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Module - 5 (Quantum Computing)

The document discusses quantum computing, highlighting its reliance on quantum mechanics principles such as superposition and entanglement, which allow quantum bits (qubits) to exist in multiple states simultaneously. It contrasts classical computing, which operates on binary bits and Boolean algebra, with quantum computing's probabilistic nature and potential for exponential processing power. Additionally, it touches on Moore's Law and its implications for the future of computing technology.

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5 views40 pages

Module - 5 (Quantum Computing)

The document discusses quantum computing, highlighting its reliance on quantum mechanics principles such as superposition and entanglement, which allow quantum bits (qubits) to exist in multiple states simultaneously. It contrasts classical computing, which operates on binary bits and Boolean algebra, with quantum computing's probabilistic nature and potential for exponential processing power. Additionally, it touches on Moore's Law and its implications for the future of computing technology.

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bharathnk0506
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M-5. Quantum, a Quantum Physics & Applications —_—_—_—— Quantum Computing §.1 Introduction erging field focused on the development of oq, = Quantum computing is a rapidly, emerg ntum Physics. Quantum Physics explains thera, technologies centered on the Ce an (atomic and subatomic) scale Blenen mocinplindabannale ons wo scons can exist in two or more states at a time, Th mn . . ——— ized in cee quantum computation processing units ang, fa i assical computation : / — of bits to perform specific computational tasks wi greater efficiency than their classical counterparts. ae though quantum Computers aFe Not goin to replace classical computers, quantum technology is significantly changing the way the wor operates. The quantum computer gains much of its processing power through the ability for bits to be in multiple states simultaneously. They can perform tasks using a combination of 1’s, (' and both | and 0 at a time 5.1.1 Brief History In 1981, Paul Benioff at Argonne National Labs came up with the idea of a computer that operates with quantum mechanical principles, In 1984, David Deutsch of Oxford University provided the critical idea behind quantum Computing research and the possibility of designing a computer that is based exclusively on quantum rules, 0 5.1.2 The Essential Elements of Quantum Theory © The dual nature of the matter i considered The state of a particle is Tepresent information about that particle * The measurements are not deter Uncertainty Principle) ¢ Energy, angular momentum, spin and * Microscopic world (atomic and subator governed by entirely different Tules. LS . ted by wave function (y). It contains all the measureable Tministic, They are probabilistic (according to Heisenberg charge are quantized ic and mic) is explained where outcomes are probabilistic an eee aa egy ee. tur physics & Applications. que! uantum Computing v ftoore’s law and Limitations of VLSI s, Gordon E. Moore—co-for . f packed into a given unit yon aD Postulated that “the number of transistors that a re Wil e . The t fy own aS Moore's Law louble about every eighteen months”. This is also FR e did not i 5 aol fe thi ae “ oe 4s "Moore's Law," nor did he set out to create a "law" Moore made this statement based on noticin; Ae : . i 8 emerging trends in chi i : i tor industry. . ig trends in chip manufacturing at the nonductor industry. Eventually, Moore's insight beeame a preicton, which in tun became the golden rule known as Moore's Law, PI ion, which in turn ame Moore's Law implies that computers, machines that run on computers, aller, faster, a a: and computing power all become smi » and cheaper with time, as transistors on integrated circuits become more efficient. Here is a graphic representation for microprocessors ‘so [apnoea eae Intel CPUs are. | lem sooo} . erce ‘6 (Pentium g j fee) | sedan & 000 (ent) 4 \_ Moore's Law Trend Line i _.. < 5 i 3 t \ w 100) § . 3 cS \ E som} |} ~~ 5 14 i. LA ii H 1 : 7 & Doubling time of fitted line is 2.0 years. 7 BE . hoon 15am. : if 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 a 5.2.1 Impact of Moore’s Law on Computing Moore’s Law has had a direct impact on the progress of computing power. What this means specifically, is that transistors in integrated circuits have become faster. Transistors conduct electricity, which contain carbon and silicon molecules that can make the electricity run faster across the circuit. ‘The faster the integrated circuit conducts electricity, the faster the computer operates. FIs Moore’s Law Coming to an End? (Limitations of VLSI) ~~ Jectronic industry for computers grows hand-in-hand with the decrease in size of the, ee 4 circuits. This miniaturization is necessary to increase computational power, that is(the ee f floating-point operations per second (FLOPS) a computer can perform. In 1950’s, number © computers were capable of performing approximately 10° FLOPS while present electro uters have a power greater than 10" FLOPS] According to Moore’s law, the number super ol + : . : . ansist0FS that may be placed on a single integrated circuit chip doubles approximately every t 133 M-5. Quantum C i ics & Applications ne Q OMPUting ie r ceont hmit as approximately 10" transistors per chip and the typical Size ‘eet (wi nano meters. That means, we have reached the atom and quantum effects have become *mavoidably Is 24 months omponents sof the order of | ys osingle bit of information stormy inant factors into consideration, if is necessary to look for alternative Ways of of the electrons and silicon transistors. One such alternative is quanturp Taking all these compunng outside computing Quantum computers are based on quantum bits (qubits) and use quantum effects like sovition and entanglement to their benefit, hence overcoming the miniaturization Problems of classical computing. §.3 Classical and Quantum Computing Classical computing relies on principles of Boolean algebra. Data must be processed in an exclusive binary state at any point in time; either 0 (off / false) or 1 (on / true). The millions of transistors and capacitors at the heart of computers can only be in one state at any point. In addition, there is still a limit as to how quickly these devices can be made to switch states. As we Progress to smaller and faster circuits, we begin to reach the physical limits of materials and the limitations for classical laws of physics to apply The quantum computer operates with a two-mode logic gate. In a quantum computer, a number of elemental particles such as electrons or photons can be used. Each particle is given a charge or polarization, acting as a representation of 0 and/or 1. Each particle is called a quantum bit, or qubit. The nature and behaviour of these particles form the basis of quantum computing. The two most relevant aspects of quantum physics are the principles of superposition and entanglement. "at ; tum Physics & Applications M-5. Quantum Computing a as —— 7 Comparison Key cp —_—_—J | Basis of - | computing _— 1 Differences between classical and quant Classical Computer Large scale multi purpose computer based on classical Physics " im computing a Quantum Computer based on | High speed computer quantum mechanics Information storage Bit-based information Storage using voltage/charge Quantum bit-based information storage | using electron spin or polarization Bit values Bits having a value of either 0 or 1 can have a single value at any instant Qubits have a value of 0, 1 or | sometimes linear combination of both, (a property known as superposition) Number of possible states The number of possible states is 2 which is either 0 or 1 The number of possible states is infinite | since it can hold combinations of 0 or | | along with some complex information | Output Deterministic (repetition of computation on the same input gives the same output) Probabilistic (repetition of computation on superposed states gives probabilistic answer) Gates used for processing Logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) Quantum gates (X, Y, Z, H, CNOT etc.) Operations ee eee Operations use Boolean Algebra Circuit implemented in macroscopic Operations use linear algebra and are | represented with unitary matrices Circuits implemented in microscopic technologies (e.g. nuclear magnetic resonance) that are slow and delicate Circuit technologies (e.g. CMOS) that are fast implementation and scalable je i rties — AParekiconc tof qubit and its properties qn I ee nce] ; eed its to qubit (Dirac notations) Y it 5.4.1 From DI ‘A digital ically, # i. Physics 7 any oF comp! t can be an! sented by “I rep! the oe system 1°t could be a ight bulb that i with two uter stores and processes information using bits, which can be either oe 7 ything that has two distinct configurations: one represented by “0”, an s on or off, a coin that is heads or tails, taints ing and distinct and distinguishable possibilities. }In modern computing an —— M-5. Quantum Comp, Quantum Physics & Applications © Mmunicat NS, “O" and sy bits a sented by t Pespectively sp : rrr is the quantum version of abit . AVUbIt is the physical carrier of quantum information 10) and) |) this notation joy ts ] evels, labelled |0) a : : is “tte erms of two levels, i Wy, antum state can be written in tert are together called a5 Dirae mh “ket” notation and (is known as “brac’ notation, Both are toge © MOtation, AS “ket notation and Al bee “Ket” is analogous to a column vector. | i ente dimensional column Vectors as They are also called basis vectors and represented by two-d 8 fo) o)=[f] m=) The qubit can be in any one of the two states as well as in the superposed state Simultaneousy log In quantum computation two distinguishable states ofa system are needed to data. For example, two states of an electron orbiting a single atom is shown figure. Spin up is taken as |1) and spin down is taken as is |0) and excited state level is [1) Tepresent a bit of in the followin |0). Similarly ground state energy Levey Excited level 10) Ground level Qubit represented by two electronic levels This is the abstract notion ofa qubit. The quantum computers actually use a physical type of qubit called a Superconducting qubit made from Superconducting materials which is discussed in later sections of this chapter (of, course, there are other approaches also to build the qubits) 5.4.2 Complex vector Space Vector space is a Set of elemer numbers. Addition of two v should not be confused with nts (or vectors) which are added together or multiplied by real ectors or multiplic: ‘ation of a vector by a scalar is satisfied here. It vector field re members of complex Vector space*, ctor of n Each member of this dimensions with single | at the lo ‘0 a particular basis vector. It is as follows cation corresponding * Complex vector Space is a vector space which contains complex numbers 136 wsics & Applications we * M-5. Quantum Computing 1 0 7 0 0 : 0 0 10) =101 1) = Jo coo 0 ° ' Here we use only two dimensions (or only two sets). Hi Sets). Hence we =f) w= write as 43 Superposition of two states ‘the difference between qubits and classical bits j se its is that a qubit can be li inati ae in a linear combination ors | ey ne For ex, if x and B are the probability amplitudes of . ate in exci ie, i Sey and in excited state (ie, in |1) state) then the linear =a 0) + BIL) The numbers a and B are complex but due to normalization conditions jel? +1B1? = 1. 2: a : . Here |ec|*is the probability of finding jp) in state |0) and |B |?is the probability of finding |p) in state |1). So, we have to keep in mind that when a qubit is measured, it only gives either ‘0° or _ ‘I’as the measurement result — probabilistically. Consider the following example of qubit representation 1 1 = FeO) + eID 1 1 KS a and B= Vi 1 Ix)? = BP = This means that with 50% probability the qubit will be found in |0) state as well as in|1) state. is me The superposed 2 5.4.4 Properties oF UNS aad veg make USE of discrete energy state particles such as electrons and photons. bits 1, Qu tates are also called as space states where as |0) and |1) are called basis states. 137 M-5. Quantum Comput Quantum Physics & Applications. Wy ina linear combination of both states 1) Qubits exists in two quantum state {0) and |1) or ina linear com CS, This i nti logical state: known as superposition. This property allows for exponentially many logi lates A Ong (and no classical computer can achieve it) When the qubit is measured, it collapses to one of the two basis states |0) or |1), - (Collapse of wave function) - Quantum entanglement and quantum tunnelling are two exclusive properties of qubit State of the gubits is represented using Bloch sphere. Unlike classical bits, qubit can work with the overlap of both 0 & 1 states. For ex, Tegister' can store one number from 0 to 15 (because of 2"= 24= store all 16 numbers 44-bit 16), but 4-qubit Tegister can After studying the physics of Qubits it is now time to look at the mathematics of Start with the representation of qubit using Bloch sphere in a vector space. Later towards single qubit, multi qubit, tensor operation, _SSBloch sphere -~ Bloch sphere is an imaginary sphere which is used to represent On its surface, It has unit radius, Its North Pole and South Pole states namely |0) and |1). North Pole Tepresents |0) (say spin up?) and South Pole Tepresents |1) (say spin down 4). All other points on the sphere Tepresent superposed states (ie, state space). Bloch sphere allows the state of a qubit to be represented in spherical coordinates (ie, r, 8 and ¢), It is as follows qubits. Let Us On We proceed Operators and matrix representation pure single-qubit states as a Point are selected to represent the basis O 11) ‘South pole — * Register ~ is a group of flip-flops. Its basic function is to hy itavailable to 1old information within a digital system so as to make it available r, the logic units during the computing process. However, a regist chit. fer may also have additional capabilities associated wit — =A ym Physics & Applications Ms. quantum Computing estate qatit 1) on the Bloch sphere makes an angle 0 with z-axis and its projection ( azimuth) ssanele with x-axis as shown. It is clear from the fig that 0 < @ 1 IFO = n/2 and p= n/2, we get yy = EID) mee li, If @ = 7/2 and = -1/2, we get 0) — i}1) ME In the above discussion we have tepresented only single qubit state. Bloch sphere is a nice visualization of single qubit states. You can try for different values of @ and . 5.6 Multiple Qubits Single qubits are interesting, but individually they offer no comp now look at how to Tepresent multiple qubits, utational advantage. We will and how these qubits can interact with each Other, "Vector SI Pace is a set of Addition orn elements (or vectors i ) which are added together or multiplied by real numbers Vector fed "° ¥°0"S or mutiplication of or vector by a scalar is satisfied here. | rs It should not be confuse wt 140 — ——— quantum Physics & Applications M-5. Quantum Computing XyX2 = |*12 V@Vv= ViX2 YiY2. pased on this we can write 00) as follows 1 1 1 mer-| i = ° ofall ts Sometimes we avoid the symbol @ and write directly as 1 =|0 100) =| 0 Similarly 0 0 1 101) =| 5) |10) = H and |11) -| 0. 0. The state qubit is (ie, linear combination of these four) oo } IF) = ctoo|00) + c101/01) + Guo|10) + oxif1) For 2 qubit system we have 4 complex amplitudes Namely coo, ctor, oo and Gu. According to normalization condition eo latool? + laos |? + layo|? + lay? =4 Similarly if there are 3 qubits there will be 8 complex amplitudes and in general for n qubits we will have 2" complex amplitudes. This means that a basis state is Tepresented by a number 0 to 2 ' The superposition state is represented as gna =P xx) x=0 . states similar to the classical binary stat Qubit has two an in the superposed state simultaneously the two states as wi 5.7 Physical type of qubits . made up of superconductor devices called SQUIDS and henee they i f qubits are ; Physical type ©! “ termed as superconductor qu are es. The qubit can be in any one of 144 SEE EEE EERE EReR ere RET EREPErEERET ere eeererEEr EEE eEeeeee ae Quantum Physics & Applications M-5. Quantum Computing To under liar concept in classica| fully charged capacitor that LC circuit acts and superconducting qubits let us start with something fami clectronies ~ an LC eireuit, An LC circuit consists of an inductor and a In this circuit electric energy converts into magnetic energy and vice versa $0 like a harmonic oscillator. 1 Harmonic oscillator = 4.2 A system vibrating about an equilibrium position or vibrating with equilibrium configuration is known as harmonic oscillator. In harmonic oscillator there is a linear relation between restoring force and the displacement. Simple pendulum, an object supported by spring system or floating ina fluid, atoms in crystal, a diatomic molecule ete. are the examples for harmonic oscillator. Or any oscillator with small amplitudes of oscillation can be treated as harmonic oscillator. These oscillators are classified into classical and quantum harmonic oscillators. Simple pendulum, an object supported by spring system or floating in a fluid are classical whereas electrons in the atom, atoms in crystal, a diatomic molecule are quantum mechanical oscillators. There are many differences between them. Two main differences are i. The probability of finding the classical oscillator is maximum at the extreme position and minimum at the equilibrium position. It is just opposite for quantum mechanical oscillator ii. The energy of the classical oscillator is continuous whereas that of quantum mechanical oscillator is discrete Using Schrodinger wave equation we can show that the energy of an oscillator is En =(n+5) ar Where / = Planck’s constant, /'= frequency of oscillation and n = 0,1,2,3,----- 5. Quantum Computing M-! Quantum Physics & Applications . . : d According to this equation cnergy levels of harmonic oscillator are discrete and equally space . «(2 as shown in fig. The difference between any two successive levels is G hv). When a particle bound to Such a system makes a transition from a higher-energy state to a lower- energy state, a photon of energy hfis emitted. Similarly, when the particle makes a transition from nergy state to a higher-energy state, the smallest-energy quantum hf is absorbed by the - There are infinite levels and we can use any two of them (say n =1 and n= 2) to build wever unfortunately there are a few obstacles. a lower-e; If the restoring force is not linearly dependent on the displacement then the oscillation is called as anharmonic. In anharmonic oscillation the amplitude is large and energies are not equally spaced. The spacing between the levels becomes less at higher energy values (ie, they are closely spaced at higher energy values). In the following fig, dotted lines are anharmonic oscillator levels whereas solid lines are for harmonic. At higher temperature the molecules vibrate with larger amplitude and hence oscillations are anharmonic. The concept of anharmonicity is useful to understand molecular spectroscopy to explain thermal expansion to study non-linear optics in astronomical studies in quantum technologies 7 oe for anharmonicity in quantum technologies ~~ i i i illator is i en any two successive levels in harmonic osci Acero Eee ee : a levels and selectively excite. For ex, you it i ible to di: : , paren oe as |0), 1* excited state as |1), the second excited a as . and . designate groun aa excite |0) 1) there is every possibility of exciting | 1) = ee ; i removes a seausneldets a ossible to isolate two level system for qubit. Anharmonicity remove it is imp —>|3). Hence 1! M-5. Quantum Compuy) Quantum Physics Appl ions ced, The excity evels are not uniformly spa Maton the problem of isolate because the energy level iivler intentionally accidentally 0} § 2 particular ¢ : erate on only One Pp ub 1 By tuning into precise frequency it is possible (0 oa gubit can be targeted. | without spilling (leaking) into other qubits. 1¢. 4 es ve to charge or flux noise. Tp, Higher order anharmonicity makes the qubit more sensitt aisha a . and leads to more accurate quan Ip OF 10) +11) does not excite |) 9/2) either increases the quantum gate fidelity 5.8. Principle of SQUID as qubit oe The main principle behind the designing of qubit is ‘discreteness or’ aan suibs . . that charge, magnetic flux and phase are quantized (discrete in nature). 7 os : ave charges (Cooper pairs), magnetic flux and phase (of matter wave associate wi ' per pairs By controlling these parameters across the junction using electromagnetic: pulses we can manipulate the quantum states and thereby generate ‘bits’. Accordingly there will be three types in gubits namely charge qubit, flux qubit and phase qubit t irge qubit The basic idea of charge qubit is to create a small superconducting area called island which is connected to a circuit in such a way that we can control the number of charge carriers located on the island. The number of cooper pairs located in this island is also called as Cooper pair box. In charge qubit the basis states are charge states (ie. states which represent the presence or absence of excess Cooper pairs in the island) The circuit consists of RF SQUID, a capi is island and it encloses SQUID and Capacitor, Cooper A number of Cooper pairs entering and leaving the (ie, variation in the energy levels). We can use any two The charge qubit is typically read-out by electrostatical|y tive electrometer : of these energy levels to represent qubi coupling the island to an extremely sensi M-5. Quantum Computing Quantum Physics g. Applications SoS. Quantum Computing USS Dirac representation and Matrix operations ~~ ; anics, Brac-Ket Notation is a standard notation for describing quantum states. The notation | ) is known as “ket’ notation and (| is known as ‘brac’ notation, Both are together called as Dirac Rotations, The ‘ket’ vector ‘Ypically Te Presented as a column vector and “brac’ vector typically represented aS 8 TOW Vector ag follows (0) = lal jy) = fl ----LL Ket notations 40] = [4 ) (= [0 qj---- brac notations Hence, any arbitrary State can a >= [a] or ty) = ao) +Bi1) ‘aC notations Some of the Properties of these Notations are i. 5.9.2 Properties of Dir: Addition of two kets gives another ket (commutative) 1A) + [B) = |cy = 1B) + |A) Addition of kets obeys associative Property IA) + (1B) + |c)) = (1A) + [B)) + |c) Tfci and c are scalars or a complex numbers and IA) (cr + c2)IA) = cA) 4 C214) iii, isa ket then iv. In a complex vector Space for every ket there is unique brac, Brac ig the Hermitian’ Conjugate of the ket, ial Hye = then (4| = [At 43) If|A) (i (l= [Ay 43 ve Bracs are useful in calculating probability amplitudes, For ex, the probability amplitude of |1) is B which can be calculated as follows (1||'%) = (1Jo|0) + (1B |1) (1||¥) = a(1| [0) +B (1411) z 1 (1H) = alo a}[o]+sto xa[f] (1[¥) =ax0+Bx1 Will be discussed later 445 ——— a NN —_ M-5, Quantum Computing Quantum Physics & Applications Pease hth itech (IM) » ff Similarly (OM) a vi 1 (Uj and (Vjare two braces then (Ua VPs avy $10 Operators and matrices cn function inte another function An operator is a mathematical rule that transform a gly! bx V4 = 2. Here Vix a square root operator, I transforms 4 to 2 : , 1" D = “is adiflerentiate operator. It transforms 20° to 6x Similar to this we have the following example. In this case operator *A* transforms the vector Ja) to another vector |b) A |a) = |b) There are different types of operators like Linear operator, Identity operator, Null operator, Inverse operator, Singular & non-singular operator etc. 5.10.1 Identity operator ‘I 7 The identity operator is an operator which, operating ona function, leaves the function unchanged 1.¢ Ia) = |a) Its given in matrix form by 1 0 [| O71 This 1s also called as identity matrix, There will be no change when / operates on cither |0) state or ]1) state. It is explained as follows 110) [5 iHlal= lal 10) = |0) Similarly mf lil tl sTl) = |1) Mdentity matrix acts as number 1, [tis always a square matrix 146 aa _ quantum Physics g Applications M-5. Quantum Computing ers recom eng 610.2 Conjugate Matrices ifthe clement in, corresponding coy v F MAU A are complex numbers, then the matrix obtained by the MuBate SoMplex elements is called the conjugate of A and is denoted by A’. Fore Sam ef ol oa) then A’ = lee aa | IfA= fas [ i =i t as 1 ai . 1) 2 bis o] then = ta Gl fas & —i 5.10.3 Transpose Matrices Ifcolumns and row, 'S Of a matrix i and represented ag AT Foren Aare interchanged then the Tesultant matrix ig transpose of A to fa=[1 dl then a" =[} 2] | then 4* = li I IfA= |e a then AT =i 1 2i 1 4i+1 IfA= i= i aa 9] then lai ial 5.10.4 Hermitian matrices 2 The transpose of complex conjugate of a matrix is known as Hermitian Operator (also called as adjoint operator) and the resultant matrix is known as Hermitian matrix. It is represented by at Let A be a matrix, A” be its complex conjugate and A*” is its transpose then its Hermitian matrix is At =a‘? Ex: 1 ai then A* = fA=[41 ol 1 a) 2i 0 M-5. Quantum Computin, Quantum Physics & Applications 5.10.5 Unitary matri : ts Y matrices fie i “ rantity malti hen multiplied by its conjugate Matrix A is said to be unitary if it produces an identity matrix Iwi transpose AAt = 1 afi juga nose is equal to its reciprocal, ie In other words, A is a unitary matrix if its conjugate transpose 1s eq we can show that A =5 at le §.11 Inner product Introduction Let U = x,i+ yyj +2,k and V = x2i + y2j + 22k be the two vectors in real space then their dot product is ULV = x4X2 + V2 + 2422 IfU = V then UU = |UP? = x2 +23 +23 The length of the resultant vector is |U] = VU.U = x? + yz + ze In matrix form U and V are written as % XQ U= | and V = b: 21 22 And the dot product is written as X2 UV = [xyy,24] |y2| = uTy 22 This dot product is also called as inner product. | pe In real space inner product is same as dot product of two vectors and it finally gives scala ir quantity, In quantum computing the vectors are the members of ¢, l b ‘omplex space and the inner product gives a complex number < eeepc eee PEE Eee Eee EEE ics & Application wt" physi ions By eon onarn io” of inner product uw i re" ant roduct of two vectors U and V in the complex space is a function that takes Uand ein” es and produces a complex number as output yo" : ; ’ ans of Dirac notation, the inner product is given as Uv : v vr F uly) =e io fil and|V) = yl be the two vectors. Their inner product is written as (UV) yd = ly 2 js equal to conjugate transpose of |U) a ie, (U\ =U")? = WU) = Ba yi} euwy=ba yfg)= ee te e square root of the inner product of a vector with itself is also called as morm or the length of the vector. It is given by i= V0) gy (1):Find the inner product of = [47 anal = fal First we shall find the conjugate transpose of \U) ieee w= fe + i yt =(3-i 444) Uy = yt = BE 4+il i 7 [3t (lv) = [3 -é a+a[h] y= G-)x3it G@+O%4 (ulvy = 91+ 3 + 16+ 41 (ulv) = 131+ 19 a a, Ex (2): Find the inner product of |4) = Lisl with itself the conjugate transpose of |A) poor ea Utes (“sl 149 First we shall find IN M-5. Quantu Quantum Physics & Applications = op, |U)' =a ib] a (Al= la =ib] ay fa (AJA) = [a ~ibl {| (AlA) = a? + (—ib)(ib) (AlA) = a? + b? Ex(3): find the norm of |U) = ij 2 4 \U| = yuu) l= |[t+e als Wl=VQ+)0-)+2x2=Visisd=yG 5.12 Orthogonality ‘~ If the inner product of two vectors is equal to 0 then they are said to be orthogonal (or Perpendicular) to each other If(U|V) = 0 then [U) and |V) are perpendicular. Consider, m=[] w=] Then ol)=[1 of{]=0 Hence |0) is perpendicular to |1) The most important Property of the inner product of a vector with itself is equal to one ie, (lp) = 1 This is known as normalization condition. The physical significance of normalization is that the “probability amplitude" of the quantum system is] 5.13 Orthonormality ne If each element of a set of vectors is normalized and the elements are orthogonal : a i ati each other, we say the set is orthonormal (ortho + normalization = orthonormaliz with respect to Sete quantum Physics & Applications Consider the set m= w= c= O[f}=140=4 normalized gol) ={1 0} tl =0+0=0 orthogonal alt)=[0 4] =0+1=1 normalized (ajo) ={0 1] (il =0+0=0 orthogonal Hence set of (0) and |1) is orthonormal i Matrices and their Properties ee These are the 2x2 complex matrices introduced by Pauli in order to account for the interaction of the spin with an external electromagnetic field. They are given by nroatB -i ol a aee ( “I NOTE: X, Y and Z are also called as X - gate, Y- gate and Z- gate a= o,=¥=[? 5.14.1 Properties of Pauli matrices 1, The most important property of Pauli matrices is that square of all the three matrices gives an identity matrix I. For ex, aL dit d= sop! In general So, they are unitary —_—_——— 151 M-5. Quantum Comp Quantum Physics & Applications uy X- gate V-gate Input Input | ee ae _| 0) 1) |0) ea yee a0) +Bl1) | ia[1)—iB|0) | a0) + pl1) 10) ~ gi) Symbolically these gates are represented as follows @|0)+p)1) e—___] X [_———* _ a1) + Bo) @l0) + B|1) ¢@——___| Y+-— ia|1)—ig|o) Zs att) pny 5.14.3 Limitation of Pauli matrices or Pauli gates Using only the Pauli- than |0) or |1 ) Le. we c to that of a classical bit a0) + B11) Bates it is impossible to move ‘annot achieve Superposition, This t. To create more interestin, 5 Quantum Gates Our initialized qubit to any state other means we can see no behaviour different g states we need more gates lassical gate, quantum operation on qubits, Quantum and are the building blocks of all qui isa very simple Computing device that performs Bates are one of the essential parts of a quantum computer ‘antum algorithms, Quantum gates are mathematically Tepresented as transformation matrices that are unitary and the Operations performed by these Bales are reversible. Each unitary transformation U has inverse transformation Ut so that nw io. ics & Applications ms M-5, Quantum: Computing uut =] cee ey e t a aryl \ _ question is that why ge question is that why quantum gates shall be unitary in nature” It can be a follows al property of qubits is that they are restri rudes square is equal 1. estricted by the normalization conditiot ile + pi =1 ates operate on set of qubits and transform them to another q\ preserve the normalization throughout the whole process. The only gates are inevitably unitary reversible. The outputs can be ecause all unitary ine wel n, i.e tli ym £ uantum state. These as must possible cil F is uni : ° qn 108 this purpose is unitary matrices. Hence the quantum a tant feature of ‘quantum gate is that they are always from inputs and inputs can be retrieved from outputs. This is b at : : # att reversible as explained earlier s reversible. For ex ,, tithe product of a number and its reciprocal is equal to 1, then the number i axtet 3° ere are different types of quantum gates. Single-qubit gates can flip a qubit from 0 to | as well jalowing superposition states to be created. Two-qubit gates allow the qubits to interact with ihother and can be used to create quantum wg strange phenomenon that can’t be ruined by classical physics). Some of the important single qubit gates are discussed here. They are represented by 2.x 2 matrix. (Note that X, Y and Z gates are already discussed earlier under teheading Pauli’s matrices. So, it is a sort of repetition) 15.1 Single qubit gates a 15.1.1 Hadamard Gate — The gate to superposition ate that brings a qubit into a superposition state. Similar to The Hadamard Gate is a well-known gi d Gate acts on a single qubit, and can be represented by a2 x 2 tie Pauli-X gate, the Hadamar tatrix as follows Hadamard gate brings o qubit in superposition Sse EEE CELE EL ELEELE eee Coenen AR M-5. Quantum, Quantum Physics & Applications mH, ye Ha ) v2 ( = Hadamard gate operates on a quobit that is in the [0) state, 1x1+1x0 in Hie == (1 (; : Jal ali “alll 0) + [1) Hie) == []= Sl +1)= 7 (0) + |1) tee rel (0) i @ ii, Hadamard gate Operates on a qubit that is in the |1) state, a ye 1xO0+1x17_ 174 Hil) == BG + -1 )il-s lion, -3 _ 10) -{1) Alt SL ‘I-3 yl - aa ==) Ai) = (2) iii. Ifa sy Perposed qubit goes through H Bate, the result will be = Wes ( i) lel aliens ALE ah [cvs +B = it 1 = = 1 Rg s wll + — s = a BS quantum Physics & Applications M-5. Quantum Computing he above equations shows that, after applying the Hadamard gate to a qubit that are in [0) & [1) gates enter a NeW superposed states. This is the major difference between X, Y, Zand H gates. In x. Yand Z gates we get only single state whereas in H gate we get superposed state. The probability of measuring 0 and | is 1 oiy? 4 ta) (a) =} v2! \y2/ 2 The truth table is as follows INPUT OUTPUT jo) +11) 0) i jo) = 11) i) 5 (0) — |1) I) = alo) +]1) Oe oe The circuit symbol is as follows 10)+|1) |, 10)-11) +p——. v2 v2 a|0)+B/1) e————> H a 5.152 Phase Gate (SGate) | ~~ The Phase gate or S gate is a gate that transfers |0) into |0) and |1) into i|1). It is represented as sf i, If we apply S gate to a state |0) it will remain same fi 0 — fi) + oy sio) = [5 il ll [oy si] = tl 510) = |0) ii, If we apply S gate to a state |1) it will be transformed into i|1) 157 M-5. Quantum Comp Quantum Physics & Applications Mt {0 Oy poy _ fH) + 00) _ pO), sm=[ Il 0(0) + i(1) le S|1) = if) s ip|1 in transforms the state a|0) + B]1)to the state a0) + ip|1) sw= [5 il Lal Ue The truth table is as follows ——— eee Input Output L (0) (9) | | ia) #) S| = al0) + Blt) 0) + ip|1) Se | The symbol is as follows (0) + B\1) S| a0) + ip|1) SASHST- Gate a The T-gate is a Very commonly used Sate and it is given by 1 0 mE 0 e4 1 If the input is 10) then the Output is also |0) ml lel ey T\0) = |0) ia If the input is {1) then the Output state is a 0 Tt) = [ ale iE Le & 5] = oF | er TI1) =e |1) oo sics & Applications M-5. Quantum Computing itaransforms the state @|0) + B]1) to a|0) + elt/4pi1) rw ly clbl= Le _jaowing ewe shows quantum T- gate and the table gives the truth table. a out table is as follows Input Output "| pM in e4{1) | a0) + B\1) arjo) + &*™/*B 1) qld) + Blt) 7 alo) + e/*B)1) 5.15.2 Multiple Qubit gates ting, but individually they offer less ion, Single qubits are interest ‘As mentioned in the earlier secti Itiple qubit system and the operation tational advantage. It is hence essential to look for mul comp on them. Quantum gates operating on multiple qubits are called as multiple qubit gates. Some of them are as follows "152.1 Contrlled Gate (NOT) ~ Ke CNOT gate is two-qubit operation, where the first qubit is referred as the control qubit (A) and the second qubit as the target qubit (B). If the control qubit is [1) then it will flip the target qubit state from|0) to |1) or from |1) to |0). When the control qubit is in state |0) then the target ubit remains unchanged. In fact CNOT applies X on target whenever its control is in state |!) The symbolic representation is as follows. The upper line represents control qubit and bottom line represents target qubit 14) Control Qubit \B) |B@A)Target Qubit : M-5. Quantum Com Quantum Physics & Applications Pur), ' CNOT EQ) 8.1 the |10)changes to [11) when operated by 1 0 0 07/0 0 1:0 01/0 CNOTIIO)=1q 9 9 al 0 0 1 Ost. 0+0+0+0 0 0+0+0+0]_|0 CNOTI10) = 15 5 94040) = lo 1 0+0+1+0. + CNOT|10) = |11) Ex (4) S.T the |11)changes to |10) when operated by CNOT 0001 0010 0+0+0+40 0+0+0+0] _|o 0+0+041)=|1 O+0+0+0! lo * CNOT|11) = |10) 10 0 0770 cnorj11)=|9 2 0 0 f 1 0 CNOT|11) = S.A IS22Siap Gate In quantum Computation sometimes we need to move state between two qubits, ie from contro to target and vice versa. This is nothing but ‘swapping of the states and the gate used for thi Purpose is known as SWAP gate. peration gate and Swaps the state of the two qubits involved in the operation. It contains 3 CNOT Bates, plained by taking two CNOT gates as follows where |10) is swapped to |01) 1D) i1) i" (10) j= 191) {10) (01) {0) 11) nro & — M-5. Quantum Computing ay effective SWAPPINE of the states there must be minimum of 3 CNOT gates. The SWAP cas given below — ius also represented as The matrix form of SWAP gate is given by oro 10 0 _|0 0 0 SWAP =) 4 0 0001 Ex (1) $.T the state |00) remains undisturbed by the SWAP gate operation Consider the SWAP circuit diagram 1st CNOT 3rd CNOT 2nd CNOT We know that in CNOT gate if the control qubit is in |1) state then it will flip the target qubit from {0) to |1) and vice versa (otherwise no). So, when |00) is given, the 1“ CNOT is not satisfied. We stay in the state [00).The 2” CNOT's control is not satisfied. We stay in the state |00).The 3° CNOT' is also not satisfied. We finally stay in the state 00). The same can be verified using matrix analysis as follows eT ana Quantum Physics & Applications M-5. Quantum ¢ tmp tn, 10 0 Oly pltO+040) 1 ~“ : {0 0 1 offo}_Joroso+o] Io SWAPO) =] 1 9 itl 0404040 + 000 lol lo+o+o+0! Io +. SWAP|00) = |00) EXQ)S.T the State |10) is swapped to |01) by SWAP Bate operation 10 0 0770) O+0+0+0) 79 sw, =|9 0 1 O0//0}_lo+0+140 API) =I) to ollgl= 0+0+0+0)~ [9 O00 lol lo+o+o4eal Lo + SWAP|10) = |01) Truth table of Swap gate is as follows SAS IS Controlled-Z, Gate Z yo change because fn physics & Applications No change because M-5. Quantum Computing \1) 11) ee \y Joy i Wy fo \1) Z zt Control bit acts on target control bit acts on target control bit is \0) control bit is |0) ie ruth table of a controlled-Z gate: but there is no flip of \0) and flip \\) to |) Input Output | (00) (01) {10) (1) The action of a controlled-Z gate is specified as follows 100 0 _|0 10 0 Uz=\o 0 1 0 000 -1 Ex (1): S.T the state |10) remains un affected when operated by C-Z gate 100 0 10 0 0 = = s i o o B 2 Uy|10) = [10) 0) por0+0+0 0) _Jo+0+0+0)\_ 1] |o+04+1+0 -rjlo Sre9 0+0+0+0 Ex (2): S.T the state [11) fips €° - 11) when operated by C-Z gate 1.0 0 O}p0) pO+0+0+40 0 _|o 1 0 0 ffo)_jo+0+0+0)__]0 Uzl11)=}9 0 1 0 \fo}=lo+o+0+0) {0 o 0 o —iflid lo+o+0-1 1 2. U;{11) = - 111) 165 Even though Hadamard ate isa single qubit pate itis possible to apply to one atwo Specific Mbit yi qubit system using it, For this we use the tensor product to create a larger Matrix yp." on bath gubts, with the Hadamard operator applied to the target qubit and thei at ag ' entity o May : applied to the other qubit, If we apply H gate to first qubit the operator becomes @ 7 TW apn H gate to second qubit the Operator becomes! @ H. If we apply H gate to both qubit the tay becomes H @ H Ex. 1: Find(! @ H)|00) (1 @ H)|00) = (1 ® H)(10) @ [0)) (1. @ H)100) = (110) @ HI0)) But /|0) = |0) &Hj0) = (01+ 11)) 1 + (® H)|00) = |0) @ yl) +/1)) 1 (1 H)I00) = M00) +01) 1 Va\0 a C@A)I01)=7.@ #)(10) @ |1)) @@ H)I01) = (19) @ H/1)) 1 But /|0) = |0) &H|1) = 35 (l0) - 11) The matrix form of Output is as follows Ex. 2: Find(I @ H)|01) 1 * 1 @ H)I01) = [oy @ Aq) _ (@#)I01) 19) ® clo) 1) 1 (1 @ H)I01) = yplloo —|01)) The matrix form of output is as follows TT physics & Applications pwr M-5, Quantum Computing 1 Vy-t v2\ 9 0 (H , B |l00) = 1. @ I({0) @ 10) (H 1D |00) = (ufo) @ 110) _ real DID) 1 gut HI = lO) + 1) 810) = 10) 8 (H@ DI00) = |00) sto) + 19) @ 1} (H @ 100) = $00 +|10)) The matrix form of output is as follows 5152.5 Toffoli Gate lied-controlle r control d-NOT (CCNOT) gate is.a logic gate hav ing three input The Toffoli gate © Me : , ing three bits. The first wo pits are control bits which remain unaffected by the action of Toffoli Gate. re Baie get bit which is inverted (ie, changes from 0 to Lor 1 to 0) if both the control te a he does not change. The Toffoli gate can be expressed as an &by8 matrix as follows bits are 1; elS° 0000 0000 0000 1000 0100 09010 0000 0001 ul Seocoecscor cooscoors ececoooorsse cvrccoses 167 Quantum Physics & Applications The circuit and the truth table are as follows A A B 8 c ¢ Some examples are given here 10) 10) 10), 10) |), 11) |) (1) 0) 1O)rena a) 11) [ay 11) |1) I) loy 10) [ay 11) Jo) [1) [a |0) NOTE: ¢ Thisisa reversible (no information is lost) and universal (all reversible logic circuits can be built using Toffoli gates). * Ht can be verified that this matrix is unitary and thus the Toffoli gate isa legitimate quantum gate The quantum Toffoli gate can be used to simulate irreversible classical logic gates and ensures that the quantum gates are capable of performing any computation that a classical computer can do physics & Applications M-5. Quantum Computing predicting the outputs of various combinations of single and two-qubit gates se have learnt many gate operations so far, In total, the single gate operations rotate the qubit v 1 : eon Bloch sphere and the two qubit gates create the entanglement between the qubits. In jum computing gate operations corresponds to matrix that acts on the qubit state vector. It gsible to predict mathematically the outcome of the quantum gates by applying gate tions on qubits. Some examples are given below. 1, Predict the output when X gate operates on |1) = [0 1770) _ ye xw=Eb diil=[d=™ The output is |0). ie, the qubit is inverted 2, Apply S gate on and predict the output =[t 7 (9 _ 1(0) + 0(1)] _ 70] _ ,]° si=[5 il il= [oe + aa =[il- ift) S|) = ill) 3. Apply CNOT gate on [01)and predict the output 10 0 0770 cxo= A o 0 1 ollo 1404040 0+1+0+0 onan = 54839] -| 0+0+0+0 z. CNOT|01) = |01) oro When CNOT operates on 01) there is no change in the qubits state 6 es are connected in series. What is the resultant matrix operator? = 16 9 asf) G2 sso M2 4, Two Seat SS=H 169 M-5. Quantum Co Quantum Physics & Applic ations Putin the resultant gate eration . in series, Evaluate S Two T gates are connected 1 O}ft 0 in : 0 ct Oe 14+0 0 T= 2in " 0+0 OF+e4 1g T= | in 0 e2 z u i : Bute? = corn tisin =04ix1 a4 2 2 1 0 7=[j i IT=S 6. Here X gate is Operating on (0) twice, The matrix Operation is as follows 11)= f IG=C]=1 a ollil=E]=10 $0, XX|0) = 0) When X acts on {0) j poli} OT dll=]= 1 1 eG = Pee 1 Lt 1 leon st, Bla] The output is oemmmeaxccrt |0) 10) = |1) M-5. Quantum Computing fieyaae Both |0) and |1) have 509 e 50% Probability and Ii Note: You can verify this using QUIRK is 180° out of phase with |0) tool Z gate operat si c-Z8 p' es on state |10), What is the expect ut te 0). WI ed output? 100 U,|10) =|2 1 9 lf 0) fo+0+0+0) [0 00 0 -[peastes 0 fi 1 0 | -[peastes =i1 ; o -1Jlol lo+o+o+o ‘0 +. Uz|10) = |10) There is no change in the output predict the output in the following circuit 10) 1 }4— Ze {0 —— on |0). The output is as follows noel detail Melee 2 ¥|0) = it) Here, first Y gate operates becomes control and |0) becomes target. So, C-Z acts on i]10) . The output is Now i|1) asfallows 100 97/° o¢ot+0+o) ? Jo 10 | _[o+o+049) =i|1 uzil1)=!]9 0 1 ? M)=]o40+1+9 [I 0 0 0 -1 0. o+0t+0t+0 0. 2 Upilto) = #120) Note: You can verify this using QUIRK tool Quantum Physics & Applications M-5. Quantum Computing Limitations of quantum computing As of now there are some technical difficulties and limitations in building quantum computers, Some of them are Sl ¢ As the number of quantum gates in a network increases, more interacting qubits are involved, and it is very difficult to monitor their interactions ¢ The surrounding environment will affect the interactions of qubits (both Superposition and entanglement). As a result the quantum information will spread outside the quantum computer and be lost into the environment, thus spoiling the computation. This Process is called de-coherence. How long quantum information will survive before it is Spread out is known as de-coherency time © The number of operations that can be performed before the information is lost due to de. coherency is therefore limited. © Quantum chips must be kept at very low temperature to create Super positions and entanglement of qubits ¢ The final output of the quantum computers is in the form of a probability. When the question is repeated, the answer changes. Hence repeated Operations are required to get Correct answer. Some physicists are pessimistic about the prospects of substantial further progress in quantum computer technology. Some optimistic researchers believe that practical quantum computers will appear in a matter of years rather than decades. We tend towards the optimistic end because Optimism makes things happen!!! # fenton the essential elements of quan gxplain the physical significance of qubits plications M-5. Quantum Computing ‘ions for practice with suitable graph explain Moores’ faw "ae and explain Moore’s law, What is ite ie-1: sae a" at is its implication classi ; pistinguish between classical and quantum eae Classical computing? pefine bit and qubit, What are the properties of cutie? tum theory and limitations of VLSI os and hen ion i . piscuss the superposition of qubits and he ce mention its properties * obability amplitudes Nice express the superposed state in terms of f With a neat diagram explain the Tepresentation of qubi i lubits i a qubits using Bloch sphere. Discuss What are multiple qubits? Give the matrix representation of 4 two qubit systems Write a note on Dirac notations and their Properties Discuss (i) identity matrix (ii) conjugate matrix and (iii) Hermitian matrix with suitable examples . What is a Hermitian matrix? Find the Hermitian of A = [ 1 a 4i+1 0 . When a matrix does becomes unitary? Show that A = a vee 1-i 14g] Sunitary Define the inner product of two vectors in complex vector space. Explain the procedure to find the inner product of two vectors. . Write a note on Norm, Orthogonality and orthonormality . Find the inner product of \0) and |1) and make comment on the result . Find the inner product of \0) on itself and make comment on the result . Give three Pauli matrices and hence their operation on |0) and |1) state. ' . Discuss Pauli gates along with the respective truth table. Mention the limitation of Pauli gates What are quantum gates? Discuss the essential properties of quantum gates i in Hadamard gate and its operation on |0) and |1) state. Write the truth table : Explain te and its operation on |0) and |1) state. Write the truth table oe Samana and its operation on 0) and |1) state, Write the truth table : eb ae eration of CNOT gate on 4 two qubits. Give the truth table and its matrix form : Explain et ‘AP gate? Explain its operation on |01) and |10). Give the matrix form . What is the working of C-Z gate. Find its operation on \00), |01), |10) and |\11) Discuss i ffoli gate along with its truth table and matrix form in the working of To! | ‘ eee the differences between classical and quantum computing (2024, 2023, model . Eluer pepe the representation of qubit using Bloch sphere ((Jan-2025) 2024, model _ Explal ON -5. Qua: : Quantum Physics & Applications M-5. Quantum Comput, 30 Define a bit and bit and explain the properties of qubit. (Model paper) 31. Explain single qubit and multiqubit gates with example for cach (2023, model Paper) 32. Define single and two qubits. Explain the Bloch sphere representation of qubit (make up. 2023) : : : : 33. Discuss CNOT gate, matric representation and its operation on four different j (2024, make up-2023) 34. Discuss CNOT gate and its operation on four different input states ((Jan-2025 paper) 35. State the Pauli’s matrix and apply the Pauli matrices on the sates 10) (Jan-2025)) Mention pauli matrix. Discuss the operation of Pauli matrices on 10 up-2023, model paper) Explain the operation of phase gate [S-gate] with 10’ its matrix representation (make up-2023) 38. Discuss the working of phase 39. Discuss the working of pha: (Model paper) 40. Explain Orthogonality and Orthonormality with an example for each (Model Paper) 41. Describe the controlled Z gate mentioning its matrix Tepresentation and truth table ( 2025) MPUt states ) 2023, mode ) and I1) States (2024, ) and I1) states (make 37, ) and I1) states with truth table. Mention gate mentioning its matrix representation and truth table (2023) sé gate mentioning its matrix Tepresentation and truth table Jan- 42. Write a note on harmonic oscillators? potential well of infinite height? Explain the harmonic osillator. Give the expression for Expain its advantage and dis advantage in quantum comp What is anharmonicity? Explain its imporatnce in quantur Explain anharmonicity along with a relavant diagram. Mi Describe how it is different from Particle in |4 43. the enrgy for harmonic Osillator. uting m computing ention its importances 44, 45. & Applications M-5. Quantum Computing um Physics aut 1 mericals 1. A linear operator X operates such that X|0)=|0) and X |1) = 10). Find the matrix ‘ representation of X (2024, model paper) Explain matrix representation of 0 and | states and apply identity operator I to 10) and I1) states (2024, model paper) 3, Show that S gate can be formed by connecting two T gates in series (make up-2023) 4. A linear operator X operates such that XI0)=I1) and XI1)=10). Find the matrix representation of the operator X ((Jan-2025) make up-2023) 5, Given A = (° ) | - Prove that at = A (2023) we 6. Find the inner product of states I1) and 11) and draw conclusions on the results (2023) 7, Show that the matrix A given below is unitary i oo |p io 0 0 i 8. Describe the working of controlled-Z gate mentioning its matrix representation and truth- table. (Model paper) 9. Given I) = (jf) and ip) = (F) Prove that(pld) = (@hb)" Gan-2025, model paper) 10. Ex: Find the inner product of|U) = i + ‘| and |V) = | a 11. Find the inner product of |A) = \inl with itself 12, Find the norm of |U) = [ 2 ‘|

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