when it lands on the stigma of
the same species.
• They provide flowers in which megaspores and microspores develop.
• They undergo double fertilization. After fertilization, ovary develops into fruit and the
ovules into seeds which are enclosed in the ovary.
The angiosperms are divided into two major classes:
1. Monocotyledonae: These consist of plants that germinate with one seed leaf (they have one
cotyledon). The features of monocotyledons are:
• The leaf has parallel venation
• The leaf has identical dorsal and ventral surfaces.
• The stem has scattered vascular bundles
• Vascular bundles are ususally absent with no secondary growth except palm.

2. Dicotelydonae: It consist of plants that germinate with two seed leaves (they have two
cotyledons). The features of dicotyledons are:
• The leaf has reticular venation (net like pattern)
• The leaf has different dorsal and ventral surfaces.
• The stem has ring of vascular bundles

TYPES OF FLOWERING PLANTS

Depending upon the life span, angiospermic plants are classified as:
1. Annuals plants: These plants complete their life cycle in a single and their growing season,
varying from a few weeks to few months. During this period, they grow, bear flowers, and produce
seeds and fruits and then die. They pass the unfavourable periods in the form of seeds, e.g., wheat,
rice, pea, mustard etc.
2. Biennial plants: These plants complete their life cycle in two growing seasons. In the first
season, they grow only vegetatively and store food in roots and underground stems. In the second
season, they produce flowers, fruits and seeds, and then die. For example, cabbage, radish, turnip,
etc., (grow in cold regions).
3. Perennial plants: These plants continue to grow for more than two growing seasons to several
years. They bear flowers and fruits during specific seasons. Examples are mango plant, orange tree
etc.
PARTS OF A FLOWERING PLANT
The plant body of an angiosperm or a flowering plant primarily consists of an axis, which is
differentiated into three parts:
1. The Root System
The root system normally lies underground and consists of a main root and its branches. The main
functions of the root system are:
• To anchor the plant in the ground.
• To absorb water and minerals from the soil.
2. The Shoot System
The shoot system is normally aerial and consists of main stem, lateral branches and the leaves. Its
main functions are:
• The leaf blade and stem are specialized for photosynthesis.
• They are also the main site for transpiration and respiration.
• The roots helps in the transportation of water and minerals from the soil to other parts of
the plant.
3. The Flowers
Flowers are reproductive structures in flowering plants (angiosperms) which are sometimes
regarded as collection of highly specialized leaves. They simply referred to as organs of
reproduction in plants.
 Structure of a flower
Parts (components) of Flower
They are arranged in spiral form in few primitive flowers or in whorls around the upper parts
(receptacle) of a flower stalk (pedicel). Some flowers are found as a collection of flowers borne
on the same stalk (inflorescence)
1. Receptacle: Is the end of the flower stalk (pedicel) from which the perianth, gynoecium, and
androecium arises.
2. Perianth: Consists of two whorls of leaf like segments. The whorls are similar in monocoty but
different in dicot. The outer whorl is called sepal (Calyx) and inner whorl is petal (corolla)
3. Calyx: It is a collection of sepals, they are usually green and leaf like structures that encloses
and protect the flower buds.
4. Corolla: It is a collection of petals. In insects pollinated flowers the petals are usually large and
brightly coloured to attract insects.
5. Androecium: It is a collection of stamens forming the male reproductive organ of the flower.
This consist of anther and filaments, in anther pollen grain are made. Filaments raises water to the
anther.
6. Gynoecium (Pistil): It is a collection carpels forming the female reproductive organs of the
flower. This consists of stigma, style and ovary. Stigma receive pollen grain during pollination,
style holds stigma in position and ovary contains one or more ovules. Ovary has one or many ovule
in which female gametophyte (embryo sac) develops by meiosis.
Embryo sac has 7 cells and 8 nuclei.
• 1 egg cell
• 2 synergids
• 3 antipodal
• One central cell having two polar nuclei.

TYPES OF PLANTS BASED ON HABITAT

Mesophytes: Found growing well on land under medium, climatic conditions, e.g., Mustard.
Hydrophytes: Found growing well in water, e.g., Hydrilla
Xerophytes: Found growing well in dry conditions, e.g., Cactus.
Epiphytes: Found growing well on other plants e.g., Orchid.
Psammophytes: Found growing well in sand, e.g, Euphorbia
Halophytes: Found growing well in saline habitats, e.g., Rhizophora
Lithophytes: Found growing well on rocks, e.g. ferns.