Atomic Structure Study Guide | Chemistry
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Complete Study Guide
Notes • Definitions • Worked Examples • Practice Questions
Simple Model of the Atom
Proton (+)
Neutron (0)
Electron (-)
Nucleus
Protons (+) & Neutrons (0) in dense nucleus | Electrons (-) in shells
Topics Covered:
1. Structure of the Atom 2. Atomic Number & Mass Number 3. Isotopes
4. Relative Atomic Mass 5. Electronic Configuration 6. Valence Electrons
7. Quantum Numbers (Basic) 8. Atomic Models 9. Ion Formation
10. Periodic Table Relationship 11. Important Calculations 12. Common Exam
Questions
Perfect for High School Chemistry Students
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Atomic Structure Study Guide | Chemistry
Table of Contents
1. Structure of the Atom — Meaning, Dalton's Theory, Subatomic Particles
2. Atomic Number and Mass Number — Z, A, Protons, Neutrons, Electrons
3. Isotopes — Definition, Examples (H, C), Properties & Uses
4. Relative Atomic Mass (Aᵣ) — Definition & Calculation with Abundances
5. Electronic Configuration — Shells, Subshells, Aufbau, Pauli, Hund's Rule
6. Valence Electrons — Definition, Importance, Determining Valency
7. Quantum Numbers (Basic Level) — n, l, mₗ, mₛ with Examples
8. Atomic Models — Dalton → Thomson → Rutherford → Bohr → Schrödinger
9. Ion Formation — Cations, Anions, Electron Config of Ions
10. Periodic Table Relationship — Periods, Groups & Electron Configuration
11. Important Calculations — Worked Examples with Step-by-Step Solutions
12. Common Exam Questions — Typical Questions & Quick Answers
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Atomic Structure Study Guide | Chemistry
1. Structure of the Atom
Meaning of an Atom
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can exist independently and still retain all the
chemical properties of that element. It is the fundamental building block of all matter. Atoms are
extremely small — about 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers in diameter.
John Dalton's Atomic Theory (1803)
Dalton proposed the first scientific atomic theory. His main ideas were:
• All matter is composed of extremely small, indivisible particles called atoms.
• Atoms of the same element are identical in mass, size, and chemical properties.
• Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.
• Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds.
• Atoms are neither created nor destroyed during chemical reactions (law of conservation of
mass).
Modern Update: We now know atoms are divisible into subatomic particles. Atoms of the same element can
have different masses (isotopes). However, Dalton's theory laid the foundation for modern chemistry.
Subatomic Particles
Atoms consist of three main subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons and
neutrons are located in the dense central nucleus, while electrons move in the space around the
nucleus (electron cloud).
Relative Mass
Particle Symbol Charge Location
(amu)
Proton p⁺ +1 ≈1 Nucleus
Neutron n⁰ 0 ≈1 Nucleus
Electron e⁻ −1 ≈ 1/1836 Electron shells / orbitals
Key Point: The nucleus contains nearly all the mass of the atom (protons +
neutrons). Electrons contribute almost no mass but determine chemical
behavior and occupy most of the volume.
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Atomic Structure Study Guide | Chemistry
2. Atomic Number and Mass Number
Atomic Number (Z)
The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. It is unique to each
element and determines the identity of the element. In a neutral atom, the number of electrons =
number of protons (Z).
Atomic Number Z = Number of Protons = Number of Electrons (in neutral
atom)
Mass Number (A)
The mass number (A) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. It is always a whole
number. Electrons are not included because their mass is negligible.
Mass Number A = Number of Protons + Number of Neutrons
Calculating Number of Neutrons
Number of Neutrons = Mass Number (A) − Atomic Number (Z)
Example: For Sodium-23 (Na-23)
• Atomic number Z = 11 (from periodic table)
• Mass number A = 23
• Protons = 11
• Electrons = 11 (neutral atom)
• Neutrons = 23 − 11 = 12
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Atomic Structure Study Guide | Chemistry
3. Isotopes
Definition
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number (Z) but different mass
numbers (A). They have the same number of protons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons.
Isotopes have identical chemical properties but different physical
properties (due to different masses).
Examples of Isotopes
Isotope Protons Neutrons Mass No. Common Name
Hydrogen-1 (¹H) 1 0 1 Protium (most common)
Hydrogen-2 (²H) 1 1 2 Deuterium (heavy hydrogen)
Hydrogen-3 (³H) 1 2 3 Tritium (radioactive)
Carbon Isotopes
• Carbon-12 (¹²C): 6 protons, 6 neutrons — the standard for atomic mass scale (exactly 12 amu)
• Carbon-14 (¹⁴C): 6 protons, 8 neutrons — radioactive, used in radiocarbon dating of fossils and
artifacts
Properties and Uses of Isotopes
• Chemical properties are almost identical (same electron configuration).
• Physical properties differ slightly (density, melting point, rate of diffusion).
• Uses: Medical imaging (technetium-99m), cancer treatment (cobalt-60), dating (C-14, U-238),
nuclear power (U-235), tracers in research.
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Atomic Structure Study Guide | Chemistry
4. Relative Atomic Mass (Aᵣ)
Definition
The relative atomic mass (Aᵣ) of an element is the weighted average mass of all the naturally
occurring isotopes of that element, relative to 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom. It is not a whole
number because it accounts for the abundance of each isotope.
Aᵣ = Σ (Isotope mass × Fractional abundance)
Where fractional abundance = percentage abundance ÷ 100
Worked Example: Chlorine
Chlorine has two main isotopes:
• Chlorine-35: mass 35 amu, abundance 75.77%
• Chlorine-37: mass 37 amu, abundance 24.23%
Calculation:
Aᵣ = (35 × 0.7577) + (37 × 0.2423)
Aᵣ = 26.5195 + 8.9651 = 35.48 (usually rounded to 35.5)
Note: The value 35.5 is what you see on the periodic table for chlorine. It is a weighted average, not the
mass of any single atom.
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Atomic Structure Study Guide | Chemistry
5. Electronic Configuration
Shells (Energy Levels)
Electrons occupy specific energy levels called shells, labeled K, L, M, N... corresponding to principal
quantum number n = 1, 2, 3, 4...
Maximum electrons in a shell = 2n² (where n = shell number)
• K shell (n=1): max 2 electrons
• L shell (n=2): max 8 electrons
• M shell (n=3): max 18 electrons
• N shell (n=4): max 32 electrons
Subshells
Each shell is divided into subshells: s, p, d, f
• s subshell: holds 2 electrons (1 orbital)
• p subshell: holds 6 electrons (3 orbitals)
• d subshell: holds 10 electrons (5 orbitals)
• f subshell: holds 14 electrons (7 orbitals)
Rules for Filling Electrons
1. Aufbau Principle — Electrons fill the lowest energy subshell first.
Filling order: 1s → 2s → 2p → 3s → 3p → 4s → 3d → 4p → 5s → 4d → 5p → 6s → 4f → 5d → 6p...
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle — No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum
numbers. An orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons with opposite spins (↑↓).
3. Hund's Rule — When filling degenerate orbitals (same energy, e.g. the three 2p orbitals), electrons
occupy each orbital singly with parallel spins before pairing up.
Writing Electron Configurations
Examples:
• Hydrogen (Z=1): 1s¹
• Helium (Z=2): 1s²
• Carbon (Z=6): 1s² 2s² 2p²
• Neon (Z=10): 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ (full octet — very stable)
• Sodium (Z=11): 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹ or [Ne] 3s¹
• Calcium (Z=20): 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s² or [Ar] 4s²
Orbital Diagrams (using arrows)
Each box represents an orbital. Arrows represent electrons (↑ = spin up, ↓ = spin down).
Nitrogen (Z=7): 1s² 2s² 2p³ — Hund's rule in action (3 unpaired electrons)
1s 2s 2pₓ 2pᵧ 2p_z
Remember: In 2p subshell, electrons fill each of the three orbitals singly with parallel spins (all ↑) before any
pairing occurs.
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Atomic Structure Study Guide | Chemistry
6. Valence Electrons
Definition
Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell (highest principal quantum number n) of an
atom. They are the electrons involved in chemical bonding and determine the chemical reactivity of
the element.
Valence electrons = Electrons in the highest energy level (outermost shell)
Importance
• Determine how an element reacts with other elements.
• Decide the type of bonds formed (ionic, covalent).
• Explain why elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.
• Elements with 8 valence electrons (full octet) are very stable (noble gases).
How to Determine Valency
For main group elements (Groups 1, 2, 13–18), valency is often related to the number of valence
electrons needed to achieve a stable octet (8 electrons in outer shell).
• Metals (Groups 1–2): Valency = number of valence electrons (they lose them to form cations).
• Non-metals (Groups 15–17): Valency = 8 − number of valence electrons (they gain electrons to
form anions).
• Group 18 (Noble gases): Valency = 0 (already have full octet, very unreactive).
Examples:
• Sodium (Na, Group 1): Config [Ne] 3s¹ → 1 valence electron → Valency = 1 (forms Na⁺)
• Magnesium (Mg, Group 2): Config [Ne] 3s² → 2 valence electrons → Valency = 2 (forms Mg²⁺)
• Oxygen (O, Group 16): Config [He] 2s² 2p⁴ → 6 valence electrons → Valency = 2 (gains 2e⁻ to form O²⁻)
• Chlorine (Cl, Group 17): Config [Ne] 3s² 3p⁵ → 7 valence electrons → Valency = 1 (gains 1e⁻ to form Cl⁻)
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Atomic Structure Study Guide | Chemistry
7. Quantum Numbers (Basic Level)
Quantum numbers describe the position and properties of electrons in an atom. There are four
quantum numbers.
Quantum
Symbol Description Possible Values
Number
1, 2, 3, 4... (positive
Principal n Shell / main energy level
integers)
Angular 0 to (n−1)
l Subshell shape (s, p, d, f)
Momentum 0=s, 1=p, 2=d, 3=f
Magnetic mₗ Orientation of orbital in space −l to +l (including 0)
Spin mₛ Direction of electron spin +½ (↑) or −½ (↓)
Example: Quantum numbers for a 3p electron
For an electron in a 3p orbital:
• n = 3 (third shell)
• l = 1 (p subshell)
• mₗ = −1, 0, or +1 (three possible orientations)
• mₛ = +½ or −½ (two possible spins)
Pauli Exclusion Principle in action: No two electrons can have the exact same four quantum numbers. If n, l,
and mₗ are the same, their mₛ must be opposite.
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Atomic Structure Study Guide | Chemistry
8. Atomic Models
Scientists have developed several models to describe the structure of the atom:
1. John Dalton (1803) — Solid Sphere Model
• Atom is a tiny, solid, indivisible sphere.
• All atoms of an element are identical.
• Limitation: Did not explain subatomic particles or isotopes.
2. J.J. Thomson (1897) — Plum Pudding Model
• Discovered the electron using cathode ray tube.
• Atom is a positively charged 'pudding' with negatively charged electrons embedded like 'plums'.
• Limitation: Did not explain the nucleus or empty space in atoms.
3. Ernest Rutherford (1911) — Nuclear Model
• Gold foil experiment with alpha particles.
• Most of the atom is empty space. Tiny, dense, positively charged nucleus at center.
• Electrons orbit the nucleus at a distance.
• Limitation: Could not explain why electrons do not spiral into the nucleus.
4. Niels Bohr (1913) — Planetary / Quantized Model
• Electrons move in fixed circular orbits (shells) with specific energy levels.
• Electrons can jump between levels by absorbing or emitting energy (explains atomic spectra).
• Worked well for hydrogen but not for multi-electron atoms.
n=3 (M)
Bohr Model (1913) - Quantized Energy Levels
n=2 (L)
n=1 (K)
e⁻
p+
5. Erwin Schrödinger (1926) — Quantum Mechanical Model
• Current accepted model.
• Electrons behave as both particles and waves (wave-particle duality).
• Electrons exist in orbitals — regions of space where there is a high probability of finding the
electron (electron cloud).
• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: Cannot know exact position and momentum of electron
simultaneously.
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Atomic Structure Study Guide | Chemistry
9. Ion Formation
Cations and Anions
Ions are charged particles formed when atoms gain or lose electrons to achieve a more stable
electron configuration (usually a full outer shell).
Type Charge Process Example Electron Config Change
Cation Positive (+) Lose electrons Na → Na⁺ + e⁻ Na: [Ne]3s¹ → Na⁺: [Ne]
Negative
Anion Gain electrons Cl + e⁻ → Cl⁻ Cl: [Ne]3s²3p⁵ → Cl⁻: [Ar]
(−)
Writing Electronic Configurations of Ions
• Remove electrons from the outermost shell first (highest n).
• For transition metals, 4s electrons are lost before 3d electrons.
• Add electrons to the valence shell for anions.
Examples:
• Mg (Z=12): 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² → Mg²⁺: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ (loses two 3s electrons)
• O (Z=8): 1s² 2s² 2p⁴ → O²⁻: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ (gains two electrons)
• Fe (Z=26): [Ar] 4s² 3d⁶ → Fe²⁺: [Ar] 3d⁶ (loses 4s electrons first)
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Atomic Structure Study Guide | Chemistry
10. Periodic Table Relationship
Periods and Groups
• Periods (horizontal rows): Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells
(highest n value).
• Groups (vertical columns): Elements in the same group have the same number of valence
electrons and similar chemical properties.
Period number = Highest principal quantum number (n) of valence
electrons
Group number (main groups) ≈ Number of valence electrons
How Electron Configuration Determines Position
• s-block (Groups 1–2): Valence electrons in s subshell (e.g. Na: 3s¹)
• p-block (Groups 13–18): Valence electrons in p subshell (e.g. Cl: 3p⁵)
• d-block (Transition metals): Valence electrons in d subshell (e.g. Fe: 3d⁶ 4s²)
• f-block (Lanthanides & Actinides): Valence electrons in f subshell
The periodic table is essentially a map of electron configurations. Elements with similar valence electron
configurations are placed in the same group because they behave similarly in chemical reactions.
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Atomic Structure Study Guide | Chemistry
11. Important Calculations — Worked Examples
Example 1: Subatomic Particles
Calculate the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in Uranium-238 (Z = 92, A = 238).
Solution:
• Protons = Z = 92
• Electrons = 92 (neutral atom)
• Neutrons = A − Z = 238 − 92 = 146
Example 2: Relative Atomic Mass
Bromine has two isotopes: ⁷⁹Br (50.69%) and ⁸¹Br (49.31%). Calculate Aᵣ.
Solution:
Aᵣ = (79 × 0.5069) + (81 × 0.4931) = 40.0451 + 39.9411 = 79.99 ≈ 80.0
Example 3: Electron Configuration
Write the electron configuration for Potassium (Z=19) and its ion K⁺.
Solution:
• K (Z=19): 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s¹ or [Ar] 4s¹
• K⁺: Loses the 4s¹ electron → 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ or [Ar]
Example 4: Isotopic Abundance
An element has two isotopes. 70% of atoms have mass 28, 30% have mass 29. Find relative atomic
mass.
Solution:
Aᵣ = (28 × 0.70) + (29 × 0.30) = 19.6 + 8.7 = 28.3
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Atomic Structure Study Guide | Chemistry
12. Common Exam Questions
Practice these typical exam-style questions:
1. Define the term 'isotope' and state two isotopes of carbon. Explain why they have the same
chemical properties but different physical properties.
2. An atom has 17 protons and 18 neutrons. Identify the element and calculate its mass number. How
many electrons does a neutral atom have?
3. Write the electron configuration of sulfur (Z=16). Draw its orbital diagram. How many valence
electrons does it have?
4. Explain the difference between a cation and an anion. Give one example of each and write their
electron configurations.
5. State the three rules that govern the filling of electrons in atomic orbitals. Illustrate Hund's rule
using the orbital diagram of nitrogen.
6. Calculate the relative atomic mass of magnesium given: ²⁴Mg (78.99%), ²⁵Mg (10.00%), ²⁶Mg
(11.01%).
7. Compare and contrast Rutherford's nuclear model with Bohr's model of the atom. What
improvement did Bohr make?
8. An element is in Period 3 and Group 17 of the periodic table. Write its electron configuration and
state its valency. Explain your reasoning.
9. For an electron in the 4d subshell, state the possible values of the four quantum numbers.
10. Why do elements in the same group of the periodic table have similar chemical properties? Use
electron configuration to explain.
Tip for Exams: Always show your working for calculations. Use the periodic
table provided. Draw clear orbital diagrams with proper arrows. State
definitions precisely.
— End of Study Guide —
Review these notes regularly and practice writing electron configurations and calculations.
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