MANGALORE UNIVERSITY

BHANDARKARS’ ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE,

KUNDAPURA
Reaccredited with “A” grade by NAAC with grade points 3.21

A project on
“STUDY ON FOREST ECOSYSTEM OF KAMALASHILE”

Submitted by
SRIJAN KUMAR (U05BA21S0186)

Submitted to
The Mangalore University
Mini Project in Botany
BSCBOPRN601

Through
The Department of Botany
Bhandarkars’ Arts and Science College, Kundapura

Guide
Dr. Gayathri Pai
Assistant Professor and H.O.D
Department of Botany
Bhandarkars’ Arts and Science College, Kundapura
 INDEX

Section - I

Sl No. Content Page No.

1 Certificate 1

2 Declaration 2

Section - II

3 Introduction 3-7

4 Objectives 8

5 Methodology 9

6 Abiotic factors 10-14

7 Biotic factors 15-41

8 Results and conclusion 42-44

9 Acknowledgement 45

Section - III

10 References 46-47

11 Photographs 48-59
 BHANDARKARS’ ARTS & SCIENCE COLLEGE, KUNDAPURA

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY

CERTIFICATE

This certifies that the project work entitled “STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM
OF KAMALASHILE” has been satisfactorily done by Srijan Kumar bearing the
Register Number U05BA21S0186 during the year 2023-2024 under my guidance and
supervision for Mini Project work in Botany.

Guide Head of the Department

Dr. Gayathri Pai Dr. Gayathri Pai
H.O.D Department of Botany

Date:
Place: Kundapura

Principal

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 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the project work entitled "STUDY OF FOREST

ECOSYSTEM OF KAMALASHILE" has been submitted to the Department of
Botany, Bhandarkars' Arts and Science College Kundapura by Srijan Kumar and
Akshay under the guidance of Dr. Gayathri Pai HOD, of Department of Botany,
Bhandarkars' Arts and Science College Kundapura, as a partial fulfillment of mini
project prescribed by the Mangalore University for III [Link], VI Semester course, in
the year 2023-2024.
We also declare that this project has not been submitted to any other university or
institute for the award of any degree.

Date:

Place: Kundapura
Signature

Srijan Kumar

Akshay

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 STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYTEM OF KAMALASHILE

INTRODUCTION

No organism lives in isolation. To be sustained, life requires continual inputs of energy and
matter. For most organisms the ultimate source of energy is sunlight, captured in matter by
photosynthesis. Earth is in the truest sense of the word a spaceship there is a fixed supply of
matter that must sustain us for a very long journey. Hence any given molecule of water, atom
of nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, or any other essential element must be reused many times, that
is,it must be cycled. Cycling may take various forms. Water is cycled from ocean to land and
back again, powered by sunlight. Carbon is passed from organism to organism through
feeding and eventually released back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, where it is once
again used by green plants to capture solar energy. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and other elements
necessary to sustain life are also passed from organism to organism and in this way cycled
from the old to the new, permitting life to be continually renewed. Without this renewal,
evolution would not be possible, and life as we know it would not exist.
No single species is capable of capturing energy and at the same time cycling matter, and
thus living things are always found grouped together in communities that include species
capable of capturing energy in most cases green plants and species that obtain their energy
and the matter that composes their bodies by consuming, in one fashion or another, the
tissues of other organisms. Such a community is not simply an aggregation of bodies, like
travelers thrown together on an airplane, but a coherent group tied together by interaction
among all its members and their environment. A community of species interacting among
them and with the physical environment is an ecosystem. Ecosystems have the following
distinguishing characteristics:

 A web of interactions and interdependencies among the parts. Animals and microbes
require the energy supplied by plants, and plants cannot persist without animals and
microbes to cycle nutrients and regulate ecosystem processes. The interdependencies
within ecosystems relate to Function, there must be species that photosynthesize,
species whose feeding results in nutrients being cycled and predators that keep
populations of plant-eaters from growing too large, and so forth. Some system

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STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYTEM OF KAMALASHILE

functions can be performed by more than one species in other cases a single species
plays a unique functional role (such species are called keystones).

 Synergy is the "behavior of whole systems unpredicted by the behavior or integral

characteristics of any of the parts of the system when the parts are considered only
separately" (Fuller 1981). Synergy characterizes any system whose components are
tied together through interaction and interdependence (the human home is an example
of a synergistic system, in fact the word ecology is derived from the Greek
word for "home").

 Stability is a simple yet complicated concept that does not mean "no change" but
rather is analogous to the balanced movement of a dancer or a bicycle rider (Mol-lison
1990). The processes of disturbance, growth, and decay produce continual change in
nature. Stability means that
 Changes are maintained within certain bounds
 Key processes (such as energy capture) and potentials (such as the productive
potential of soil) are protected and maintained (chapters 20-22).

 Diffuse boundaries. Unlike an organism, an ecosystem does not have a skin that
clearly separates it from the external world. Ecosystems are defined by connectance,
and connections extend through space and time, integrating every local ecosystem
(one that is localized in time and space) within a network of larger and larger
ecosystems that composes landscapes, regions, and eventually the entire earth. Any
given forest both influences and is influenced by cities, oceans, deserts, the
atmosphere, and forests elsewhere on the globe. Moreover, every local ecosystem
produces patterns that propagate through time, communicating with and shaping the
nature of future ecosystems. The interconnections among ecosystems that exist at
many different spatial and temporal scales result in what is termed hierarchical
structure, which simply means that each ecosystem that we can define in space
comprises numerous smaller systems and at the same time is part of and in interaction
with a hierarchy of larger systems. (DA Perry et al. - 2008)

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 STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYTEM OF KAMALASHILE

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving

components of their environment, interacting as a system; Ecosystem is mainly classified into
two types
 Terrestrial ecosystem
 Aquatic ecosystem

Terrestrial ecosystem is divided into

 Forest ecosystem
 Desert ecosystem
 Grassland ecosystem
 Mountain ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystem is divided into

 freshwater ecosystem
 marine water ecosystem

Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of earth. Forests account for 75% of the gross
primary productivity of the earth's biosphere, and contain 80% of the earth plant biomass.
Forest ecosystems can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth, at altitudes
up to the tree line, except where natural fire frequency or other disturbance is too high, or
where the environment has been altered by human activity.
Forest ecology is the scientific study of the interrelated patterns, processes, flora, fauna
and ecosystem in forests. A forest ecosystem natural woodland unit consisting of all plants,
animals & microorganisms in that area functioning together with all of the non living
physical factors of the environment. So, the forest ecosystem is very
important. Forest is formed by ecological succession. Ecological succession is the process of
change in the species structure of an ecological community over time. The time scales can be
decades or even millions of years after mass extinction.

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 STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYTEM OF KAMALASHILE

A forest consists of many components that can be broadly divided into two categories that
are biotic & abiotic components. The living part includes trees, shrubs, vines, grasses & other
herbaceous plants, mosses, algae, fungi, insects, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and
microorganisms living on the plants, animals and in soil.
A different organism exists in the forest layers. These organisms interact with each other
and their surroundings. Each organism has a role in sustaining the ecosystem. So, provide
food for organisms, others provide shelter or control populations through predation.
Continuous energy flow takes place in the forest ecosystem. In a forest ecosystem trees &
other plants get their energy from sunlight plants produce their own food in the form of
carbohydrates. Therefore plants are primary producers and animals cannot produce their own
food so they depend on plants for the food so animals are called consumers.
Herbivores are considered as primary consumers. Carnivores feed on the herbivores are
the secondary consumers and carnivores feed on carnivores are considered as tertiary
consumers. Omnivores feed on both plants and animals. Decomposers decompose the dead
and decay material.

The components of a forest ecosystem are as follow

 Productivity
The basic requirement for any ecosystem to function and sustain is the constant input
of solar energy. Plants are time by the plants during the producers in a forest
ecosystem.
There are two types of productivity in a forest ecosystem, Primary productivity and
Secondary productivity. Primary productivity means the rate of capture of solar
energy or biomass production per unit area over photosynthesis. Secondary
productivity means the rate of absorption of food energy by the consumers.

 Decomposition
It is an extremely oxygen-requiring process; in the process of decomposition,
decomposers convert the complex organic compounds of detritus into inorganic
substances such as carbon dioxide, water and nutrients.

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 STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYTEM OF KAMALASHILE

 Energy flow
It is in a single directional, energy flow is always upright because it flows from one
trophic level to the next level and in this process some energy is always lost as heat at
each step.

 Nutrient cycle
It refers to the storage and movement of nutrient elements through the various
components of the ecosystem. There are two types of nutrient cycle, gaseous
and sedimentary.

The forest ecosystem of Kamalashile was selected as a study site. This ecosystem has an
abundance of flora and small scale of fauna. In this ecosystem a large number of organisms
live in a small place. This means that the ecosystem has a slightly high density of living
organisms. The different types of forest ecosystem are

 Tropical evergreen forest

 Tropical deciduous forest
 Temperate evergreen forest
 Temperate deciduous forest
 Taiga forest

It is very important to conserve them and create new ones if possible.

Our study area is tropical semi evergreen forest. In connection with the project work visited
on Kamalashile forest ecosystem on 01/03/2024 collected the information about the flora and
fauna, climatic factors and environmental factors of the forest.

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STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYTEM OF KAMALASHILE

OBJECTIVES

 To study the forest ecosystem of Kamalashile.

 To study the various producers, consumers and decomposers present in the study site.
 To study the relationship between the biotic and abiotic factors of the study site.
 To know the uses of the forest and its products to human beings and to the living
organisms of the forest.
 To know the rare plants and animal species present in study site visit.
 To study the type of soil, temperature and other environmental factors of the forest.

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 STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYTEM OF KAMALASHILE

METHODOLOGY

Name of the place : Kamalashile

Village : Kamalashile

Taluk : Kundapura

District : Udupi

Distance from Kundapura : 34.9 km

Date of field visit : 1/3/2024, 15/3/2024, 10/5/2024, 24/5/2024

Time : 4:00 PM – 6:30 PM

Duration : 10 hours

Materials used : One plus 7 T Pro, Real me 5 Pro, Sony camera,

Forceps PH paper, Thermometer, Needle.

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 STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYTEM OF KAMALASHILE

ABIOTIC FACTORS

Introduction

Abiotic factors play a crucial role in shaping forest ecosystems, influencing the distribution,
behavior, and survival of organisms within them. These non-living components of the
environment include a variety of elements such as sunlight, temperature, water, soil, and
atmospheric gasses. Sunlight, for instance, is a fundamental energy source driving
photosynthesis, the process by which plants produce food. The amount and intensity of
sunlight can vary dramatically within a forest, creating a mosaic of light and shade that
affects plant growth and, consequently, the animals that depend on these plants for food and
habitat. Canopy trees typically receive more light than understory plants, leading to
differences in species composition and biodiversity at different forest levels.

Temperature is another critical abiotic factor, influencing metabolic rates, enzyme

activities, and overall organism physiology. Forests in temperate regions experience
significant seasonal variations in temperature, which in turn affect the life cycles and
behaviors of plants and animals. For example, many temperate trees undergo dormancy
during the cold winter months, while in tropical forests, the more stable temperatures support
year-round growth and activity. These temperature variations also influence soil processes,
such as decomposition and nutrient cycling, which are vital for maintaining soil fertility and
forest productivity.

Water availability is essential for all living organisms and significantly impacts forest
ecosystems. Precipitation patterns determine the types of vegetation that can thrive in a
forest. For example, tropical rainforests receive abundant rainfall, supporting a dense and
diverse canopy, while temperate forests may experience more moderate precipitation. Soil
moisture, influenced by both rainfall and soil properties, affects seed germination, root
growth, and plant water uptake. Water bodies within forests, such as rivers, lakes, and
wetlands, create unique microhabitats that support distinct communities of plants and
animals, further contributing to the forest's overall biodiversity.

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 STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYTEM OF KAMALASHILE

Soil composition and structure are vital abiotic factors as well, providing the physical and
chemical foundation for plant growth. Soil is composed of minerals, organic matter, air, and
water, and its characteristics can vary widely within a forest. Factors such as pH, nutrient
availability, texture, and depth influence which plant species can thrive. For instance, acidic
soils may support specific types of vegetation like conifers, while alkaline soils might favor
different plant communities. Soil microbes, including bacteria and fungi, play a key role in
decomposing organic matter, recycling nutrients, and supporting plant health.

Atmospheric gasses, particularly carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen, are also important
abiotic factors. Carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis, and its levels can influence
plant growth rates and forest productivity. Oxygen is necessary for respiration in both plants
and animals, while nitrogen is a critical component of proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen
availability in the soil, often influenced by atmospheric deposition and microbial activity,
affects plant nutrition and growth. Forests themselves play a significant role in regulating
atmospheric gasses, acting as carbon sinks and contributing to the global carbon cycle.

In summary, abiotic factors such as sunlight, temperature, water, soil, and atmospheric
gasses are fundamental in shaping forest ecosystems. They determine the physical
environment in which biotic components interact, influencing processes like photosynthesis,
nutrient cycling, and energy flow. Understanding these factors is crucial for conservation and
management efforts aimed at preserving forest biodiversity and ecological functions.

Ecosystem Types

Water

Water is an essential abiotic factor. Not only plants but animals, even tiny micro-organisms
also need water for their survival. In the absence of water, plants will die. The, producers will
die. Even the plants in the desert require some amount of water. Due to dehydration, animals
will die i.e. consumers. In the case of micro-organism, they need water for proper functioning
which we call water activity.

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 STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYTEM OF KAMALASHILE

We can take a simple example by giving insight into our kitchen. Dry fruits can be stored
for a long time as compared to juicy fruits. Among the various factors, the water activity of
an organism also plays a vital role in the spoilage of the different foods. If there is no water,
life on earth is not possible. So, researchers assume that if water can be found on other
planets, there might be some evidence of life too. Thus, it is often said, water is life.

Sunlight

Sunlight is arguably the most critical abiotic factor in forest ecosystems, acting as the
primary energy source for photosynthesis. This process, whereby plants convert light energy
into chemical energy, is foundational to the forest food web. The availability of sunlight
varies greatly within different layers of a forest, from the sun-drenched canopy to the shaded
understory. Canopy trees, which receive the most sunlight, have developed broad, expansive
leaves to maximize light capture, whereas understory plants often have larger leaves relative
to their size to take advantage of the limited light that filters down through the canopy. This
vertical stratification of light availability fosters a diversity of plant species, each adapted to
its particular light environment, and in turn supports a wide array of animal species
dependent on these plants for food and habitat.

Temperature

Temperature is another pivotal abiotic factor that profoundly influences forest ecosystems. It
affects the metabolic rates, enzyme activities, and overall physiological processes of all
organisms. The temperature regime of a forest is largely determined by its geographic
location and altitude. Tropical forests, found near the equator, experience warm temperatures
year-round, facilitating continuous plant growth and contributing to high levels of
biodiversity. In contrast, temperate forests, located in mid-latitude regions, experience
seasonal variations with cold winters and warm summers.

These seasonal changes drive the life cycles of many forest organisms, such as the
dormancy of deciduous trees in winter and the breeding cycles of various animals in spring
and summer. Boreal forests, found in high-latitude regions, endure long, harsh winters and

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short, cool summers, leading to a relatively limited diversity of cold-tolerant species.

Temperature also influences soil processes such as decomposition and nutrient cycling, which
are essential for maintaining soil fertility and supporting forest productivity. The observed
climatic temperature of Kamalashile is 350C.

Soil

Soil composition and structure are foundational abiotic factors that provide the physical and
chemical environment necessary for plant growth. Soil is composed of minerals, organic
matter, air, and water, and its characteristics can vary widely within a forest. Factors such as
pH, nutrient availability, texture, and depth influence which plant species can thrive. For
example, acidic soils may support specific types of vegetation, such as conifers, while
alkaline soils might favor different plant communities. Soil microbes, including bacteria and
fungi, play a crucial role in decomposing organic matter, recycling nutrients, and supporting
plant health. The interaction between soil properties and plant communities creates a dynamic
system that influences forest structure, productivity, and resilience.

The soil pH of Kamalashile is 6. A soil pH 6 indicates that the soil is slightly acidic.

Atmosphere

Atmospheric gasses, particularly carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen, are also important
abiotic factors in forest ecosystems. Carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis, and its
levels can influence plant growth rates and forest productivity. Forests act as significant
carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and playing a crucial role in the
global carbon cycle. Oxygen is necessary for respiration in both plants and animals, while
nitrogen is a critical component of proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen availability in the soil,
often influenced by atmospheric deposition and microbial activity, affects plant nutrition and
growth. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi enhance the availability of this
essential nutrient, supporting healthy and productive forest ecosystems.

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pH

The increase or decrease in pH also affects the living creatures. In some parts of the world,
there is an increase in acidity due to the increase in carbon dioxide. It has created an acidic
condition. Urbanization along with industrial revolutionization is the major factor. Due to the
increase in acidity, it is also found that the shell of the snail has also dissolved. Similarly,
coral is also unable to survive in an acidic environment. In the human body, gastric acid helps
in killing the harmful microorganism in the stomach. But the bacteria Helicobacter pylori
have a urease enzyme. It increases the pH so that it can survive in it. It is the causative agent
of peptic ulcer. The vagina is slightly acidic in nature. It is maintained by the lactobacilli so
that pathogens may not colonize it.

Air Humidity

Humidity means the presence of water vapor in the air. Too much of the humid environment
can be dangerous to the organisms. Excessive water may disrupt the internal balance in the
organisms in various ways. Changes in pH may also occur. In order to counteract this, plants,
animals, and microorganisms have got their own strategies.

Wind

At the place where wind occurs regularly, plants are a bit different. They grow closer to the
ground to escape from the harsh wind. Similarly, some plants may use it for their own
benefits like pollination. Dispersal of seed can be done.

Elevation

There is a decrease in the temperature as we go up to the higher altitude. It is also due to the
low partial pressure with the increase in the elevation. At 2 km there is a decrease in the
ambient partial pressure by 20% and over 50% at the 6km.

(Saha T. K., 2017. Ecology and Environmental Biology)

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BIOTIC FACTORS

A forest ecosystem is a dynamic and complex web of interactions among living organisms
and their physical environment. It covers approximately 31% of the Earth's land area and is
home to an astonishing diversity of life forms. The biotic components of a forest ecosystem
include all living organisms, from the smallest microorganisms to the largest mammals.
These components are typically classified into three main categories

 producers
 consumers
 decomposers

Producers

The forest ecosystem is a complex and dynamic environment characterized by a rich diversity
of flora and fauna. At the base of this intricate web of life are the producers, primarily
composed of autotrophic organisms, which harness energy from sunlight through
photosynthesis and form the foundation of the forest food web. These producers include
trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants, and various forms of algae and mosses. They play a critical
role in maintaining ecological balance, supporting a wide range of life forms, and driving
essential processes such as carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, and soil formation.

Types of Producers in Forest Ecosystems

 Trees
Trees are the most prominent producers in forest ecosystems, with their towering
canopies forming the primary structural component of the forest. Different species of
trees dominate various types of forests; for instance, coniferous trees like pines and
firs are prevalent in boreal forests, while broadleaf trees such as oaks, maples, and
beeches dominate temperate deciduous forests. Tropical rainforests, on the other
hand, are characterized by an astounding diversity of tree species. Trees perform

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several crucial functions, including producing oxygen, providing habitat and food for
wildlife, and stabilizing the soil with their extensive root systems.

 Shrubs and Bushes

Beneath the canopy layer, shrubs and bushes play a vital role in the forest understory.
These smaller woody plants, such as azaleas, rhododendrons, and blueberries, are
adapted to thrive in the lower light conditions of the understory. They contribute to
the forest's structural diversity and provide essential food and habitat for numerous
animal species, particularly birds and insects.

 Herbaceous Plants
Herbaceous plants, including grasses, ferns, wildflowers, and ground covers, form the
forest floor layer. These non-woody plants are often the first to colonize gaps created
by falling trees or other disturbances. They play a key role in nutrient cycling, as their
rapid growth and decomposition add organic matter to the soil, enhancing its fertility.
Examples include species like trilliums, Solomon's seal, and various species of sedges
and grasses.

 Mosses, Lichens, and Algae

In addition to higher plants, mosses, lichens, and algae are important producers in
many forest ecosystems. Mosses and lichens can grow on tree trunks, rocks, and soil,
particularly in moist and shaded environments. They contribute to the ecosystem by
retaining moisture, creating microhabitats for invertebrates, and aiding in the
weathering of rocks to form soil. Algae, though less conspicuous, also play a role in
forest ecosystems, especially in aquatic environments such as streams and ponds
within the forest. ( Verma P.S. & V.K. Agarwal. 1989. Plant Ecology)

Roles and Importance of Producers

 Photosynthesis and Energy Flow

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Producers are the primary agents of photosynthesis, converting solar energy into
chemical energy in the form of glucose. This process not only produces food for the
plants themselves but also generates oxygen as a byproduct, which is essential for the
respiration of almost all living organisms. The energy stored in plant biomass is
transferred through the ecosystem via herbivores and higher trophic levels, forming
the basis of the food web.

 Carbon Sequestration
Forest producers are crucial in mitigating climate change through the process of
carbon sequestration. Trees and other plants absorb carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere during photosynthesis and store it in their biomass and in the soil. Forests
act as significant carbon sinks, reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere and
helping to regulate the global climate.

 Nutrient Cycling
Producers play a fundamental role in the cycling of nutrients within the forest
ecosystem. Through the uptake of nutrients from the soil and their incorporation into
plant tissues, producers facilitate the flow of essential elements like nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium. When plants shed leaves, die, or are consumed by
herbivores, these nutrients are returned to the soil, where they become available for
uptake again, maintaining soil fertility and ecosystem productivity.

 Habitat and Biodiversity

The diverse structure provided by forest producers creates a multitude of habitats
that support a wide range of species. Trees offer nesting sites and food for birds, while
the understory and forest floor provide cover and foraging opportunities for mammals,
insects, and other organisms. This biodiversity is essential for the resilience and
stability of forest ecosystems, allowing them to withstand and recover from
disturbances.

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Scientific name Common name

Cabomba caroliniana [Link]. Fanwort

Marsilea quadrifolia L. Lucky leaf

Sphagneticola trilobata L. Yellow creeping daisy

Pteris vittata L. Ladder brake

Kalanchoe pinnata Lam. Cathedral bells

Ixora coccinea L. Jungle geranium

Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Hill glory bower

Melastoma malabathricum L. Malabar melastome

Artocarpus hirsutus Lam. Wild jack

Ziziphus oenopolia L. Jackal jujube

Acampe praemorsa Roxb. Acampe orchid

Anacardium occidentale L. Cashew nut

Cabomba caroliniana [Link].

It is commonly known as Fanwort. It is a submerged, sometimes floating, but often rooted,

freshwater perennial plant with short, fragile rhizomes. The erect shoots are upturned
extensions of the horizontal rhizomes. The shoots are grass-green to olive-green or

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sometimes reddish-brown. The leaves are of two types: submerged and floating. The
submerged leaves are finely divided and arranged in pairs on the stem. The floating leaves,
when present, are linear and inconspicuous, with an alternate arrangement. They are less
than 1⁄2 in (13 mm) long and narrow (less than 1⁄4 in or 6.4 mm). The leaf blade attaches to the
center, where a slight constriction is seen. The flowers are white and small (less than 1⁄2 in
(13 mm) in diameter) and are on stalks that arise from the tips of the stems.

Marsilea quadrifolia L.

Aquatic fern bearing 4 parted leaf resembling 'Four-leaf clover' (Trifolium). Leaves floating
in deep water or erect in shallow water or on land. Leaflets on deltoid, to 3/4" long, glaucous,
petioles to 8" long; Sporocarp (ferns) ellipsoid, to 3/16" long, dark brown, on stalks to 3/4"
long, attached to base of petioles. In some places it has been used as food for more than 3000
years.

The plant is said to be anti-inflamotory, diuretic, depurative, febrifuge and refrigerant. It is

also used to treat snakebite and applied to abscesses.

Sphagneticola trilobata L.

It is commonly known as the Bay Biscayne creeping-oxeye, Singapore daisy, trailing daisy,
or wedelia, is a flowering plant in the Asteraceae family. It's native to Mexico, Central
America, and the Caribbean but has been introduced to many tropical and subtropical regions
worldwide. This species is prized for its rapid growth, attractive yellow flowers, and ability to
form dense ground cover. Has rounded stems up to 40 cm long, rooting at nodes and with the
flowering stems ascending. Leaves are fleshy, hairy, 4–9 cm long and 2–5 cm wide, serrate or
irregularly toothed, normally with pairs of lateral lobes, and dark green above and lighter
green below. Its surface is hairy or glabrous, rarely scaly.

Pteris vittata L.

Pteris vittata L., commonly known as the Chinese brake fern or the ladder brake fern, is a
species of fern in the Pteridaceae family. Native to China, it is known for its remarkable

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ability to hyperaccumulate arsenic from the soil. This trait has garnered significant attention
for its potential use in phytoremediation, a process where plants are used to remove
contaminants from soil or water. Pteris vittata has been studied for its effectiveness in arsenic
remediation in areas with arsenic-contaminated soils, particularly in regions where
groundwater used for drinking contains high levels of arsenic.

Kalanchoe pinnata Lam.

It’s commonly known as the air plant, cathedral bells, life plant, miracle leaf, or Goethe plant,
is a succulent plant native to Madagascar but now found in many tropical and subtropical
regions worldwide. It belongs to the Crassulaceae family and is characterized by its fleshy,
serrated leaves and clusters of small, tubular, bell-shaped flowers.

It has been traditionally used in various folk medicine practices for its purported medicinal
properties. It's believed to have antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic effects.

However, caution should be exercised when using it for medicinal purposes, as some parts
of the plant contain toxic compounds that can cause adverse effects if ingested in large
quantities. Additionally, it's cultivated as an ornamental plant due to its attractive foliage and
flowers.

Ixora coccinea L.

Ixora coccinea L. is a species of flowering plant in the Rubiaceae family, commonly known
as ixora, jungle geranium, flame of the woods, or jungle flame. It is native to tropical areas of
Asia and is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens and landscapes around the
world.

Ixora coccinea L. is appreciated for its dense clusters of small, brightly colored flowers,
which come in shades of red, orange, yellow, pink, or white, depending on the cultivar. It is a
popular choice for hedges, borders, and potted plants due to its vibrant blooms and ability to
attract butterflies and hummingbirds. In addition to its ornamental value, some traditional

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medicinal uses of ixora include treating fever, dysentery, and other ailments in various herbal
medicine practices. However, scientific evidence supporting its medicinal properties is
limited, and caution should be exercised when using it for medicinal purposes.
( K. Gopalakrishna Bhat. 2003. Flora of Udupi)

Clerodendrum infortunatum L.

It is commonly known as hill glory bower or tubeflower, is a species of flowering plant in the
Lamiaceae family. It is native to tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, including India, Sri
Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand. This plant is often found growing wild in forests, along
riverbanks, and in disturbed areas.

It is characterized by its large, heart-shaped leaves and clusters of tubular, white flowers
with reddish-purple centers. It is cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens and landscapes
for its attractive foliage and flowers. In traditional medicine, various parts of the plant are
used for treating ailments such as fever, inflammation, and skin disorders. Additionally, it has
been studied for its potential pharmacological properties, including antimicrobial and
antioxidant effects.

Melastoma malabathricum L.

It is commonly known as the Malabar melastome or straits rhododendron, is a flowering plant

species in the Melastomataceae family. Native to tropical regions of Asia, Australia, and
Africa, it is found in a variety of habitats, including forests, grasslands, and disturbed areas.

This plant is characterized by its attractive purple flowers, which have five petals and a
prominent cluster of yellow stamens in the center. It produces small, edible berries that are
consumed by birds and other wildlife.

In traditional medicine, various parts of Melastoma malabathricum L. have been used to

treat ailments such as diarrhea, dysentery, and skin conditions. Additionally, it has been
studied for its potential pharmacological properties, including antioxidant and anti-

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inflammatory effects. However, further research is needed to fully understand its medicinal
uses and potential benefits.

Artocarpus hirsutus Lam.

It is commonly known as wild jack or hairy-fruited breadfruit, is a species of flowering tree

in the Moraceae family. Native to South Asia, particularly in India and Sri Lanka, it is also
found in other parts of Southeast Asia.

This tree is characterized by its large, oblong or elliptical leaves and spherical fruit
covered with dense, short, brown hairs, giving it a hairy appearance. The fruit is edible and is
consumed locally, often prepared in curries or pickled.

In addition to its culinary uses, various parts of Artocarpus hirsutus Lam. have been used
in traditional medicine. The bark is used to treat skin conditions, while the leaves are
employed in the treatment of diabetes and gastrointestinal disorders. Additionally, the latex
from the tree has been used as a traditional remedy for coughs and colds.

Ziziphus oenopolia L.

It is commonly known as the jackal jujube, small-fruited jujube or wild jujube, is a

flowering plant with a broad distribution through tropical and subtropical
Asia and Australasia. In India, it is mostly found in the deciduous forests of the southern part
of the country. It is a spreading, sometimes climbing, thorny shrub growing to 1.5 m in
height. The leaves are simple, alternate, ovate-lanceolate, acute and oblique. The flowers are
green, in subsessile axillary cymes. The fruit is a globose drupe, black and shiny when ripe,
containing a single seed. The leaf length is 4-6.5 cm; width is 2–3 cm.

Acampe praemorsa Roxb.

It’s a species of orchid in the genus Acampe. It is native to various parts of Asia, including
India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia, and the Philippines.

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This orchid species is epiphytic; meaning it typically grows on trees or other plants, and can
be found in diverse habitats such as forests and woodlands. It is characterized by its slender,
pendulous stems, which bear small, fragrant flowers. The flowers are typically yellowish-
green with reddish-brown spots or markings. In cultivation, it is sometimes grown by orchid
enthusiasts for its attractive flowers and interesting growth habit. However, it is less
commonly encountered in cultivation compared to some other orchid species.

Anacardium occidentale L.

It is commonly known as the cashew tree, is a tropical evergreen tree in the Anacardiaceae
family. It is native to northeastern Brazil but is now cultivated in various tropical regions
around the world for its nuts and for its timber. The cashew tree is prized for its cashew nuts,
which are the seeds of the cashew apple, the fruit of the tree. The cashew apple is a pear-
shaped fruit with a sweet and tangy flavor, and it is often consumed fresh or used to make
juices, jams, and alcoholic beverages.

The cashew nut itself is encased in a hard shell attached to the bottom of the cashew apple.
Cashew nuts are highly nutritious, containing healthy fats, protein, vitamins, and minerals.
They are consumed raw or roasted and are used in various culinary applications, including
snacks, desserts, and savory dishes.

Consumers

Forests are rich and complex ecosystems that teem with life, where countless organisms
interact and depend on each other for survival. Among these organisms, consumers play a
critical role in shaping the dynamics of forest ecosystems. From tiny insects to mighty
predators, consumers contribute to the intricate web of life in forests, influencing energy
flow, nutrient cycling, and the overall health and resilience of these ecosystems. Consumers
in forest ecosystems can be broadly categorized into several groups based on their feeding
habits and trophic levels. Herbivores, the primary consumers, feed directly on plants and

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plant material. They encompass a diverse array of organisms, including insects like beetles
and caterpillars, mammals such as deer and rodents, and numerous bird species. Herbivores
play a fundamental role in controlling plant populations, shaping plant communities, and
influencing forest structure through their feeding activities.

Moving up the trophic levels are the carnivores, which feed on other animals. These
secondary and tertiary consumers include a wide range of predators, from agile felines like
tigers and jaguars to stealthy reptiles like snakes and avian hunters such as eagles and owls.
Carnivores help regulate prey populations, maintain biodiversity, and prevent the dominance
of any single species, contributing to the overall balance and stability of forest ecosystems.

Omnivores occupy a versatile niche in forest ecosystems, feeding on both plant and
animal matter. Bears, for example, are iconic omnivores known for their varied diet, which
includes fruits, berries, insects, and occasionally small mammals. By consuming a diverse
range of foods, omnivores play a role in seed dispersal, nutrient cycling, and maintaining
ecosystem resilience by adapting to fluctuating food availability. Apart from these visible
consumers, decomposers form an often-overlooked but indispensable component of forest
ecosystems. Consisting of bacteria, fungi, and detritivores like earthworms and woodlice,
decomposers break down dead organic matter, recycling nutrients and returning them to the
soil. This process of decomposition is essential for nutrient cycling, soil fertility, and the
overall health of forest ecosystems.

The interactions among consumers in forest ecosystems form complex food webs, where
energy and nutrients flow from one organism to another. These interconnected relationships
create a delicate balance within the ecosystem, where changes in one population can have
cascading effects throughout the food web. For instance, the decline of a top predator can
lead to an increase in prey populations, which may in turn impact plant communities and alter
habitat structure.

Human activities, such as deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and overexploitation of

resources, pose significant threats to forest ecosystems and their consumers. Loss of habitat,

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introduction of invasive species, and climate change further exacerbate these challenges,
disrupting ecological processes and diminishing biodiversity. Conservation efforts aimed at
protecting forest habitats, restoring degraded ecosystems, and promoting sustainable land
management practices are crucial for safeguarding the diverse array of consumers that rely on
forests for their survival.

Primary consumer

Primary consumers, also known as herbivores, are organisms that feed directly on producers,
which are typically plants or algae. They occupy the second trophic level in a food chain or
food web, following the producers at the base of the energy pyramid. Primary consumers
obtain their energy and nutrients by consuming autotrophic organisms, which convert
sunlight into chemical energy through photosynthesis.

In forest ecosystems, primary consumers include a diverse array of organisms such as

insects, herbivorous mammals, birds, and certain reptiles and amphibians. These organisms
play a crucial role in energy transfer and nutrient cycling within the ecosystem.

By feeding on plant material, primary consumers regulate plant populations, shape

vegetation structure, and influence ecosystem dynamics. For example, in a forest ecosystem,
primary consumers like deer, rabbits, and insects graze on leaves, stems, fruits, and other
plant parts. Their feeding activities can affect plant growth, reproduction, and distribution,
thereby influencing the composition and structure of plant communities.

Additionally, primary consumers serve as prey for secondary consumers, such as

carnivores and omnivores, further contributing to energy flow and trophic interactions within
the ecosystem.

Scientific name Common name

Dysdercus cingulatus Fabricius. Cotton stainer

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Celosterna seabrator Fabricius. Lamins

Hemistigma albipunctum Rambur. Pied spot

Mantis religiosa L. Mantis

Lophocampa caryae Harris. Hickory tussock moth

Oedaleus infernalis Saussere. Band winged Grasshopper

Neurothemis fulvia Drury. Forest Skimmer

Orthetrum Sabina Drury. Slender skimmer

Rusa unicolor Kerr. Sambar

Bos gaurus Smith. Gaur

Dysdercus cingulatus Fabricius.

Dysdercus cingulatus Fabricius. is a species of insect commonly known as the cotton stainer
or red cotton bug. It belongs to the family Pyrrhocoridae, which includes various species of
true bugs. D. cingulatus is found in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in Asia,
Africa, and parts of the Americas. As its common name suggests, the cotton stainer is known
for its association with cotton plants (Gossypium species) and other plants in the Malvaceae
family. These insects feed on the seeds of cotton plants, causing damage by staining the
cotton fibers with their reddish-brown excrement.

Cotton stainers can also be agricultural pests, damaging other crops such as okra, hibiscus,
and jute. They use their piercing-sucking mouthparts to pierce the plant tissue and extract sap,
which can weaken the plant and reduce yield. Additionally, their feeding activities can lead to
the development of mold and fungal infections on the plant.

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Celosterna seabrator Fabricius.

Celosterna seabrator Fabricius. is a species of longhorn beetle belonging to the family

Cerambycidae. This beetle is native to various parts of Asia, particularly in countries like
India, China, and Thailand. The Celosterna seabrator [Link] is known for its
distinctive appearance, characterized by its elongated body and long antennae. It typically has
a dark coloration with yellowish or reddish markings, although there can be variations in
color and patterning among individuals.

As with many longhorn beetles, the larvae of Celosterna seabrator Fabricius. typically
feed on wood. They tunnel into dead or decaying wood, where they feed and develop before
emerging as adults. While the adults may also feed on plant material, their primary role is
often in pollination and dispersal.

Hemistigma albipunctum Rambur.

Hemistigma albipunctum Rambur. is a species of dragonfly belonging to the family

Libellulidae. It is commonly known as the white-spotted skimmer. This species is native to
various parts of Asia, including countries like India, Thailand, and China.

The white-spotted skimmer is a medium-sized dragonfly characterized by its slender body

and transparent wings. As its common name suggests, it has distinctive white spots on its
wings, which are prominent and easily visible during flight. Like other dragonflies,
Hemistigma albipunctum Rambur. is typically found near freshwater habitats such as ponds,
lakes, rivers, and marshes. Both the larvae and adults are predators, feeding on a variety of
small insects, including mosquitoes, flies, and other flying insects.

The presence of dragonflies like Hemistigma albipunctum Rambur. is often considered

beneficial in aquatic ecosystems, as they help control insect populations and serve as
indicators of water quality. However, habitat loss, pollution, and other human activities can
threaten their populations, highlighting the importance of conservation efforts to protect these
species and their habitats.

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Mantis religiosa L.

The Mantis religiosa L. commonly known as the European mantis or praying mantis, is a
species of praying mantis native to Europe, Asia, and North Africa, but it has been introduced
to other parts of the world, including North America. It is one of the most well-known and
easily recognizable species of mantises due to its distinctive appearance and behavior. The
European mantis is characterized by its slender body, long legs, and elongated thorax. It
typically has green or brown coloration, which helps it blend in with its surroundings,
providing camouflage while it hunts for prey. One of its most distinguishing features is its
large, triangular head with prominent compound eyes and powerful forelegs, which are
adapted for catching and grasping prey.

As carnivorous insects, European mantises are voracious predators, feeding primarily on

other insects such as flies, moths, crickets, and even smaller mantises. They are ambush
predators, patiently waiting motionless for prey to come within striking distance before
capturing it with their quick and agile forelegs. The "praying" posture for which mantises are
famous is actually a defensive stance rather than a sign of prayer. When threatened or
disturbed, the European mantis will raise its forelegs and bend its body, making itself appear
larger and more intimidating to potential predators.

European mantises play an important role in controlling insect populations in their native
habitats and can be beneficial in agricultural settings as natural pest control agents. However,
they are also known to prey on beneficial insects, so their impact on ecosystems can vary
depending on the circumstances.

Lophocampa caryae Harris.

It is commonly known as the hickory tussock moth, is a species of moth native to North
America. It belongs to the family Erebidae, subfamily Arctiinae, which includes many
species known for their striking colors and patterns. The hickory tussock moth is named for
its caterpillar, which has distinctive tufts of white and black hairs along its body, giving it a
hickory-like appearance. These tufts serve as a warning to predators, as the caterpillar's hairs

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can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions in some individuals. Despite their intimidating
appearance, hickory tussock moth caterpillars are not venomous.

As adults, hickory tussock moths are less conspicuous, with wings that are predominantly
white with some black markings. They are nocturnal insects and are attracted to light sources
at night.

Oedaleus infernalis Saussere.

It is a species of grasshopper belonging to the family Acrididae. It is commonly known as the

Oriental long headed grasshopper. This species is primarily found in Asia, particularly in
countries such as China, India, Thailand, and Vietnam. The Oriental long headed grasshopper
is named for its elongated head, which is a distinctive feature of its appearance. It has a
slender body, long antennae, and wings that extend beyond its abdomen. The coloration of
this grasshopper can vary, but it often has a combination of brown, green, and black
markings, providing camouflage in its grassland habitats.

As with many grasshopper species, it is primarily herbivorous, feeding on various types of

grasses and other vegetation. Its feeding activities can sometimes cause damage to crops,
especially in agricultural areas where grasshopper populations are high. Grasshoppers like
Oedaleus infernalis Saussere. play important roles in ecosystems as both consumers and prey.
They contribute to nutrient cycling by consuming plant material and are an important food
source for many predators, including birds, reptiles, and mammals.

Neurothemis fulvia Drury.

It is commonly known as the Fulvous forest skimmer or Fulvous bloodtail, is a species of

dragonfly belonging to the family Libellulidae. It is native to various parts of Asia, including
countries such as India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Malaysia.

The Fulvous forest skimmer is a medium-sized dragonfly known for its distinctive
coloration and markings. Mature males typically have a bright orange or fulvous-colored

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abdomen with black markings, while females and immature individuals may exhibit different
color variations. Both males and females have clear wings. As with other dragonflies, it is
typically found near freshwater habitats such as ponds, lakes, rivers, and streams. It prefers
shaded areas with dense vegetation, including forested areas and the edges of water bodies.

Fulvous forest skimmers are active hunters, preying on a variety of small flying insects,
including mosquitoes, flies, and other dragonflies. They are adept fliers and can often be seen
patrolling their territory or perching on vegetation while scanning for prey.

Orthetrum Sabina Drury.

It is commonly known as the Slender Skimmer or Green Marsh Hawk, is a species of

dragonfly belonging to the family Libellulidae. This dragonfly is native to various regions
across Asia, including countries such as India, Sri Lanka, China, Japan, and Indonesia.

The Slender Skimmer is known for its slender body and striking coloration. Mature males
typically have a blue or bluish-green abdomen with black markings, while females and
immature individuals may exhibit different color variations, often with yellow or brown hues.
Both males and females have transparent wings. As with other dragonflies, Orthetrum sabina
is typically found near freshwater habitats such as ponds, lakes, rivers, and streams. They are
often seen patrolling their territory or perching on vegetation while scanning for prey.

Slender Skimmers are active hunters, preying on a variety of small flying insects,
including mosquitoes, flies, and other dragonflies. They play a crucial role in controlling
insect populations and are important components of freshwater ecosystems.

Rusa unicolor Kerr.

It is commonly known as the Sambar deer, is a species of large deer native to the Indian
subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and parts of East Asia. It is one of the most widespread deer
species in its range and is found in a variety of habitats, including forests, grasslands, and
shrublands.

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The Sambar deer is characterized by its large size, typically standing around 1.5 to 2 meters
(5 to 6.5 feet) tall at the shoulder. Males, known as stags, are larger than females, known as
hinds. Both sexes have dark brown coats, which can vary in shade depending on the
subspecies and region. One of the distinctive features of the Sambar deer is its long,
downward-curving antlers, which are present only in males. These antlers are typically
branched and can grow up to 1 meter (3 feet) in length, with multiple times.

Sambar deer are primarily herbivorous, feeding on a variety of vegetation, including

grasses, leaves, fruits, and shrubs. They are crepuscular or nocturnal, meaning they are most
active during dawn, dusk, and nighttime, and they often seek cover in dense vegetation
during the day to avoid predators. Due to their large size and wide distribution, Sambar deer
play important roles in their ecosystems as both grazers and browsers, helping to shape plant
communities and contributing to nutrient cycling. They are preyed upon by large carnivores
such as tigers, leopards, and dholes (wild dogs), and they are also hunted by humans for their
meat and antlers.

Bos gaurus Smith.

It is commonly known as the gaur, Indian bison, or seladang, is a species of large wild cattle
native to South and Southeast Asia. It is the largest species of wild cattle and is known for its
robust build and formidable appearance.

Gaurs have a dark brown to almost black coat, with short, sleek fur that is denser in males.
They have a distinctive ridge on their back, particularly pronounced in adult males, which
adds to their imposing appearance. Bulls (males) are larger and heavier than cows (females),
with prominent muscular humps on their shoulders.

These herbivores inhabit various types of forest habitats, including tropical and
subtropical forests, grasslands, and shrublands. They are primarily found in India, Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and
Indonesia. Gaurs are social animals and typically form small herds, which may consist of
adult males, females, and their offspring. Adult males are usually solitary or form bachelor

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groups outside of the breeding season. They communicate through vocalizations, body
language, and scent marking.

As herbivores, gaur feed on a variety of vegetation, including grasses, leaves, shoots, and
fruits. They are important seed dispersers and contribute to shaping the structure and
composition of forest ecosystems.

Secondary consumers

In forest ecosystems, secondary consumers play a critical role in regulating populations and
maintaining ecological balance. These organisms occupy the second trophic level in the food
chain, feeding on primary consumers, which are herbivores that consume plants. Secondary
consumers are typically carnivores or omnivores, depending on their diet preferences. In
temperate forests, secondary consumers may include carnivorous mammals such as foxes,
bobcats, or coyotes, as well as birds of prey like owls, hawks, or eagles. In tropical forests,
secondary consumers may consist of a diverse array of species, including snakes, large
insects, small mammals, and birds. By controlling the populations of primary consumers,
secondary consumers help regulate plant growth and distribution, which in turn affects the
overall structure and composition of the forest ecosystem. Additionally, secondary consumers
serve as prey for tertiary consumers, such as apex predators, completing the intricate web of
trophic interactions within forest ecosystems.

Scientific name Common name

Psittacula krameri Scopoli. Rose-ringed Parakeet

Bubulcus ibis L. Cattle Egret

Argiope versicolor Doleschall. Cross spider

Campephilus principalis L. Ivory-billed Woodpecker

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Ptyas mucosa L. Indian Rat Snake

Myotis sodalist Miller & Allen. Indian Bat

Psittacula krameri Scopoli.

The Rose-ringed Parakeet is a vibrant and highly adaptable bird species native to parts of
Africa and the Indian subcontinent. These medium-sized parrots, measuring about 40 cm in
length, are predominantly green, with adult males featuring a distinctive black and rose-
colored ring around their necks, while females and juveniles usually lack this ring or have a
faint one. Known for their loud, harsh calls, Rose-ringed Parakeets thrive in diverse habitats,
ranging from forests and woodlands to urban areas and agricultural lands. Their diet is
equally varied, consisting of fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts, and berries, often leading them to
forage in cultivated fields where they can become agricultural pests.

Bubulcus ibis L.

The Cattle Egret is a small, stocky heron species known for its distinctive white plumage and
association with grazing animals. Native to parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe, the Cattle Egret
has also established populations in the Americas, Australia, and other regions due to its
remarkable adaptability. Adults typically measure about 46–56 cm in length, with a wingspan
of 88–96 cm. During the breeding season, they develop attractive orange-buff plumage on
their heads, chests, and backs, which contrasts with their usual all-white feathers.

Cattle Egrets are frequently observed in pastures and agricultural fields, often seen
perched on livestock such as cattle, buffalo, and horses. This behavior is mutually beneficial:
the egrets feed on insects and small animals stirred up by the movements of the larger
animals, providing pest control while gaining easy access to food.

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Argiope versicolor Doleschall.

It is commonly known as the St. Andrew's Cross spider, is a visually striking orb-weaver
spider native to the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. Females are notably larger and
more vibrantly colored than males, featuring an abdomen adorned with yellow, white, and
black bands. This spider is easily identifiable by its distinctive orb web, often embellished
with a zigzag pattern known as a stabilimentum, which resembles the X-shaped cross of St.
Andrew. Argiope vesicular primarily feeds on flying insects like flies and moths,
immobilizing its prey with silk before delivering a venomous bite. Adaptable to various
environments, including gardens and agricultural fields, these spiders are frequently seen in
human-altered landscapes where prey is abundant. Despite their striking appearance, they are
not considered threatened, thriving across their wide range.

Campephilus principalis L.

The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is a large and striking woodpecker native to the southeastern
United States and Cuba. Renowned for its striking appearance, this bird features glossy black
plumage with white markings on its wings and a prominent white stripe running down its
neck. Males are distinguished by a bright red crest, while females have a black crest.
Historically, the Ivory-billed Woodpecker inhabited dense, mature forests with abundant dead
or dying trees, which provided ample foraging opportunities for its primary diet of beetle
larvae and other insects.

Ptyas mucosa L.

The Indian Rat Snake is a large, non-venomous snake widely distributed across the Indian
subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Known for its impressive size, adults can reach lengths of
up to 3.5 meters, though they are typically around 2 meters long. The Indian Rat Snake
exhibits a varied coloration, ranging from yellowish-brown to olive green, often with faint
black crossbars on its body. It is a highly adaptable species, thriving in diverse habitats
including forests, agricultural fields, wetlands, and urban areas. As its common name
suggests, the Indian Rat Snake primarily preys on rodents, playing a crucial role in

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controlling pest populations. It is also known to feed on birds, eggs, frogs, and other small
animals. Despite its intimidating appearance and rapid movements, this snake is harmless to
humans and often flees when threatened.

Myotis sodalis Miller & Allen.

The Indian Bat is a small, endangered species of bat native to North America, primarily
found in the central and eastern United States. Characterized by its grayish-brown fur and a
wingspan of approximately 9.5 to 10.5 inches, this bat plays a vital ecological role as an
insect predator, consuming large quantities of night-flying insects, including many
agricultural pests. The Indiana Bat hibernates in limestone caves during the winter, forming
dense clusters that help it conserve heat. In the summer, it roosts under the peeling bark of
trees or in tree cavities, preferring forests with a mix of tree species and sizes.

Tertiary consumers

In forest ecosystems, tertiary consumers occupy the highest trophic level in the food chain,
preying on secondary consumers and sometimes other tertiary consumers. These organisms
are often apex predators, meaning they have few or no natural predators themselves and play
a crucial role in regulating the populations of lower trophic levels. In temperate forests,
tertiary consumers may include large carnivores such as wolves, cougars, or bears, which
prey on smaller mammals like deer or rodents, as well as birds of prey like eagles or owls.

In tropical forests, apex predators may consist of big cats such as jaguars or leopards, as
well as large reptiles like crocodiles or pythons. Tertiary consumers exert top-down control
on the ecosystem, influencing the distribution and behavior of lower trophic levels and
contributing to overall ecosystem health and stability. They play a crucial role in maintaining
biodiversity and ecosystem function by preventing the overpopulation of certain species and
promoting species diversity.

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Scientific name Common name

Clanga hastate Lesson & RP. Indian Spotted Eagle

Corvus splendens Vieillot. Indian Crow

Pavo cristatus L. Indian Peafowl

Macaca mulatta Zimmermann. Monkey

Clanga hastata Lesson & RP.

It is known as the Indian Spotted Eagle, is a medium-sized bird of prey found predominantly
in the Indian subcontinent. This species inhabits a variety of landscapes, including forests,
grasslands, and wetlands. The Indian Spotted Eagle is notable for its dark brown plumage
adorned with white spots on the upperparts, which give it a distinctive appearance. It has a
large, somewhat flat head, a short, hooked bill, and striking yellow eyes. Its juveniles are
paler with more extensive white markings compared to adults. Preferring open woodlands,
cultivated fields, and areas near rivers and wetlands, the Indian Spotted Eagle is an
opportunistic feeder, preying on small mammals, birds, reptiles, and large insects. It hunts
from perches or by soaring high, using its keen eyesight to locate prey. Breeding typically
occurs between March and June, with nests built in tall trees.

Corvus splendens Vieillot.

It’s commonly known as the House Crow or Indian Crow, is a highly adaptable and
widespread bird native to the Indian subcontinent. Measuring around 40 to 45 cm in length,
this medium-sized crow is characterized by its glossy black head, neck, and chest, and
grayish-black back, wings, and tail. The House Crow thrives in urban and suburban areas,
agricultural lands, and near human settlements, where it easily finds food and nesting sites.

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Its omnivorous and opportunistic diet includes fruits, grains, small animals, insects, and
human refuse. Known for its intelligence and complex social interactions, the House Crow is
often seen in large, noisy groups. Breeding typically occurs in the spring and early summer,
with nests built in tall trees or on man-made structures.

Pavo cristatus L.

It’s commonly known as the Indian Peafowl or Blue Peafowl, is one of the most recognizable
and striking birds in the world, native to the Indian subcontinent. This large and colorful bird
is famous for the male's extravagant display of iridescent tail feathers, which feature eye-
catching patterns of blue, green, and gold. The male, or peacock, uses these feathers in
courtship displays to attract females, or peahens, which have more subdued brown plumage.
Indian Peafowl typically inhabit deciduous forests, scrublands, and farmland, often near
water sources. They are omnivorous, feeding on a varied diet of seeds, insects, fruits, small
mammals, and reptiles. Social and ground-dwelling, these birds are often
seen in small groups.

Macaca mulatta Zimmermann.

It is a widely recognized and adaptable primate native to South, Central, and Southeast Asia.
These medium-sized monkeys, characterized by their brown or grey fur and distinctive pink
faces, thrive in diverse habitats ranging from tropical and temperate forests to urban
environments and agricultural areas. Their omnivorous diet includes fruits, seeds, insects,
small animals, and human food scraps, enabling them to survive in varied settings. Social
animals, Rhesus macaques live in large groups with complex hierarchies, where females
remain in their natal groups for life, while males leave at puberty. Known for their
intelligence, they are often used in scientific research, particularly in studies on
neuroscience and behavior.

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Decomposers

In forest ecosystems, decomposers are organisms that play a vital role in breaking down dead
organic matter, such as fallen leaves, dead plants, and animal remains, into simpler nutrients
that can be recycled back into the soil. These organisms are instrumental in nutrient cycling
and maintaining soil fertility, which in turn supports the growth of plants and sustains the
entire ecosystem. Decomposers in forest ecosystems include bacteria, fungi, and detritivores
such as earthworms, insects, and other invertebrates. Bacteria and fungi are the primary
decomposers, breaking down organic matter through processes such as decay and
decomposition, while detritivores feed on decaying organic material, further fragmenting it
into smaller particles and accelerating the decomposition process. Together, these
decomposers play a critical role in recycling nutrients and maintaining the health and
productivity of forest ecosystems.

Scientific name Common name

Pycnoporus sanguineus L. Cinnabar Bracket

Ganoderma resinaceum Boud. Bracket fungus

Earliella scabrosa Pers. Bracket mushroom

Trametes betulina L. Gilled polypore

Lumbricus terrestris L. Earthworm

Anoplodesmus anthracinus Pocock. Black Millipede

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Pycnoporus sanguineus L.

It is a striking species of fungus in the Polyporaceae family, commonly found in tropical and
subtropical regions. This wood-decay fungus is characterized by its vibrant reddish to
crimson fan-shaped fruiting bodies, which can fade to orange or yellow with age. Typically
growing on dead or decaying hardwood, it plays a crucial ecological role in decomposing
complex organic materials like lignin and cellulose, thus contributing to nutrient cycling in
forest ecosystems. The leathery, tough texture of its caps allows it to persist on decaying
wood for extended periods, making it a reliable indicator of forest health and biodiversity.

Ganoderma resinaceum Boud.

It is a species of polypore fungus known for its medicinal properties and ecological
significance. Found primarily in temperate and subtropical regions, this fungus typically
grows on hardwood trees, both living and dead. The fruiting bodies of Ganoderma
resinaceum Boud. are distinguished by their large, woody brackets that can reach up to 30 cm
in diameter. These brackets have a shiny, varnished appearance with a reddish-brown to dark
brown color and are often covered in a resinous substance that gives the fungus its name. As
a saprotrophic organism, it plays a vital role in forest ecosystems by breaking down wood and
recycling nutrients back in to the soil.

([Link] )

Earliella scabrosa Pers.

It is a species of fungus belonging to the family Polyporaceae. This fungus is notable for its
unique appearance and ecological role within forest ecosystems. Typically found in tropical
and subtropical regions, Earliella scabrosa grows on decaying wood, contributing to the
decomposition process and nutrient cycling. The fruiting bodies of this fungus are
characterized by their rough, scaly texture, which gives rise to its specific epithet "scabrosa."
These fruiting bodies can vary in size and shape, often forming irregularly shaped brackets or

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shelves. It plays a vital role in breaking down complex organic materials in wood, such as
lignin and cellulose, facilitating the release of nutrients back into the soil.

Trametes betulina L.

It is commonly known as the Birch Bracket or White Rot Fungus, is a species of polypore
fungus renowned for its ecological importance and potential medicinal properties. Found
predominantly in temperate regions, this fungus typically grows on birch trees, though it can
also inhabit other hardwood species. Its fruiting bodies form distinctive shelf-like structures
with a velvety white upper surface and a porous underside, where spores are released. It plays
a crucial role in forest ecosystems as a decomposer, breaking down lignin and cellulose in
dead wood, thereby facilitating nutrient recycling and soil enrichment.

Lumbricus terrestris L.

Lumbricus terrestris, commonly known as the common earthworm or nightcrawler, is a vital

component of terrestrial ecosystems, renowned for its soil-aerating abilities and role in
nutrient cycling. With its elongated, segmented body, ranging from 15 to 30 centimeters in
length, it burrows through soil, consuming organic matter and microorganisms, and excreting

nutrient-rich castings that enhance soil fertility. Its burrowing activities improve soil
structure, promoting water infiltration and root growth, while also serving as a crucial food
source for various organisms, contributing to overall ecosystem biodiversity. In agriculture, it
plays a key role in soil health and crop productivity, highlighting its importance in
sustainable land management practices and the interconnectedness of life in
terrestrial environments.

Anoplodesmus anthracinus Pocock.

It is commonly known as the "Black Millipede," is a species of millipede found primarily in

tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. With its distinctive dark coloration and segmented
body, ranging from a few centimeters to over ten centimeters in length, this millipede plays a

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vital role in soil ecosystems as a detritivore, feeding on decaying organic matter and
contributing to nutrient cycling. Its black coloration serves as a warning to potential
predators, indicating its unpalatable nature and ability to secrete toxic or distasteful
substances when threatened. While generally harmless to humans, Anoplodesmus anthracinus
is an important component of natural ecosystems, although its abundance in agricultural
settings may sometimes lead to concerns about crop damage or competition with other soil-
dwelling organisms.

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RESULT AND CONCLUSION

In the present study of forest ecosystems 12 producers were observed, which are as follows

Producers

 Cabomba caroliniana A. Gray.

 Marsilea quadrifolia L.
 Sphagneticola trilobata L.
 Pteris vittata L.
 Kalanchoe pinnata Lam.
 Ixora coccinea L.
 Clerodendrum infortunatum L.
 Melastoma malabathricum L.
 Artocarpus hirsutus Lam.
 Ziziphus oenopolia L.
 Acampe praemorsa Roxb.
 Anacardium occidentale L.

20 Consumers were observed.

Primary consumers

 Dysdercus cingulatus Fabricius.

 Cerosterna scabrator Fabricius.
 Hemistigma albipunctum Rambur.
 Mantis religiosa L.
 Lophocampa caryae Harris.
 Oedaleus infernalis Saussere.
 Neurothemis fulvia Drury.
 Orthetrum Sabina Drury.
 Rusa unicolor Kerr.

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 Bos gaurus Smith.

Secondary consumers

 Psittacula krameri Scopoli.

 Bubulcus ibis L.
 Argiope versicolor Doleschall.
 Campephilus principalis L.
 Ptyas mucosa L.
 Myotis sodalist Miller & Allen.

Tertiary consumers

 Clanga hastata Lesson & RP.

 Corvus splendens Vieillot.
 Pavo cristatus L.
 Rhesus macaque Zimmermann.

6 Decomposers were observed.

Decomposers

 Pycnoporus sanguineus L.
 Ganoderma resinaceum
 Earliella scabrosa Pers.
 Trametes betulina L.
 Lumbricus terrestris L.
 Anoplodesmus anthracinus Pocock.

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For this project work, the place was visited and information was collected about biotic factors
like producers, consumers and decomposers. Abiotic factors like temperature, availability of
water and sunlight were recorded. After collecting lots of information about the forest
ecosystem, the flora and fauna of the study area were observed. Patience and interest is very
important while doing this project. It was one of the best experiences while doing this project.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We praise Almighty God for providing us strength and endurance necessary for completion
of this project.
We are deeply indebted to our college management and beloved principal Dr.
Shubhakarachary for giving us an opportunity to do the project work in this esteemed
institution. We express our gratitude to Dr. Gayathri Pai, H.O.D of Botany for her motivation
and permission to carry out the present project work. We would like to thank our parents,
friends as well as well-wishers for their encouragement.

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REFERENCES

 Mehra V.B and Khanna S.K. 1976. Plant Ecology. S. Chand Publications.

 Sharma P.D. 1990. Elements of Ecology. Rastogi Publications.

 K. Gopalakrishna Bhat. 2003. Flora of Udupi. Indian Naturalist.

 Ganguli and Kar. 2011. College Botany Vol I & II New General Book Agency. Delhi.

 Verma P.S. & V.K. Agarwal. 1989. Plant Ecology. S. Chand publications.

 Weaver J.E. and Clements F.E. 1929. Plant Ecology. Tata McGraw Hill Publications.

 Saha T. K., 2017. Ecology and Environmental Biology. Books and Allied Publishers.

 Malcolm L. Hunter Jr., James P. Gibbs, Viorel D. Popescu, 2020. Fundamentals of

Conservation Biology, 4th Edition. Wiley-Blackwel.

 Chapman, J.L&M.J. Reiss (1992): Ecology (Principles & Applications). Cambridge

University Press, U.K.

 Newman, E.I. (2000): Applied Ecology, Blackwell Scientific Publisher, U.K.

 Kumar H.D. (2000): Biodiversity & Sustainable Conservation. Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co Ltd. New Delhi.

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 Kumar, H.D. (1992): Modern Concepts of Ecology (7th Edn.,) Vikas

Publishing Co., New Delhi.

 Oosting, H.G. (1978): Plants and Ecosystem Wadworth Belmont.

 Sharma, P.D. 2018. Fundamentals of Ecology. Rastogi Publications.

 DA Perry, R Oren, SC Hart, 2008 – [Link] .

 [Link] .

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PHOTOGRAPHY
Study Area

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Producers

Cabomba caroliniana Marsilea quadrifolia

Sphagneticola trilobata Pteris vittata

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STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYTEM OF KAMALASHILE

Kalanchoe pinnata Ixora coccinea

Clerodendrum infortunatum Melastoma malabathricum

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STUDY OF FOREST ECOSYTEM OF KAMALASHILE

Artocarpus hirsutus Ziziphus oenopolia

Acampe praemorsa Anacardium occidentale

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Primary consumer

Dysdercus cingulatus Cerosterna scabrator

Hemistigma albipunctum Mantis religiosa

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Lophocampa caryae Oedaleus infernalis

Neurothemis fulvia Orthetrum sabina

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Rusa unicolor

Bos gaurus

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Secondary consumer

Bubulcus ibis Psittacula krameri

Argiope versicolor Campephilus principalis

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Ptyas mucosa

Myotis sodalis

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Tertiary consumers

Clanga hastata Corvus splendens

Pavo cristatus Rhesus macaque

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Decomposers

Pycnoporus sanguineus Ganoderma resinaceum

Earliella scabrosa Trametes betulina

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Lumbricus terrestris

Anoplodesmus anthracinus

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