01 History of the Periodic
TOPIC 01
History of the Periodic Table
From Döbereiner's triads to the modern periodic table — key discoveries and scientists.
1.1 Early Attempts at Classification
By the early 1800s, about 60 elements had been discovered. Chemists noticed patterns in their properties
and sought a systematic classification. The problem: atomic masses were only approximately known, and
the concept of atomic number did not exist yet.
1.2 Döbereiner's Triads (1829)
Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner observed that certain elements could be grouped in triads of three — three
elements with similar chemical properties. In each triad, the atomic mass of the middle element was
approximately the arithmetic mean of the other two.
Triad Element 1 At. Mass Element 2 (middle) At. Mass Element 3 At. Mass Mean of 1&3
Alkali metals Li 7 Na 23 K 39 (7+39)/2 = 23 ✓
Halogens Cl 35 Br 80 I 127 (35+127)/2 = 81 ≈ 80 ✓
Alkaline earth Ca 40 Sr 88 Ba 137 (40+137)/2 = 88.5 ≈ 88 ✓
Limitation: Only worked for a few groups of three. Could not be extended to all elements.
1.3 Newlands' Law of Octaves (1864)
John Newlands arranged 56 known elements in order of increasing atomic mass. He observed that every
8th element had properties similar to the first — like octaves in music.
■ First person to arrange elements in order of atomic mass
■ Correctly predicted similarity between Li–Na, Be–Mg, B–Al, C–Si
■ Limitation: Failed after calcium. Noble gases unknown (not yet discovered). Grouped dissimilar
elements (Fe, Co, Ni) together. Ridiculed by the Chemical Society.
1.4 Lothar Meyer's Atomic Volume Curve (1869)
Julius Lothar Meyer independently (same year as Mendeleev) plotted atomic volume (molar mass /
density) vs. atomic mass and obtained a periodic curve. Elements with similar properties appeared at
similar positions on the curve — alkali metals at peaks, halogens on rising portions.
He showed periodicity graphically but did not publish a complete classification table or make predictions.
1.5 Mendeleev's Periodic Table (1869)
Dmitri Mendeleev (Russia) and Lothar Meyer (Germany) independently proposed periodic tables in 1869.
Mendeleev's is more celebrated because he:
■ Arranged 63 known elements in rows (periods) and columns (groups) by increasing atomic mass
■ Placed elements with similar chemical properties in the same vertical column
■ Left gaps for undiscovered elements and predicted their properties
■ Reversed the order of pairs when properties demanded it (e.g., Te before I)
Mendeleev's greatest achievement — predicted undiscovered elements:
Chapter 2 — Periodic Table | Physical Chemistry Study Notes Page 2
Predicted Name Predicted Year Discovered Element Discovery Year Accuracy
Eka-boron 1871 Scandium (Sc) 1879 Mass predicted 44, found 45 — excellent
Eka-aluminium 1871 Gallium (Ga) 1875 Density predicted 5.9, found 5.9 — exact!
Eka-silicon 1871 Germanium (Ge) 1886 8 properties predicted; all confirmed
Limitations of Mendeleev's Periodic Table:
■ Could not explain position of hydrogen — sometimes placed in Group IA (with alkali metals),
sometimes Group VIIA (with halogens)
■ Anomalous pairs: Ar (39.9) before K (39.1); Co (58.9) before Ni (58.7); Te before I — atomic mass
order violated for chemical reasons
■ No place for isotopes — isotopes of the same element have different masses but same chemical
properties
■ No place for noble gases (discovered 1894 onward by Ramsay) — though later added as Group 0
■ Position of lanthanides and actinides was unclear
1.6 Moseley's Discovery — Atomic Number (1913)
Henry Moseley (British physicist, 1913) bombarded elements with high-energy electrons and analysed the
X-rays emitted. He found that the frequency of characteristic X-rays is proportional to the square of a
whole number (the atomic number Z):
√ν = a(Z – b)
ν = frequency of X-ray | Z = atomic number | a, b = constants
This showed that each element has a unique atomic number (number of protons) — a more
fundamental property than atomic mass. This resolved all anomalies in Mendeleev's table and led directly
to the modern periodic law.
Moseley identified that two elements were missing (Z=43 and Z=61) — later discovered as Technetium
and Promethium. He was killed in WWI at age 27.
Reference: Bahl & Bahl pp.68–70 | Ebbing & Gammon Ch.8 Introduction
Chapter 2 — Periodic Table | Physical Chemistry Study Notes Page 3
TOPIC 02
Development of the Periodic Table
From Mendeleev's 1869 table to the modern long-form periodic table — structure and
organisation.
2.1 The Modern (Long Form) Periodic Table
The modern periodic table arranges all 118 known elements in 18 groups (vertical columns) and 7
periods (horizontal rows), in order of increasing atomic number (Z). Lanthanides and actinides are
placed separately below the main table.
2.2 Periods (Horizontal Rows)
Period Elements n value Subshells filling Nature
1 H, He (2 elements) n=1 1s Very short period
2 Li to Ne (8 elements) n=2 2s, 2p Short period
3 Na to Ar (8 elements) n=3 3s, 3p Short period
4 K to Kr (18 elements) n=4 4s, 3d, 4p Long period
5 Rb to Xe (18 elements) n=5 5s, 4d, 5p Long period
6 Cs to Rn (32 elements) n=6 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p Very long period
7 Fr to Og (32 elements) n=7 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p Very long (incomplete)
The period number = the principal quantum number (n) of the outermost shell being filled.
2.3 Groups (Vertical Columns)
Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons and similar chemical
properties. In the IUPAC system, groups are numbered 1–18.
Group (IUPAC) Old Name Block Valence Config Common Name
1 IA s ns¹ Alkali metals (Li to Fr)
2 IIA s ns² Alkaline earth metals (Be to Ba)
3–12 IIIB to IIB d (n-1)d + ns Transition metals
13 IIIA p ns²np¹ Boron group
14 IVA p ns²np² Carbon group
15 VA p ns²np³ Nitrogen group (pnictogens)
16 VIA p ns²np■ Oxygen group (chalcogens)
17 VIIA p ns²np■ Halogens
18 0 (Noble gases) p ns²np■ Noble gases
— Lanthanides f (n-2)f Rare earth elements
Chapter 2 — Periodic Table | Physical Chemistry Study Notes Page 4
Group (IUPAC) Old Name Block Valence Config Common Name
— Actinides f (n-2)f Radioactive elements
2.4 Blocks of the Periodic Table
Elements are classified into four blocks based on which subshell is being filled last:
Block Subshell filling Groups Properties
s-block ns (n = 1–7) 1, 2 Metals (except H); very reactive; low IE
p-block np (n = 2–6) 13–18 Nonmetals, metalloids, noble gases
d-block (n–1)d 3–12 Transition metals; variable valence; coloured compounds
f-block (n–2)f Lanthanides, Actinides Inner transition metals; f orbitals filling
Key rule: The period number = highest principal quantum number of electrons being filled. The group
number (for s and p blocks) = number of valence electrons.
Reference: Bahl & Bahl pp.70–72 | Ebbing & Gammon Ch.8, Sec.8.1–8.2 pp.308–315
Chapter 2 — Periodic Table | Physical Chemistry Study Notes Page 5
TOPIC 03
Periodic Law
Mendeleev's original law vs the modern periodic law — the foundation of the periodic table.
3.1 Mendeleev's Periodic Law (1869)
"The physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their
atomic masses."
This law explained why properties repeat at regular intervals when elements are arranged by atomic
mass. It was revolutionary but had exceptions because atomic mass is not the most fundamental property.
3.2 Modern Periodic Law (based on Moseley, 1913)
"The physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their
atomic numbers (Z)."
Replacing 'atomic mass' with 'atomic number' resolved all anomalies. Atomic number (number of protons)
is an absolute, non-variable property of each element — unlike atomic mass which can vary with isotope
composition.
3.3 Why Atomic Number and Not Atomic Mass?
Property Atomic Mass Atomic Number (Z)
Definition Average mass of isotopes Number of protons in nucleus
Variability Varies with isotopic composition Fixed — defines the element
Anomalies in table Ar–K, Co–Ni, Te–I reversed No anomalies — perfect sequence
Isotopes Cannot distinguish All isotopes same Z
Basis of chemistry Indirect Determines electron configuration → all chemistry
3.4 What Does 'Periodic' Mean?
Properties are called 'periodic' because they repeat at regular intervals as atomic number increases.
Each period ends with a noble gas (filled valence shell) and the next period begins filling a new shell.
The repetition arises from the repetition of valence shell electron configurations. Since chemical
behaviour is determined by valence electrons, elements with the same valence configuration (same
group) have similar properties.
Periodicity is ultimately a consequence of quantum mechanics — the way electrons fill shells and
subshells creates the repeating pattern we see in the periodic table.
Reference: Bahl & Bahl pp.68–69 | Ebbing & Gammon Ch.8 pp.308–310
Chapter 2 — Periodic Table | Physical Chemistry Study Notes Page 6
TOPIC 04
Some Periodic Properties
Atomic radius, ionisation energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity — trends and
explanations.
4.1 Atomic Radius
Definition: The atomic radius is defined as half the distance between the nuclei of two identical
neighbouring atoms in a bonded molecule or crystal. Since isolated atoms have no sharp boundary
(electron cloud extends to infinity), we use the bonded distance.
Types of Atomic Radius:
■ Covalent radius: Half the internuclear distance between two identical atoms joined by a single
covalent bond. E.g., for Cl■ bond length = 198 pm → r(Cl) = 99 pm.
■ van der Waals radius: Half the distance between nuclei of two identical non-bonded atoms in
adjacent molecules. Always larger than covalent radius.
■ Metallic radius: Half the distance between adjacent nuclei in a metallic crystal.
■ Ionic radius: Effective size of an ion in an ionic compound. Cations are smaller, anions are larger than
the parent atom.
Factors Affecting Atomic Radius:
■ 1. Principal quantum number (n): Higher n = larger orbital = larger radius. As electrons occupy
higher shells (larger n), they are farther from the nucleus.
■ 2. Effective nuclear charge (Zeff): Zeff = Z – σ (σ = shielding constant). Higher Zeff pulls electrons
closer → smaller radius. As Z increases across a period with same n, Zeff increases → radius
decreases.
■ 3. Shielding (screening): Inner electrons shield outer electrons from the full nuclear charge. More
inner shells → more shielding → less Zeff → larger radius.
Periodic Trends in Atomic Radius:
ACROSS A PERIOD (left → right): Atomic radius DECREASES
Z increases, same n shell, Z_eff increases → electrons pulled closer
DOWN A GROUP (top → bottom): Atomic radius INCREASES
Each new period adds a new shell (n increases) → electron cloud expands
Period 3 Elements Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Atomic radius (pm) 186 160 143 117 110 104 99 —
Trend → ← radius decreases across Period 3 as Z increases from 11 to 18 →
Group 1 (Alkali Metals) — radius increases down the group:
Li Na K Rb Cs
Chapter 2 — Periodic Table | Physical Chemistry Study Notes Page 7
152 186 227 248 265
pm pm pm pm pm
Why atomic sizes of 2nd period elements < 3rd period elements (IIA Group trend
question):
Elements of the 2nd period (Li–Ne) have their outermost electrons in n=2 shell. Elements of the 3rd period
(Na–Ar) have outermost electrons in n=3 shell. Since n=3 is larger than n=2, all 3rd-period atoms are
larger than their 2nd-period counterparts in the same group, even though Z is larger. The increased shell
size (higher n) outweighs the increased nuclear charge.
4.2 Ionisation Energy (IE)
Definition: Ionisation energy is the minimum energy required to remove one mole of electrons from
one mole of gaseous atoms in their ground state, forming a mole of positive ions.
X(g) + energy → X■(g) + e■
1st IE = energy to remove 1st electron from neutral gaseous atom
2nd IE = energy to remove 2nd electron from X■(g) > 1st IE
Units: kJ/mol or eV/atom (1 eV = 96.49 kJ/mol)
Successive Ionisation Energies: Always increase: 1st IE < 2nd IE < 3rd IE…
Reason: After removing an electron, the remaining ion has a higher Z (same nuclear charge, fewer
eff
electrons shielding). There is also a very large jump in IE when a core electron is removed.
Factors Affecting Ionisation Energy:
■ 1. Nuclear charge (Z): Higher Z → greater attraction for electrons → higher IE. Across a period, Z
increases → IE generally increases.
■ 2. Atomic size / radius: Larger atom → outermost electrons farther from nucleus → weaker attraction
→ lower IE. Down a group, radius increases → IE decreases.
■ 3. Shielding by inner electrons: More inner shells → greater shielding of outer electrons → lower
effective nuclear charge → lower IE. Down a group, shielding increases → IE decreases.
■ 4. Penetration of orbitals: s electrons penetrate closer to nucleus (higher electron density near
nucleus) → harder to remove → higher IE than p electrons of same n.
■ 5. Half-filled and fully-filled subshell stability: Half-filled (p³, d■) and fully-filled (p■, d¹■) subshells
have extra stability → higher than expected IE.
Periodic Trends in IE:
ACROSS A PERIOD: IE generally INCREASES (left → right)
Z increases, same shell → Z_eff increases → harder to remove electrons
Chapter 2 — Periodic Table | Physical Chemistry Study Notes Page 8
DOWN A GROUP: IE DECREASES
More shells → greater shielding → lower Z_eff → electrons easier to remove
IIA Group — IE decreases down the group (from lecture question):
Element Be (4) Mg (12) Ca (20) Sr (38) Ba (56)
No. of inner shells 1 2 3 4 5
IE (eV) 9.3 7.6 6.1 5.7 5.2
Explanation: As we go from Be → Ba, the number of inner shells (shielding electrons) increases from 1 to
5. Each additional inner shell further screens the outermost electrons from the nuclear charge, reducing
Z . Also, atomic radius increases significantly down the group. Both effects reduce the attractive force on
eff
the valence electrons → ionisation energy decreases steadily (9.3 → 5.2 eV).
Important Irregularities in IE across periods:
■ Be > B (Group 2 vs Group 13): B has its outermost electron in 2p, which is higher energy and more
shielded than Be's 2s. So despite higher Z, B has lower IE than Be.
■ N > O (Group 15 vs Group 16): N has a half-filled 2p³ (one electron per orbital — extra stability). O
must pair electrons in one p orbital → increased repulsion → that electron is easier to remove. So O
has lower IE than N despite higher Z.
Period 2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
IE (eV) 5.4 9.3 8.3 11.3 14.5 13.6 17.4 21.6
Note — — Be>B ↓ — N>O ↓ — — Highest
4.3 Electron Affinity (EA)
Definition: Electron affinity is the energy change when one mole of gaseous atoms gains one
electron to form a mole of gaseous anions.
X(g) + e■ → X■(g) + energy (energy released = EA, positive value)
High EA = atom strongly attracts electrons = nonmetal character
EA is usually exothermic (energy released) for nonmetals
Factors Affecting Electron Affinity:
■ 1. Nuclear charge (Z): Higher Z → greater attraction for incoming electron → higher EA. Across a
period, EA generally increases.
■ 2. Atomic radius: Smaller atom → added electron comes closer to nucleus → stronger attraction →
higher EA. Halogens (small, high Z) have very high EA.
■ 3. Shielding: More shielding → lower Z → incoming electron less attracted → lower EA.
eff
■ 4. Stability of resulting anion: Noble gases, completely-filled subshells (ns²np■) have ~zero EA
(they don't want another electron).
Chapter 2 — Periodic Table | Physical Chemistry Study Notes Page 9
Periodic Trends in EA:
ACROSS A PERIOD: EA generally INCREASES (left → right)
EXCEPTION: Noble gases ~0 EA; Group 2 (filled s²) and Group 15 (half-filled p³)
have lower EA than expected
DOWN A GROUP: EA generally DECREASES
EXCEPTION: F has lower EA than Cl! (F is so small, added electron faces extra
repulsion from existing compact electron cloud)
Element F Cl Br I
EA (kJ/mol) 328 349 325 295
Unusually
Note low — electron repulsionHighest
in compact
in group!
2p — Lowest
Why EA of 2nd period elements < 3rd period elements (lecture question):
2nd period elements (e.g., N, O, F) have compact 2p orbitals. When an electron is added, the high
electron density in the small 2p orbital causes strong electron-electron repulsion. 3rd period elements
have larger, more diffuse 3p orbitals where the added electron experiences less repulsion. Despite higher
Z in 2nd period, the repulsion effect dominates, giving smaller (and sometimes negative) EA.
4.4 Electronegativity (EN)
Definition: Electronegativity is the relative tendency of a bonded atom to attract the shared pair of
electrons towards itself. It is a property of an atom in a molecule (not an isolated atom like IE or EA).
Three common scales:
■ Pauling scale (most common): Based on bond energies. F = 4.0 (most electronegative), Cs = 0.7
(least). Dimensionless.
■ Mulliken scale: EN = (IE + EA)/2 — average of ionisation energy and electron affinity.
■ Allred-Rochow scale: Based on effective nuclear charge and covalent radius.
Periodic Trends in Electronegativity:
ACROSS A PERIOD: EN INCREASES (left → right)
Z increases, radius decreases → bonding electrons pulled closer to nucleus
DOWN A GROUP: EN DECREASES
Radius increases, shielding increases → nucleus attracts bonded electrons less
Chapter 2 — Periodic Table | Physical Chemistry Study Notes Page 10
Most electronegative: F (4.0) | Least electronegative: Cs (0.7), Fr (~0.7)
Period 2 Li Be B C N O F
EN (Pauling) 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Application: Electronegativity difference (∆EN) between bonded atoms determines bond polarity:
■ ∆EN = 0: Pure covalent bond (e.g., H–H, Cl–Cl)
■ ∆EN = 0.4–1.7: Polar covalent bond (e.g., H–Cl: ∆EN = 0.9)
■ ∆EN > 1.7: Ionic character dominates (e.g., NaCl: ∆EN = 2.1)
Summary: Periodic Trends at a Glance
Property Across Period (→) Down Group (↓) Highest Lowest
Atomic radius Decreases ↓ Increases ↑ Cs, Fr He, Ne, F
Ionisation energy Increases ↑ Decreases ↓ He (24.6 eV) Cs (3.9 eV)
Electron affinity Increases ↑ Decreases ↓ Cl (349 kJ/mol) Noble gases (~0)
Electronegativity Increases ↑ Decreases ↓ F (4.0) Cs, Fr (0.7)
Memory trick: All four properties (IE, EA, EN, 1/radius) increase diagonally towards the top-right of the
periodic table. Atomic radius increases towards the bottom-left.
Reference: Bahl & Bahl pp.72–76 | Ebbing & Gammon Ch.8, Sec.8.2 pp.312–321
Chapter 2 — Periodic Table | Physical Chemistry Study Notes Page 11
TOPIC 05
Periodicity in the Main Group Elements
Group-by-group trends, diagonal relationships, and characteristic properties.
5.1 What are Main Group Elements?
Main group elements are those in Groups 1, 2, and 13–18 (s-block and p-block). They show the clearest
periodic trends. Each group has a characteristic valence electron configuration that dictates its chemistry.
5.2 Group 1 — Alkali Metals (ns¹)
Elements: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
■ All have 1 valence electron (ns¹) — easily lost → form M■ ions
■ Lowest IEs among all elements in their period → most reactive metals
■ Reactivity increases down the group: IE decreases → valence electron lost more easily
■ React vigorously with water: 2M + 2H■O → 2MOH + H■; violence increases Li<Na<K<Rb<Cs
■ All form strongly basic hydroxides (MOH), ionic halides (MX), and oxides (M■O)
■ Anomalous behaviour of Li: Li resembles Mg more than Na — diagonal relationship. Li has highest
charge density (smallest size).
5.3 Group 2 — Alkaline Earth Metals (ns²)
Elements: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
■ All have 2 valence electrons (ns²) — lose both → form M²■ ions
■ Higher IEs than Group 1 → less reactive (both electrons must be removed)
■ Reactivity increases down group: Ca, Sr, Ba react readily with water; Be and Mg do not react with
cold water
■ IE decreases down the group (Be: 9.3 eV → Ba: 5.2 eV) due to increasing atomic size and shielding
■ Anomalous behaviour of Be: Be resembles Al more than Mg — diagonal relationship. BeO and
Al■O■ are both amphoteric.
5.4 Group 17 — Halogens (ns²np■)
Elements: F, Cl, Br, I, At
■ One electron short of noble gas configuration → highest EA → most electronegative nonmetals
■ Form X■ ions in ionic compounds, HX acids, and covalent bonds in organic molecules
■ Reactivity decreases down group: F is most reactive (highest EN, smallest size), I least reactive
■ Oxidising power: F■ > Cl■ > Br■ > I■
■ F is special: it cannot expand its octet (no d orbitals in n=2), has no positive oxidation states, and has
anomalously low EA compared to Cl (due to electron repulsion in compact 2p)
5.5 Group 18 — Noble Gases (ns²np■)
■ Completely filled valence shell → chemically inert, very high IE, ~zero EA
■ Exist as monatomic gases at room temperature
■ Heavier noble gases (Kr, Xe) can form compounds with F (highly electronegative): XeF■, XeF■, XeF■
Chapter 2 — Periodic Table | Physical Chemistry Study Notes Page 12
■ IE decreases down the group (He: 24.6 eV → Rn: 10.7 eV)
5.6 Diagonal Relationships
Certain elements in the 2nd period resemble their diagonal neighbour in the 3rd period more than their
own group members. This occurs because the two diagonal elements have similar charge/radius ratios
(charge density) and hence similar polarising power.
2nd Period Li Be B C
3rd Period ■ Mg ■ Al ■ Si ■P
Both form organometallic
Similarity covalent
Bothcompounds;
form amphoteric
Li■CO■oxides;
andboth
MgCO■
Both
have
form
both
covalent
acidic
insoluble
chlorides;
oxides; B■O■
both used
and SiO■
as alloys
both glassy
Both form
network
similar
solids
oxoacids
5.7 General Trends Across All Main Group Elements
Property Left → Right across period Top → Bottom in group
Metallic character Decreases (metals → nonmetals) Increases
Nonmetallic character Increases Decreases
Oxide character Basic → Amphoteric → Acidic More basic down group
Hydride stability Increases (C–H to F–H strongest) Decreases
Valence electrons Increases 1→8 Same within group
Common oxidation state Equals group number (s,p blocks) Lower ox. states become stable
5.8 Variation of Oxide Nature Across Period 3
Oxide Na■O MgO Al■O■ SiO■ P■O■■ SO■ Cl■O■
Nature Basic Basic Amphoteric Weakly acidic Acidic Acidic Strongly acidic
With water NaOH Mg(OH)■ Al(OH)■ H■SiO■ H■PO■ H■SO■ HClO■
KEY SUMMARY: Periodic properties arise from periodic repetition of electron configurations. Trends
across a period are driven by increasing nuclear charge (Z). Trends down a group are driven by
increasing atomic size and shielding. Exceptions occur at half-filled and fully-filled subshells (extra
stability).
Reference: Bahl & Bahl pp.72–76 | Ebbing & Gammon Ch.8, Sec.8.2 pp.312–321
Chapter 2 — Periodic Table | Physical Chemistry Study Notes Page 13
KEY FORMULAS, VALUES & QUICK REFERENCE
Atomic Radius
Z_eff = Z – σ (σ = shielding constant, Slater's rules)
Across period: radius decreases (Z_eff ↑, same n)
Down group: radius increases (new shell, n ↑)
Ionisation Energy
X(g) + IE → X■(g) + e■
1 eV = 96.49 kJ/mol
Order: He (24.6) > Ne (21.6) > F (17.4) > O (13.6) > N (14.5) > C (11.3) > ...
IIA group: Be(9.3) > Mg(7.6) > Ca(6.1) > Sr(5.7) > Ba(5.2) eV
Electron Affinity
X(g) + e■ → X■(g) + EA
Highest EA: Cl (349 kJ/mol) > F (328) > Br (325) > I (295)
Noble gases ≈ 0 kJ/mol
Electronegativity (Pauling Scale)
F=4.0 O=3.5 N=3.0 Cl=3.2 Br=2.8 C=2.5 H=2.2 Li=1.0 Na=0.9 Cs=0.7
∆EN < 0.4 → nonpolar covalent | 0.4–1.7 → polar covalent | >1.7 → ionic
Mulliken: EN = (IE + EA) / 2
Moseley's Law
√ν = a(Z – b) [ν = X-ray frequency, Z = atomic number, a,b = constants]
Basis of Modern Periodic Law: properties are function of atomic number, not mass
Chapter 2 — Periodic Table | Complete Study Notes | Bahl & Bahl Essentials of Physical Chemistry (pp.68–76) | Ebbing &
Gammon General Chemistry Ch.8 Sec.8.2 (pp.312–321)
Chapter 2 — Periodic Table | Physical Chemistry Study Notes Page 14