LU1 - Introduction to

Microprocessors
Basic organization of Computer
 Introduction to P
• Microprocessor is an electronic chip that functions as the central
processing unit (CPU) of a computer.

• In other words, we can call microprocessor as the heart of any

computer system.

• The microprocessor based systems with limited resources are called

as microcomputers.

• Now-a-days microprocessors are found in almost all electronic

machines and appliances in its different form
 Introduction – cntd.,
• Almost all microprocessors use the basic concept of “stored
program execution”.

• By this concept, programs or the instructions to be executed by the

microprocessor are stored sequentially in memory locations.

• The microprocessor or the processor in general will fetch the

instructions one after the other and execute them it in its arithmetic
and logic unit.

• A microprocessor based system will need a set of memory units, set

of interfacing circuits for inputs and a set of interfacing circuits for
outputs.
 Introduction – cntd.,
The instruction set for microprocessors is given in two forms
• a) one in mnemonic which is comparatively easy to understand
• b) the other in binary machine code which the microprocessor really
works upon and difficult to understand by us.

• Programs are written using mnemonics called the assembly level

language and then they are converted into binary machine level
language.

• This conversion can be done manually or using an application called

assembler.
 Introduction – cntd.,

• All circuits put together along with microprocessor are called

as microcomputer system.

• The physical components of the microcomputer system are in

general called as hardware.

• The program which makes this hardware useful is called as

software.
 Introduction to P
• 1978 - Intel released its first 16-bit microprocessor - 8086 - executes
the instructions at 2.5 MIPS (i.e 2.5 million Instruction per second).

• execution time of one instruction - 400ns (=1/MIPS=1/(2.5x106))

• 8086 can also address one megabytes (1MB=220 bytes) of memory.

• Another feature in 8086 - presence of a small 6-byte instruction

queue - so instructions fetched from memory are placed in it before
they are executed.

• higher execution speed and larger memory size

 Applications of Microprocessors
• Computer printers
• Automobiles
• Washing machines
• Microwave ovens
• Mobile phones
• Fax machines
• Xerox machines
• Advanced instruments like radar, satellites, flights etc.,
 Basic Terms
• Chip
A chip or an integrated circuit is a small, thin piece of silicon with the
required circuit and transistors etched on it to perform a particular
function.

• Bit
A bit means a single binary digit. It is either 0 or 1 for decimal it is 0 to 9.

• Bit Size
The bit size of a microprocessor refers to the number of bits that can be
processed simultaneously by the basic arithmetic circuits of the
microprocessor.

• Word
A number of bits grouped together for processing is called as word. 16-bit
binary number is called a word in a 16-bit processor.
 Basic Terms – cntd.,
• Memory word
The number of bits that can be stored in a register of memory element is
called a memory word. Mostly all memory units use 8-bits as their
memory word.

• Byte
An 8-bit word is referred to as a byte

• Nibble
A 4-bit word is referred to as a nibble

• Kilobyte
A collection of 1024 bytes is called a kilobyte (2^10 bytes)

• Megabyte
A collection of 1024 Kbytes is called a megabyte (2^20 bytes)
 Basic Terms – cntd.,
• RAM or R/W memory
a) Random Access Memory or Read/ Write memory is the type of
semiconductor memory in which a particular memory location can be
erased and written with a new data at any time.
b) These memory units are volatile, which means that the content of
the memory is erased when the power to the chip is disrupted.
c) The access of the individual memory location can be done randomly.
In microprocessors, the RAM is used to store data.

• DRAM
a) Dynamic Random Access Memory is a semiconductor memory in
which the stored contents need to be refreshed repeatedly at about
thousands of times per second.
b) Without refreshing, the stored data will be lost.
c) These memory chips are preferred in a computer system because it
is economical although slower.
 Basic Terms – cntd.,
• SRAM
– Static Random Access Memory chips keep the data stored
in it as long as power is available. There is no need for
refreshing. In terms of speed, SRAM is faster.

• ROM
– Read Only Memory are memory devices whose contents
are retained even after removing the power supply.
 Basic Terms – cntd.,
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
a) ALU is a digital circuit present in the microprocessor to do performs
arithmetic and logic operations on digital data.
b) The typical operations performed by the ALU are addition,
subtraction, Logical AND, logical OR and comparison of binary data
based on functionality of the processor.

• Microcontroller
Microcontroller is a chip that includes microprocessor, memory and I/O
signal ports. Microcontrollers can be called as single chip
microcomputers.

• Microcomputer
The system formed by interfacing microprocessor with memory, and
I/O devices to work with the required program is called microcomputer.
 Basic Terms – cntd.,
• Bus
The bus in a microprocessor system refers to a group of wires or
signals having a common functionality.

• System Bus
The System bus is a group of signals used for communication
between the microprocessor and peripherals.

• Firmware
Software written for a microprocessor application without
provision for changes. These are stored into permanent storage or
ROM of the computer system.
 Basic Terms – cntd.,
• Input device
The devices that are used for giving data to the microcomputer system are
called as input devices. Usually keyboard and mouse are the input devices
through which data and instructions are given to computer.

• Output device
The devices that are used for getting data out from the microprocessor or
microcomputer system are called as output devices. A display screen, printer
and displays are the common output devices.

• Floppy disk
A removable type magnetic disk used for storing programs and data from and
to the computer.

• Disk drive
The hardware component that is used to read or write to data to devices such as
a floppy disk.
 Basic Terms – cntd.,
• Computer architecture
The design and internal configuration and accesses in a digital
computer.

• Von-Neumann Architecture
The architecture in which the same memory is used for storing the
program as well as data.

• Harvard Architecture
The architecture in which the program and data are stored in two
separate memory units.

• CISC Processor
“Complex Instruction Set Computer”, is a processor architecture
that supports many number of machine language instructions.
 Basic Terms – cntd.,
• RISC processor
a) “Reduced Instruction Set Architecture”, is a processor architecture
that supports limited or small number of machine language instructions.
b) RISC processors are expected to execute the programs faster than
CISC processors.

• High level Language

a) A computer programming language in which programs are written
without the knowledge of the processor in which the program will be
executed.
b) BASIC, FORTRAN, C, PASCAL and JAVA are the examples of high
level languages.
 Basic Terms – cntd.,
• Assembly Language
a) A programming language written using the mnemonics or the
instruction set of a particular microprocessor.
b) Assembly language programming is microprocessor specific.
c) It cannot be easily understood like a high level language
program.
d) But these are easier than machine language program.

• Machine Language
a) The binary code programs that are specific to the processor and
can be directly executed by the processor.
b) The machine language is the lowest level program and cannot
be easily understood.
 Basic Terms – cntd.,
• Assembler
A computer application program that converts the assembly
language program into machine level language program.

• Compiler
A computer program that converts the high level language program
into machine level language program.

• Interpreter
a) A computer program that reads the high level or assembly level
program one line at time and converts that into machine level
program.
b) Compiler and assembler can function only on the entire program
in a file.
 Basic Terms – cntd.,
• Algorithm
a) A sequence of operations or instructions that defines how to solve a problem
using a computer or microcomputer.
b) An algorithm must be definite and follow a clear instruction flow without
any ambiguity and must have a definite starting and end point.
• BIOS
a) Basic Input/ Output System is a set of program that handles the input and
output functions and interacts with the hardware directly.
b) A new hardware installed must be provided with the corresponding BIOS
routines.
• Clock
a) The circuit in the computer that generates the sequence of evenly spaced
pulses to synchronize the activities of the processor and its peripherals.
b) The clock speed determines the speed of the operation of the computer.
c) The computer with a high frequency clock works faster. Normally the clock
frequency is in the range of Mega Hertz, MHz or Giga Hertz, GHz.
 Basic Terms – cntd.,
• MIPS
"Millions Instructions per Second" is a measure of the speed at which
the instructions are executed in a processor.

• Tri-state logic
a) Three Logic Levels used are High (1), Low (0), High impedance
state (Z).
b) The logic high state of digital circuit can source current and a logic
low can sink current in a computer system.
c)But high impedance state neither sources current and nor sinks
current and so the other devices connected to it are not affected.

• Operating System
a) The program that controls the entire computer and its resources and
enables users to access the computer and its resources.
 Types of Processors
• Two types of processors are manufactured
a) the microprocessor
b) the microcontroller
• The general purpose microprocessors give the computers all the
necessary computing power.
• These microprocessors need additional circuitry elements such as
memory devices, I/O ports to connect the input and output devices.
• All microprocessor based systems need two types of memories – RAM
and ROM.
 Microcontrollers
• The microcontrollers are the microprocessors designed especially for
control applications.

• Microcontrollers contain memory units and I/O ports inside a chip in

addition to the CPU part.

• Microcontrollers are otherwise called as embedded controllers are

generally used to control and operate smart machines.

• Some of the machines using microcontrollers are microwave ovens,

washing machines, sewing machines, automobile ignition systems,
computer printers and fax machines etc.
 Microprocessor based system
• The system consists of CPU, memory and I/O ports
• The interfacing of the processor with the other parts of the
microcomputer system needs three bus architecture.
• The three buses are
a) data bus,
b) address bus
c) control bus

• Each memory location or I/O port is identified by a specific

address similar to the postal address.
•The address bus consists of many lines that can have the digital
data sent by the processor.
 Microprocessor based system
• An address bus of 8 bits 28 different memory locations.

• Similarly, the 16-bit address bus can address 216 different addresses. Its
address ranges from 0000H to FFFFH.

• The higher the number of lines of address bus is, the more the locations
the processor is able to manage.

• A control bus is needed for proper data transfer between the processor
and other peripherals.

• The control bus basically consists of signals like selecting the proper
memory or I/O device from the address; signal to indicate the direction
of data transfer; and the signal to synchronize data transfer between slow
devices.