A2 Physics — Circular Motion Radians & Angular Quantities

1. The Radian r Definition

1 radian is the angle subtended at the centre
s=r
1r rad of Arc
a circle by an arc length equal
length
to the radius.
Angle (rad)
O s = rθ θ=s/r

Full circle: θ = 2π rad = 360° | π rad = 180°

2. Conversions
Degrees → Radians Radians → Degrees Example

multiply by π/180 multiply by 180/π 65° = 1.13 rad

ω θ■
s
3. Angular Displacement (∆θ) ∆θ θ■
Change in angle
The angle swept by the
radius from position 1 to 2. O
∆θ = θ■ − θ■ Units: radians (rad)

4. Angular
Angular Speed
Speed (ω) and Angular Velocity
(scalar):
Angle swept per unit time. SI unit: rad s■¹

Definition From period T From frequency f

ω=θ/t ω = 2π / T ω = 2πf

Angular Velocity (vector):

Angular speed with direction (clockwise or anticlockwise). Same formulas as above.

KEY CONSTANTS & VALUES

g (gravitational field strength on Earth) 9.81 m s■²
π (pi) 3.14159...
2π rad = 360° (one full revolution)
T (period) time for one complete revolution, in seconds
f (frequency) revolutions per second (Hz) — convert rpm: divide by 60

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A2 Physics — Circular Motion Linear Speed & Centripetal Acceleration

5. Linear Speed v and Angular Speed ωIn time ∆t, the object moves arc ∆s and sweeps angle ∆θ.
v Since ∆s = r∆θ, dividing both sides by ∆t:

KEY FORMULA Via period T Via f

a
r
v = rω v = 2πr / T v = 2πrf

Important — Rotating Rigid Body:

All particles share the SAME ω (angular speed).
Outer particles have LARGER v because v = rω and r is bigger.
The acceleration (green arrow) is always perpendicular to v (blue).
Uniform circular motion: constant SPEED, but direction changes → object is ALWAYS accelerating.

6. Centripetal
Even at constantAcceleration
speed, the direction of v changes → there is acceleration.
The centripetal acceleration always points TOWARDS THE CENTRE of the circle.

In terms of v In terms of ω Mixed form

a = v² / r a = rω² a = vω

Proof that a = vω:

Start with a = v²/r and v = rω → r = v/ω
Substitute: a = v² ÷ (v/ω) = v² × (ω/v) = vω ✓

Worked example (flywheel):

r = 20.0 cm = 0.200 m, f = 10 Hz (600 rpm ÷ 60)
ω = 2πf = 2π(10) = 62.8 rad s■¹ | v = rω = 0.200 × 62.8 = 12.6 m s■¹ | a = rω² = 0.200 × 62.8² = 790 m s■²

Unit reminder:
v in m s■¹ | ω in rad s■¹ | r in metres | a in m s■² | T in seconds | f in Hz (= s■¹)
Convert rpm → Hz: divide by 60. Convert cm → m: divide by 100.

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A2 Physics — Circular Motion Centripetal Force & Applications

7. Centripetal
From Force centripetal acceleration:
F = ma, substitute

In terms of v In terms of ω Mixed form

F = mv² / r F = mrω² F = mvω

CRITICAL EXAM POINT: Centripetal force is ALWAYS the resultant force towards the centre. It is NOT a new, separate
force. Always identify which real force(s) provide it.

Common sources of centripetal force:

Object on a string: Tension T
Moon orbiting Earth: Gravitational attraction
Car on a bend: Friction between tyres and road
Plane banking / conical pendulum: Horizontal component of lift / tension

8. Conical Pendulum Mass m on string length L, rotating at angle θ to vertical.

Resolving T into components:

Vertical (balances weight)

θ
Tcosθ = mg
T
r
Tcosθ
Horizontal (centripetal)

Tsinθ Tsinθ = mv²/r

Dividing: tanθ = v² / rg
mg
Angle formula
θ = tan■¹ (v² / rg)
Also: radius r = L sinθ
θ cannot equal 90° — because cos90° = 0, so Tcosθ = 0 ≠ mg. The weight would be unsupported.

9. Object
Normal Moving
reaction in at
R acts angle θ. Resolving:
a Horizontal Circle (e.g. ball in bowl, banked road)

Vertical: supports weight Horizontal: centripetal Result

Rsinθ = mg Rcosθ = mv²/r tanθ = rg/v²

Note: for a banked road, friction may also act. If frictionless, only R provides centripetal force.
For an aircraft banking: Lcosθ = mg (vertical), Lsinθ = mv²/r (horizontal), where L = lift force.

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A2 Physics — Circular Motion Motion in a Vertical Circle

10. Tension in a Vertical Circle For an object on a string moving in a vertical circle,
the resultant force towards the centre = centripetal force.
At angle θ from the BOTTOM (i.e. θ=0 at A, θ=180° at B):

General formula (LEARN THIS)

T − mgcosθ = mv²/r → T = mv²/r + mgcosθ

T_B = mv²/r - B
mg (LEAST)

At the BOTTOM (A) — θ = 0°, cos0° = 1:

mg
T_B
Tension at bottom
T_A = mv²/r + mg
→ GREATEST tension. String most likely to break here.

O T_C C At the TOP (B) — θ = 180°, cos180° = −1:

T_C = mv²/r
Tension at top
mg
T_B = mv²/r − mg
→ LEAST tension (T and mg both point inward).
T_A
At the SIDE (C) — θ = 90°, cos90° = 0:

A Tension at side
T_A = mv²/r + mg mg
(GREATEST)
T_C = mv²/r
→ Weight is perpendicular to T: no effect on centripetal force.

Common mistake: at the top, both T AND mg point inward. So T + mg = mv²/r, giving T = mv²/r − mg. At the bottom, T
points inward but mg points outward, so T − mg = mv²/r.

11. Minimum
The Speed
string (or track) can to Complete
only a Vertical
pull, not push. condition: T ≥ 0.
Circle
Minimum
At the top, set T = 0 (critical condition):
T + mg = mv²/r → 0 + mg = mv²/r → v² = rg

Minimum speed at top Equivalent condition

v_min = √(rg) a_c ≥ g at the top

This applies to: ball on a string, car on inside of loop, roller-coaster loop.

[Link]
At Car
topon Outside
of a of Vertical
hill, normal reaction RCircle (hill / hump)
acts upward, weight mg acts downward.
Centripetal direction is downward (inward = towards centre of circle):

At top of hill R = 0 when car loses contact: Min speed (no contact)
mg − R = mv²/r v = √(rg)

If R < 0, the car has left the road. To stay on: centripetal force < weight, i.e. v < √(rg).

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A2 Physics — Circular Motion Energy Conservation & Exam Summary

[Link]
In Energy Conservation
circles, speed variesin(unlike
Vertical Circles
horizontal circles) because height changes.
Use conservation of energy to find speed at any point:

Conservation of mechanical energy

E_kA + E_pA = E_kB + E_pB → ½mv_A² + mgh_A = ½mv_B² + mgh_B

Set A at the bottom (h=0) and B at the top (h=2r) for a complete circle:
½mv_A² = ½mv_B² + mg(2r) → v_A² = v_B² + 4gr
Then substitute v_B into T_B = mv_B²/r − mg to find tension at the top.
This 2-step approach (energy → tension) is a very common 9702 multi-part question.

14. Complete
Radians Formula Reference
& displacement Angular & linear speed Acceleration Force

θ = sfrom
angle / r arc & radius ω = θ /speed
angular t a = v² / raccel.
centripetal F = mv²force
centripetal /r

arc=length
s rθ ω = period
from 2π / T a = rω² accel.
centripetal F = mrω²force
centripetal

∆θ = θ■
angular − θ■
displacement ω = frequency
from 2πf a = vω accel.
centripetal F = mvωforce
centripetal

2π rad = 360°
full circle v = rω
linear from angular

v = 2πr
linear from /period
T
Vertical circles
T = mv²/r
general + (measured
tension mgcosθfrom bottom)

bottom:=MAXIMUM
T_A mv²/r +tension
mg

T_B = mv²/r
top: MINIMUM − mg
tension

min speed=to√(rg)
v_min complete circle (at top)

E_kA + E_pA =between

energy conservation E_kBtwo
+ E_pB
points

15.
1 Top Examforce
Centripetal Tips for 9702 force. Name the real force providing it (T, mg, friction, R, N).
= RESULTANT

2 Always identify what angle θ is measured FROM (usually the bottom in 9702 questions).

3 Tension is GREATEST at the bottom, LEAST at the top. The string breaks at the bottom.

4 v_min = √(rg) at the top — used for strings (T=0) AND car-on-loop (R=0) problems.

5 rpm → Hz: divide by 60. cm → m: divide by 100. Always check units before substituting.

6 Multi-step questions: use energy conservation to find speed, then use F=ma for tension/reaction.

7 Conical pendulum: θ cannot be 90° (weight unsupported). Larger ω → larger θ.

8 In uniform circular motion, speed is constant but velocity is NOT (direction changes).

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