\ Operational ead Appi Tnrinreduction, to Operational Amplifier + - Reeser ea An operational amplifier is a high gain electnonia voltage amplifier with cao inputs and a single outpet. operational amplifiers (Op-amp) aere asec, to primarily. perform mathematical operations sach a addition subtraction , integration and differentiation . +V Tnverding Input > Outpect Neon Trveting »—__| 4 er trpat “Vv above ghowg the Cecut symbol of oPp-amp. d+ terminals , the inverting input and dhe and one cutput terminal. Most oP-amp, ply Voltages 1 ORe Positive and the in the +igme.@ Figine above shows the equivalent Circuit of OPp-amp. Zhe output Voltage v, % given by Nee AL No. Say @,~2) Ay = open toop Nothage gain Va = difference between the vollage at tnped steuminls zherefore op-amp amplifies the difference bebacen she inpzt voltage, he Zin i# the input impedance amp. Zhe Za 4 # the output impedance of_© achieved bg aing a differential amplifin. Zhe fanction of the differential, aonplifien ds to amplify the difference betaeen the input signals, This stage Provides most of- the Voltage gain meatined.. 2- Gain Stage {- he overall, gain neayrinement of the op-amp is veg high. xhe input stage alone cannot Provide Buch a high gain. Hhe main function ofp the gain stage ty +o provide the additional gain nayuined. Zhe goin stage Practicallg Contain @ chain of Cacaded ampli tio. 3. Ondpaet Stage! athe basic requirement of- this viage % dees oxbpack | and high cement Sourcing capability ety dhe neojturements and &% wat Hac input signal mode, ard Common mode. Cither one signal input grounded c applied, to the@ f $r the single ended diffmential mode, one inpuk is grounded and a signal Voltage 46 applied to ake other input 3 shean in the figure below: i Ya Op eX asl, . ® es ee) Ny Gn the Cue @hen she signal Voltage is applicd +o she inverting input > in figne G), an inverted amplified signal voltage appese at the oatput. gn cee, when the dignal Voltage is applied +o the non inverting inpad as ain tigore G@), & Ton inverted amplified signal Voltage outpet. applied +o the inputs prerence belucen the tno appees at the cautped.OP ges i wo signal volinge gn Common mode, the off same Pphese, frequency and magnisude ae applied to dhe dao inputs as shoan in dhe fignre below. Vin -—() Yo + I= %. @ken eajral input signals ane applied to bodtk inputs , thee cdend 4to cancel reoulting ina Zero output voltage. his action is Called common mode rejection. Op- amp Parametow *_ ore eee 1. Common Mode Rejection Ratio 7- Unwanted Signals on noise appeering aith same polarity on both ine op inpet ore Common mode signals and me Cancelled by : (appear on the output. &he to xsject comme mode Common Mode Rejection© Prackical op-amps eachibit a Verg &meall Common mode voltage 74m ard nck New thigh diff rental mode vollage gain. dhe higher the differential Gain with reapect to the common mode gain sthe beltn the Performance of, the OP-amp in terms of comman made nejeckion. Gr other aonds, higher the value of cmRR the loan Bill be the value ef Common mode goin. 2. Moascimun Cael Voltage Saing %Ge-/ ees Peametr indicate the maccimam Mimit: of the pea oukpot Voltage. Lhe ideal limit iy tog » here +¥ oq and -V.. 22 the De supply Voltage of the op-amp. An 3. Znpatie @ 5 z of the tao ee ahus the inet cements are the ‘bee cuoents. Zhe dnpat biag Cument i the De Ceonent supplied by the inpass of the amplifio. to propedy operate the inpat stage. che input bias cument & ‘defined @ the average of the tao base cwrendy. ely Shee BxAs 5. inpet Empedance :- Zhe inpet impedance in the dijfyerenstal mode if the total resistance belween the oe she Ton inventing inpids os shoan beloa- ntial mode ® obtained by ifperential input Voltage% 7 _Output Impedance '- Zhe outpet impedance 4s she resistance Viewed Rom the outpt terminal of} the op-amp 23 Shean below 8 Slew Rake i- Zhe maximum rate of change ofp the outpee vollage in response to a sdep arp volinge & called the lea rate of the op-amp.i. ; nO) Cheractoristics of am ideal op-amp An ideal op-amp exchibits the fotloacng chonacseris bics 1. Infinite Voltage gain 2. Infinite input impedance 3. Zero output impedance : 4. Zero input off-set Voltage S Zewo input offset cemment 6. Infinite CMRR 7. Tnpinite Slea nate 8. Infinite Bondaidth. Concep+ of v.ahis Concept is called a3 Vintual ground OP- amp a3 an invert Qo i fi ee aaa eae. Splice An trvertung amplifier & a Cincut ahase Cup bb amplified and inverted auth ropect to the input. Figene below shoas the Cincuit diagram of an, dnverding amplifier. 2 ReHence tpt F Substituting Ya =OV @@ have = Vo Zhe tom i) 4s called the gain of she tnyerbing amplijor Zhe negative sign indicate that the output is inverted @idh nepect cto the inpuk= ® (Since Vg is grounded , Vg =OV- Lhes ae have, | Va =O | Since the op-amp hag infinite input impedance, it ‘docs not draco any Cooment. Hence I, =O HenceST ee : ope ag an integrator |{ - i leseals eaten ede An integrator is a Circuit, in which the oakped Voltage 43 propor tional to the integral of tke inpuk Volkage, Figzre beloay shoay the cecuit diagram of the integrator tsing op- amp Bg the conazpt of Vintual ground, ae have Ya-Ve = 2° Since Vg tg grounded, Vg = OV. Xhw awe have IOnNy, € input impedance, it cogon 5 ate 7) Vin CHD dt Ric $rte grating en both sides aon t +t FE ee ta f%ac® dt Rico 1a poe Sas yeas ate. A diffeentiaton is a Cincait, in ahich athe oukpat voltage te proportional to dhe time deuivakive ef the inpat voltage. Figme shows the diagram ofp a dijferventiater wing op-amp.© gince the OP- amp has infinite input impedance, 1 dog not dra ang Cwment , Hence I, =9 = = Hence te RE cd fMin)-Yyy = Nan%o dt Subs titaking Vz =0 ae have, o Ye = ~ Ree ck CH) Op- am a3 O Non inverti ampi}i Sa OF SE eae aa pee cih ee Figure below shoay the Circuit diagram ef a non inverking amplifier. aszs Since Vg is maintained of 2 Nolbage Vin ae have Since the op-amp hes infinite tnpat impedance , it does mot drag ong Cwrent- . Hence I, = 0. Hence EG = Try Zp, Ve =, ERA Nae ae R, Bip NA + My Ya (Ee Re ), gain of the Ton inverting@ - 03 : Vo Le. cod peo eee A Voltage froliower ug a Cincauit in @hich ondput” Voltage is 5°. 3 8ame as the input voltage. Figure below shoes the cacuit of Voltage follower. he Nede 8 is mMainteined at a Potential Vin- So SS — it By the Concept of Virtual ground we haveOp-amp ay a Companator *_ A Comperator is a cCincait which Smpare | @ signal volitge applied at one inped> of the op-amp With @ knoan nefrevence Voltage at other inpat, Vin Veg Fagere shows the cCincut dj mam Of an inVertin: “7 ¢ ComPanator adith the reference Voltage Vrog applied E the Toninverting input. Zhe inpeck signal © applied vertin 7 inpedt-. e input Voltnge V,, és greater than Vney , the output voltage is at tM © Yee). ve fporms me shoan belowYaar When Viez ib set to Zao, athe comparator % called Zero crossing detetkn. Zhe input and oxtpat anwe}onme ane shoam below.@ : Important oyxes-tions 1, Whak i9 an op-amp? with a neat diagram explain the intomeal block diagram of a op- amp. 2. Explain the dypes of input mode of an op-amp 3. With nefprence db an op-amp, explain the folloaing G) common Mode Rejeckion Ratio Gi) Trpet offset Voltage Gai) Slea nate. nef erence dp an cp-amp, explain she belleaing i Cement (i) Tnpek ampedance GY) Mescimum Velinge saving diagram derive the @cpresion. an Anverting ©P- amp. gram. derive the ccpression Ron daverting oP-aonp Bhoa) that an op-amp@ 8. With a neat Corcuit diagram, ecplain hoa an P= anp cad be ted an dndegrten? 4. Explain how an op-amp can be med as a Voltage Pellosess 10. With a neat cincait diagram, Scplain hoa an ©P-amp "Gould be med ag a diffyorend:i ator? uy Explain op-amp ay Voboge Cmpanaten.: Op- ame - 7 Op- Tet a’. A common base transistor amplifier has an input resistance of 20 9 and output resistance of 100 kA. The collector load is 1 kQ. If a signal of 500 mV Is applied between emitter and base, find the voltage \C amplification, Assume a,c to be nearly one. Solution: Fig.1 shows the conditions of the problem. Here the output resistance is very high as compared to input resistance, since the input junction (base to emitter) of the transistor is forward biased while the output junction (base to collector) is reverse biased. poonen ee ig o Le T 500mV ©) Rin= 200 | OOK R= kA Vong Signal _ R, Input cument, fp = =25mA. Since ois nearly 1, output curent, fe = Ie = 25mA. Output voltage, Vig = IcRe = 25 mA X1kQ = 25V Vig n25 Valery signal 500 mV 3 Voltage amplification. A, \.2/1f'a common base connettion, IE = mA, C= 0.95mA. Calculate the value of 1B Using the relation. Ip = IptIc 1 = 1g+095 i 1-0.95 = 0.05 mA Q3. Ina common base connection, current amplification factor is 0.9. If the emitter current is 1mA, determine the value of base current. Solution : Here, @ = 0.9. I, ow a- fe a Ie = Glg = 0.9X1 = 0.9mA Also Tg = IptIo Base current, Ig = Ig-I¢ = 1-0.9 = O.1mA ff a common base connection, IC = 0.95 mA and IB = 0.05 mA. Find the value of a. Solution : Weknow Ip = Ip+Ic = 0.05+0.95 = 1 I “erent amplification factor, & = 7° = 38 0.95 E 6. In a common base connection, the emitter current is 1mA. If the emitter circuit is open, the collector current is 50 [/A. Find the total collector current. Given that a= 0.92. Solution :Here, [p = 1mA.a = 0.92. Icyq = 50 pA Total collector current, fe = Otlg+Icyo = 0.92 1+50x 10% = 0.92+0.05 = 0.97 mA Q6. Ina common base connection, a = 0.95. The voltage drop across 2 k@ resistance,which is connected in the collector is 2V. Find the base current. Settition : Ip Io Veg Veg re Fig. 2 shows the required common base connection. The voltage drop across RC (= 2 kQ) is 2V. S Ic = 2V2kQ = 1mA Now a =IAg Using the relation. Ip = I, 0.05 mA pe base circuit shown in Fig. 3, determine Ic and Ves. Assume the transistor to be of silicon. 4 I le Ie. Ro=12ka Vec=18V Fig. 3 Solution : Since the transistor is of silicon, Vg = 0.7V. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the emitter-side loop,we get,plying Kirchhoff's voltage law to the collector-side loop, we have, Ve c Veg = Voe~!eRe = 18 V-4.87 mA x 1.2kQ = 12.169 Q8, Find the value of 6 if (i) & = 0.9 (ii) a = 0.98 (iii) a = 0.99. Solution = 3 I Re k Ven ()a=09 1-a Gi) a= 0.98 =49 = 99 = 0.99 B -a . YQ0Lalculate I; in a transistor for which B = 50 and Ip= 20 pA. Solution : Here B = 50, I, = 20nA = 0.02mA 1 Now = ow B 7 Ip = Bly = 50x0.02 = 1mA Using the relation, Ip = [+I = 0.02+1 = 1.02mA 40. Find the rating of the transistor shown in Fig. 4. Hence determine the value of Ic using both o and B rating of the transistor. 1 Ic p=49 12mA Fig.4 Solution : Fig. 8.20 shows the conditions of the problem, ciety Paes B40 y'9g 1+B 1+49 The value of Jc can be found by using either oL or B rating as under: Ie = Gf, = 0.98 (12 mA) = 11.76 mA Also Ic = Bly = 49 (240 WA) = 11.76 mAistor, B = 45 and voltage drop across 1kQ which is connected in the 1 volt. Find the base current for common emitter connection. Fig. 5 Fig. 5 shows the required common emitter connection. The voltage drop across RC (= 1 kQ) is 1 volt. iv To = Tpq = ima If on 2ee: Now tse Ip = = 0,022 mA B45 QA transistor is connected in common emitter (CE) configuration in which collector supply is 8 V and the voltage drop across resistance Rc connected in the collector circuit is 0.5 V. The value of Rc= 800 0. If a= 0.96, determine : (i) collector-emitter voltage (ii) base current, Solution : Fig. 6 shows the required common emitter connection with various values. Collector-emitter voltage, @ Vee = Yoc- 0.5 = 8-0.5 = 7.5V di)The voltage drop across Rc (= 800 Q) is 0.5V. ‘c= ae = 2 mA = 0.625 mA Nose B a 0.96 Base curent, Jy = 36 = SSP Q13. An n-p-n transistor at room temperature has its emitter disconnected. A voltage of 5 V is applied between collector and base. With collector positive, a current of 0.2 HA flows. When the base is disconnected and the same voltage is applied between collector and emitter, the current is found to be 20 WA. Find a, leand Jy when collector current is 1. mA. Solution : E c F | t if o SV (ii) 5V Fig.7 OPEN When the emitter circuit is open as shown in Fig.7 (i), the collector-base junction is reverse biased. A small leakage current Icyo flows due to minority carriers. Tego = 0.2 uA given When base is open [See Fig. 8.23 (i)], a small leakege current [ego flows due to minority carriers. eo .-. given Jeno We know Icgq = mca ‘ 20 = oe 1-a x a = 09 Now Tapas ea Here Ig = mA = 1000 pA; & = 0.99; logo = 0.2 nA 1000 = 0.99xI,+0.2 or iP ae 1010 pA and Ip = Ip—tc = 1010-1000 = 10 pA Q14. The collector leakage current in a transistor is 300 HA in CE arrangement. If now the transistor is connected in CB arrangement, what will be the leakage current? Given that B = 120. Solution : Tego = 300 pA0.992 = 1 =e B= 20: a=55 12041 lie ‘cao Teo = T=a Tego = (1 &) Tego = (1 ~ 0.992) x 300 = 24 BA Note that leakage current in CE arrangement (i.e. Icgq) is much more than in CB arrangement Now. Gillen.) , (ie Jeno) \ 015-Fora certain transistor, In=20 1A; 1e=2 mA and B= 80. Caleulate Teno. \Sélution : To = Bla* lero or 2 = 80* 002 +Icr9 = 2-80 «0.02=0.4mA ; BeeesOe Now alot = 0988 7 Tego = (1-9) Iceo = (1 - 0.988) « 0.4 = 0.0048 mA \ Q1eAUsing diagrams, explain the correctness of the relation Tcro = (B+ 1)lcno- Solution : ‘The leakage current ICBO is the current that flows through the base-collector junction when emitter is open as shown is Fig. 8. EMITTER OPEN Fig. 8 When the transistor is in CE arrangement, the base current (ie. Icyo) is multiplied by B in the collector as shown in Fig, 9. I cad (B+1) ego. Fig9 Tceo = Icao* Bleso = (B* 1) Icao au. Determine Vcp in the transistor circuit shown in Fig. 10 (i). The transistor is of silicon and has B= 150.ution : ReZ100Q Ry Vee WW] fe wo | Vgp=5V Zl i @ (CO) Fig 10 Fig. 10 (i) shows the transistor circuit while Fig. 10 (ii) shows the various currents and voltages along with polarities. Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to base-emitter loop, we have, Vip Ty Ry Voe= 0 or Ig = SS aera iss Te = Bly =(150)(430 WA) = 64.5 mA. Now Vee = Vec-IeRe 10V — (64.5 mA) (100) = 10V - 6.45V =3.55V, = Veg* Vag Veg = Vee~Vag = 3-.55-0.7 = 2.85V 18. In a transistor, 8 #A, Ip = 30 mA and f = 440, Determine the a rating of the transistor. Then ‘determine the value of Ic using both the a rating and B rating of the transistor. Solution : papa Beeass0 S'g o= B+1 44041 oa Io = Io = (9. A transistor has the following ratings : Ic (may = 500 mA and Bmax = 300. Determine the maximum allowable value of Ip for the device. Solution : 1, 500 mA (max) |, = sq = ADO LOMAS fb mat) = Br S00 a For this transistor. if the base current is allowed to exceed 1.67 mA, the collector current will exceed its maximum rating of 500 mA and the transistor will probably be destroyed.