Aerospace Dimensions

ROCKETS

4
MODULE

Civil Air Patrol

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama
Aerospace Dimensions
ROCKETS

4 WRITTEN BY
DR. JEFF MONTGOMERY
DR. BEN MILLSPAUGH

DESIGN
BARB PRIBULICK

ILLUSTRATIONS
PEGGY GREENLEE

EDITING
BOB BROOKS
SUSAN MALLETT
JUDY STONE

NATIONAL ACADEMIC STANDARD ALIGNMENT

JUDY STONE

PUBLISHED BY
NATIONAL HEADQUARTERS
CIVIL AIR PATROL
AEROSPACE EDUCATION DEPUTY DIRECTORATE
MAXWELL AFB, ALABAMA 36112

SECOND EDITION
SEPTEMBER 2010
 INTRODUCTION
The Aerospace Dimensions module, Rockets, is the fourth of six modules, which combined, make
up Phases I and II of Civil Air Patrol's Aerospace Education Program for cadets. Each module is
meant to stand entirely on its own, so that each can be taught in any order. This enables new cadets
coming into the program to study the same module, at the same time, with the other cadets. This
builds a cohesiveness and cooperation among the cadets and encourages active group participation.
This module is also appropriate for middle school students and can be used by teachers to supple-
ment STEM-related subjects.
Inquiry-based activities were included to enhance the text and provide concept applicability. The
activities were designed as group activities, but can be done individually, if desired. The activities
for this module are located at the end of each chapter.

ii
CONTENTS
Introduction .............................................................................................ii

Contents...................................................................................................iii

National Academic Standard Alignment ..............................................iv

Chapter 1. History of Rockets ................................................................1

Chapter 2. Rocket Principles, Systems and Engines...........................11

Chapter 3. Rocket and Private Space Travel ......................................27

Last century launch vehicle ... Saturn V This century launch vehicle ... Ares I

iii
National Academic Standard Alignment

iv
Learning Outcomes
1
- Identify historical facts about the Greeks, Chinese, and British, and their roles in the
development of rockets.
- Describe America's early contributions to the development of rockets.
- List the early artificial and manned rocket launches and their missions.

Important Terms/Persons
Neil Armstrong - first man to walk on moon
Roger Bacon - increased the range of rockets
Wernher von Braun - director of the V-2 rocket project
William Congreve - designed rockets for military use
Jean Froissart - improved the accuracy of rockets by launching them through tubes
Yuri Gagarin - a Russian; the first man in space and the first man to orbit the Earth
John Glenn - first American to orbit the Earth
Robert Goddard - experimented with solid and liquid propellant rockets; is called the “Father of
Modern Rocketry”
William Hale - developed the technique of spin stabilization
Hero - developed first rocket engine
Sergei Korolev - the leading Soviet rocket scientist; known as the “Father of the Soviet Space Program”
Sir Isaac Newton - laid scientific foundation for modern rocketry with his laws of motion
Hermann Oberth - space pioneer; wrote a book about rocket travel into outer space
Alan Shepard - first American in space
Skylab - first US space station
Space Shuttle - a space transportation system for traveling to space and back to Earth
Spin Stabilization - a technique developed by Englishman, William Hale, wherein escaping gases in
a rocket hit small vanes that made the rocket spin, and stablize, much like a bullet in flight
Sputnik I - first artificial satellite; Russian
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky - proposed the use of rockets for space exploration and
became known as the “Father of Modern Astronautics”

Today's rockets are remarkable examples of scientific research and experi-

mentation over thousands of years. Let's take a moment and recall some of the
fascinating rocket developments of the past.

HISTORY
The history of rockets began around 400 BC when a Greek named Archytas Hero Engine
built a flying wooden pigeon. It was suspended on a wire and propelled by escaping steam. About
300 years later, another Greek named Hero developed the first rocket engine. It was also propelled
by steam.

1
 Hero placed a sphere on top of a pot of water. The water
was heated and turned into steam. The steam traveled
through pipes into the sphere. Two L-shaped tubes on op-
posite sides of the sphere allowed the gas to escape. This
created a thrust that caused the sphere to rotate. This device
is known as a Hero Engine. (See associated Activity One at Fireworks and rockets
the end of the chapter.) share a common heritage
In the first century AD, the Chinese developed a form of
gunpowder and used it as fireworks for religious and festive
celebrations. The Chinese began experimenting with the
gunpowder-filled tubes. They attached bamboo tubes to ar-
rows and launched them with bows, creating early rockets.
In 1232, with the Chinese and Mongols at war with
each other, these early rockets were used as arrows of fly-
ing fire. This was a simple form of a solid-propellant
rocket. A tube, capped at one end, contained gunpowder.
The other end was left open and the tube was attached to a
long stick. When the powder ignited, the rapid burning of
the powder produced fire, smoke, and gas that escaped out Early Chinese Rocket
the open end and produced a thrust. The stick acted as a
guidance system that kept the rocket headed in one general
direction as it flew through the air. Records indicate that from this point, the use of
rockets spread, as well as the use of fins to add greater guidance and stability.
Rocket experiments continued throughout the 13th to 15th centuries. In England,
Roger Bacon improved forms of gunpowder, which increased the range of the rocket.
In France, Jean Froissart achieved more accuracy by launching rockets through
tubes. This idea was the forerunner of the bazooka. (See associated Activity Two at
the end of the chapter.)
During the latter part of the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton laid the scientific
foundations for modern rocketry when he developed his laws of motion. These laws
explain how rockets work and are discussed in detail in Chapter 2 of this volume.
Newton's laws of motion influenced the design of rockets. Rocket experimenters in
Germany and Russia began working with very powerful rockets. Some of these rock-
ets were so powerful that their escaping exhaust flames bored deep holes in the
ground even before liftoff.
At the end of the 18th century, Colonel William Congreve, an artillery expert with
the British military, set out to design rockets for military use. His rockets increased
the rocket's range from 200 to 3,000 yards and were very successful in battle, not be-
cause of accuracy, but because of the sheer numbers that could be fired. During a typi-
cal siege, thousands of rockets could be fired. These became known as the Congreve
rockets, and were the rockets that lit the sky during the battle at Fort McHenry in
1812, while Francis Scott Key wrote his famous poem, which later became our na-
tional anthem, “The Star Spangled Banner.”
Even with Congreve's work, the accuracy of rockets still had not improved much.
So, rocket researchers all over the world were experimenting with ways to improve
accuracy. An Englishman, William Hale, developed a technique called spin stabi-
lization. In this method, the escaping exhaust gases struck small vanes at the bottom
of the rocket, causing it to spin much as a bullet does in flight. Many rockets still use
variations of this principle today. Congreve Rocket

2
MODERN ROCKETRY

In 1898, a Russian schoolteacher, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, pro-

posed the idea of space exploration by a rocket. He published a report
in 1903 suggesting the use of liquid propellants for rockets in order to
achieve greater range. Tsiolkovsky stated that only the exhaust veloc-
ity of escaping gases limited the speed and range of a rocket. For his
ideas, research, and vision, Tsiolkovsky has been called the “Father of
Modern Astronautics.”
Early in the 20th century, an American physics professor, Dr.
Robert H. Goddard, conducted many practical experiments with
rockets. His research led to major breakthroughs in the development
of rockets. His earliest experiments were with solid-propellant rock-
ets. Then he became convinced that liquid fuel would better propel a
Dr. Robert H. Goddard
rocket. In 1926, Goddard achieved the first successful flight with a
liquid-propellant rocket. It was fueled by liquid oxygen and gasoline.
This was the forerun-
ner of today's rockets. Igniter
As he continued Needle valve Needle valve
with his experiments,
his liquid-propellant Rocket motor
rockets grew bigger
and flew higher. He
also developed a gyro- Liquid
scope system for flight Gasoline line oxygen
line
control, a payload
compartment, and a
parachute recovery
system. Additionally,
he believed that multi-
stage rockets were the Hinged rod
answer for achieving Pressure
high altitudes. For his relief vent
many accomplish- Exhaust shield
ments, Dr. Goddard is Liquid
known as the “Father oxygen tank Pull cord
of Modern Rocketry.”
Alcohol burner
Cork float
valve
Gasoline tank
Oxygen gas
pressure line Pull cord

Check valve Pipe

Detachable
starting hose Oxygen cylinder

Goddard Rocket Illustration

3
 In 1923, Hermann Oberth of Germany, published a book about rocket
travel into outer space. Because of his writings, small rocket societies were
started around the world. In Germany, one such society, the Society for Space
Travel, led to the development of the V-2 rocket.
The V-2 rocket, with its explosive warhead, was a formidable weapon
which could devastate whole city blocks. Germany used this weapon against
London during World War II, but fortunately this occurred too late in the war
to change the outcome. The V-2 was built under the directorship of Wernher
von Braun, a German,who after the war headed up the US rocket program.
With the fall of Germany, the Allies captured many unused V-2 rockets
Wernher von Braun
and components. Many German rocket scientists came to the United States.
Others went to the Soviet
Union. Von Braun and
about 120 of his scientists
signed contracts to work Warhead
with the US Army. Von (Explosive Charge)
Braun and his team used
Automatic
captured V-2s to teach Gyro Control
American scientists and
Guidebeam and Radio
engineers about rocketry. Command Receivers
In the Soviet Union,
Sergei Korolev was lead-
ing Russian scientists in Container for
rocket development. He Alcohol-water
organized and led the de- Mixture
velopment of the first suc-
cessful Soviet
intercontinental ballistic
missile in August 1957.
Two months later, the So-
viet Union launched the
Container for
world’s first artificial satel- Liquid Oxygen
lite, Sputnik I. He is con- Container for
sidered to be the Turbine Propellant
(Hydrogen Peroxide)
“Father of the Soviet Propellant
Space Program.” Vaporizer for Turbine Turbopump
Propellant (Propellant
Turbopump Drive)
Steam Exhaust
Oxygen Main Valve from Turbine

Rocket Motor
Alcohol
Main Valve

Jet Vane Air Vane

V-2 Rocket

4
Space Race

Both the United States and the Soviet Union recognized

the potential of rocketry as a military weapon and began a
variety of experimental programs. The United States began
a program of high-altitude atmospheric sounding rockets.
Then the US developed a variety of medium - and long-
range intercontinental ballistic missiles. These became the
starting points for the US space program.
Missiles, such as the Redstone, Atlas, and Titan, would
eventually launch satellites and astronauts into space. Col-
lectively, they were called rocket launch vehicles and they
were the real workhorses for the space program.
A launch vehicle is the rocket system that lifts a space-
craft. It gives the spacecraft enough force to reach orbit.
These launch vehicles propelled people and cargo into
space. The diagram to the right shows an example of a
rocket launch vehicles used by the US space program.
As stated previously, on October 4, 1957, the Soviet
Union launched into space the first artificial (man-made)
satellite, Sputnik I. The “race for space” between the two
world superpowers, the US and the USSR, had begun.
On January 31, 1958, the US launched Explorer I (il-
lustration on next page). The Explorer I was the first space-
craft to recongnize the Van Allen radiation belt around the
Titan III(23)C rocket launch (March 25,
1978) carrying two DSCS (Defense
Satellite Communications System)
II satellites (The Titan IIIC was the
launch vehicle for Voyager 1 and 2).

William Pickering,
James Van Allen, and
Wernher von Braun
displaying a full-
scale model of the
Explorer 1 satellite,
weighing only 30.80
lbs, at a crowded
press conference
held in the Great Hall
of the National Acad-
emy of Sciences at
1:30 A.M. February 1,
1958, when it was
confirmed that the
satellite was in orbit
around the Earth.
Sputnik I

5
 Explorer I External Nosecone with
Temperature Temperature
Gauge Probe Inside
Rocket Engine

Geiger Counter
Internal
Micrometeorite Temperature
Erosion Gauges Gauge Instrument Compartment
with Radio Transmitter
Antenna

Earth held in place by Earth’s magnetic field. The Explorer I was launched then, in October 1958,
the US formally organized its space program by creating the National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration (NASA). NASA became the civilian agency with the goal of peaceful exploration of space
for the benefit of all humankind. The Department of Defense (DoD) became responsible for research
and development in the area of military aero-
space activities. Thus, the US began to study
space exploration in earnest.
Both the US and the Soviet Union began
sending many people and machines into
space. In April of 1961, a Russian, named
Yuri Gagarin, became the first man to orbit
Earth. Then, less than a month later, Alan
Shepard, aboard his Mercury capsule, Free-
dom 7, became the first American in space.
The Redstone rocket that propelled Shepard
was not powerful enough to place the Mercury
capsule into orbit. So, the flight lasted only 15
minutes and reached an altitude of 187 kilo-
meters (or 116 miles). Twenty days later, May
25, 1961, even though the Soviet Union was
ahead of the US in the space race, President
John F. Kennedy announced the objective of
putting a man on the Moon by the end of the
decade.
In February 1962, John Glenn became
the first American to orbit the Earth aboard
the Mercury capsule, Friendship 7. Glenn
was launched by the more powerful Atlas
Alan Shepard's John Glenn's Mercury
rocket and remained in orbit for 4 hours and Mercury capsule atop capsule atop an Atlas
55 minutes. a Redstone rocket launch vehicle

6
 The US then began an extensive unmanned space program aimed at supporting the manned lunar
landing program. The Atlas rocket continued to power these Mercury missions until the larger Cen-
taur rocket booster was added to it and the Titan rockets. Although rocket staging had been used
since early rocketry began, this booster system added boosting stages to propel rockets even further.
As rocket building was refined, so was the capability of the US to explore the Moon. (See associated
Activity Three at the end of the chapter.)
Next came the Gemini missions in 1965-
1966, which were designed to carry two crew
members. These missions were launched by the
largest launch vehicle available, the Titan II.
Gemini missions were aimed at expanding our
experience in space and preparing the U.S. for a
manned lunar landing on the Moon. Gemini
paved the way for the Apollo missions by
demonstrating rendezvous and docking proce-
dures.
After the Gemini missions, the third manned
space program, Apollo, began in 1967 and
ended in 1975. Launching men to the Moon re-
quired much larger launch vehicles than those
available. So, the US developed the Saturn
launch vehicles; Saturn I, IB, and V. The Saturn
I and IB were large two-stage liquid-propellant
launch vehicles assembled from the components
Neil Armstrong's photo of Buzz Aldren
of other rockets.
planting the U.S. Flag on the Moon
In October 1968, a Saturn IB launched the
first three-person mission, Apollo 7. Then, the
three-stage Saturn V was developed with one
goal — send humans to the Moon. On July 20,
1969, Apollo 11 landed on the Moon, powered
by the Saturn V launch vehicle, and Neil Arm-
strong became the first man to walk on the
Moon.
The next space project of the United States
was Skylab - first US space station. The Saturn
IB launch vehicle was used again for Skylab.
Skylab was launched in May 1973 and had three
separate missions between 1973 and 1974. The
last mission was the longest. It lasted 84 days.
After the space station, the US concentrated
on a reusable launch system, the Shuttle Trans-
port System (STS). The STS used solid rocket
boosters and three main engines to launch the
shuttle orbiter. The reusable boosters fell off Skylab in orbit over the
Amazon River in Brazil
about two minutes into the flight. Parachutes de-

7
 A space shuttle landing

ployed to decelerate the solid rocket boosters for a safe

A space shuttle launch splashdown in the Atlantic Ocean, where ships recovered
them. The STS, commonly referred to as the Space Shuttle,
was used for transportation
” to space and back to Earth.
This chapter gave a
“ brief account of how rocket
launch vehicles were used
in the space race. A more
detailed account of the US
manned space program is
contained in module six of
Aerospace Dimensions.
Rockets evolved from
simple gunpowder devices
into giant vehicles capable
of traveling into outer
space, taking astronauts to
the Moon and launching
satellites to explore our
universe. Without a doubt,
rockets have opened the
universe to our explo-
ration, and the possibilities
continue to be endless.

Rocket timeline

8
Activity One - The Hero Engine
1
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to demonstrate Newton’s Third Law of
Motion, which was discussed in this chapter as related to the Hero Engine.
Materials: empty soda can, medium-size nail, string, bucket or tub of water, and a hammer
Procedure:
1. Lay the can on its side and carefully punch four equally-spaced holes in the can.
Before removing the nail, push the nail to the right so that the hole is slanted in
that direction. The holes should be just above the bottom rim. (Adult supervision
suggested.)
2. Bend the opener at the top of the soda can straight up and tie a short piece of string
to it.
3. Immerse the can in the water until the can is full.
4. Pull the can out of the water by the string. Water will stream out of the openings
causing the can to spin.
Summary: This replicates the very first rocket engine, the Hero Engine. Although the Hero Engine
was propelled by steam, this activity demonstrates thrust and Newton’s Third Law of Motion. New-
ton’s Third Law of Motion states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The
force of falling water at slanted intervals around the can (action) causes the soda can to spin in the op-
posite direction (reaction).

Activity Two - Making a Paper Rocket

Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to create a paper rocket and experiment with the flight of the
paper rocket as pushed through a tube, as discussed in this chapter about early rockets. The use of fins will
aid with stabilization of the rocket, as also discussed in the chapter.

Materials: paper, cellophane tape, scissors, sharpened pencil, and a straw (slightly thinner than the pencil)
Procedure:
1. Cut a piece of paper 1.5
inches wide by 1 inch Step Step Step
shorter than the straw to Tape
be used.
2. Wrap the paper around Step
Tape Tape
Fold
the pencil. line
Cut
3. Tape tube in three places here
as shown.
4. Remove pencil and cut Step Step Steps
off ends of tube.
5. Reinsert pencil into tube and tape around sharpened point of the pencil.
6. Cut out fins in any shape you like and tape to base of rocket.
7. Remove the pencil from tube. Insert the straw into the open end of the paper rocket.

9
8. Launch the rocket by blowing on the end of the straw.

Summary: Paper rockets demonstrate how rockets fly through the air and the importance of having
fins for control. When experimenting with the flight of the rocket, the more the force of air applied to
the paper rocket, the farther it soars. Also, launching the rocket at different angles results in different
heights and distances that the rocket achieves. Consider experimenting with the placement of fins and
number of fins. Having no fins at all results in an unstable rocket!

Activity Three - Rocket Staging

Purpose: In this activity, the concept of how rocket stages work is visually demonstrated using balloons.
Materials: two long party balloons, nylon monofilament fishing line (any weight), two plastic straws
(milkshake size), styrofoam coffee cup, masking tape, scissors, and two spring clothespins
Procedure:
1. Thread the fishing line through the two straws. Stretch the fishing line snugly across a room and
secure its ends to stable areas, such as a cabinet or wall. Make sure the line is just high enough for
people to pass safely underneath.
2. Cut the coffee cup in half so that the lip of the cup forms a continuous ring.
3. Stretch the balloons by pre-inflating them. Inflate the first balloon about three-fourths full of air and
squeeze its nozzle tight. Pull the nozzle through the ring. Twist the nozzle and hold it shut with a
spring clothespin. Inflate the second balloon. While doing so, make sure the front end of the second
balloon extends through the ring a short distance. As the second balloon inflates, it will press
against the nozzle of the first balloon and take over the clip's job of holding it shut. It may take a bit
of practice to achieve this. Clip the nozzle of the second balloon shut also with the clothes pin or
your fingers.
4. Take the straws to one end of the fishing line and tape each balloon to a straw with masking tape.
The balloons should point parallel to the fishing line.
5. Remove the clip from the first balloon and untwist the nozzle. Remove the nozzle from the second
balloon as well, but continue holding it shut with your fingers.
6. If you wish, do a rocket countdown as you release the balloon you are holding. The escaping gas
will propel both balloons along the fishing line. When the first balloon released runs out of air, it
will release the other balloon to continue the trip along the line.
7. Have students experiment with other ways to make multi-stage rockets work. Add 2, 3, or 4 stages,
as is possible.

Summary: This activ-

ity demonstrates
how a multi-stage
rocket works.
After a stage ex-
hausts its load of
propellants, the
entire stage drops
away, making the
upper stages more
efficient in reach-
ing higher alti-
tudes.

10
Learning Outcomes
- Define acceleration.
- Define inertia.
2
- Define thrust.
- Describe Newton's First Law of Motion.
- Describe Newton's Second Law of Motion.
- Describe Newton's Third Law of Motion.
- Identify the four major systems of a rocket.
- Describe the purpose of each of the four major systems of a rocket.
- Define payload.
- Describe how the world land speed record applies to rockets.

Important Terms
acceleration - the rate of change in velocity with respect to time
airframe - provides the shape of the rocket, within which all of the other systems are contained
control system - steers the rocket and keeps it stable
guidance system - gets the rocket to its destination; the brain of the rocket
inertia - the tendency of an object at rest to stay at rest and an object in motion to stay in motion
Newton's First Law of Motion - a body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion tends to stay in
motion at a constant velocity unless acted on by an outside force; inertia
Newton's Second Law of Motion - the rate of change in the momentum of a body is proportional to
the force acting upon the body and is in the direction of the force
Newton's Third Law of Motion - for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
payload - what the rocket is carrying
propulsion - everything associated with propelling the rocket
thrust - to force or push; the amount of push used to get a rocket traveling upwards

In this chapter, we will take a brief look at some of the concepts and principles that explain how
rockets work, with a particular emphasis on Newton's Laws of Motion. These laws lay the scientific
foundation for rockets and aid tremendously in explaining how rockets work.

PRINCIPLES
In its simplest form, a rocket is a chamber enclosing a gas under pres-
sure. A small opening at one end of the chamber allows the gas to escape,
and thus provides a thrust that propels the rocket in the opposite direction. AIR MOVES BALLOON MOVES

A good example is a balloon.

Balloons and rockets actually have a strong similarity. The only signifi-
cant difference is the way the pressurized gas is produced. With space
rockets, the solid or liquid burning propellants produce the gas.

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NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION
Even though rockets have been around for over 2,000 years, it has only been in the last 300 years
that rocket experimenters have had a scientific basis for understanding how they work. This scien-
tific basis came from Sir Isaac Newton. Newton stated three important scientific principles that gov-
ern the motion of all objects, whether on Earth or in space. Understanding these principles has
enabled rocketeers to construct the giant rockets we use today. These principles are known as New-
ton's Laws of Motion.

Newton's First Law of Motion: a body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion tends to stay
in motion at a constant velocity unless acted on by an outside, or unbalanced, force.
Rest and motion are the opposite of each other. If a ball is sitting on the ground, it is at rest. If it is
rolling, it is in motion. If you hold a ball in your hand and keep it still, the ball is at rest. All the time
the ball is being held there, it is acted upon by forces. The force of gravity is trying to pull the ball
downward, while at the same time your hand is pushing against the ball to hold it up. The forces act-
ing on the ball are balanced. Let the ball go, or move your hand upward, and the forces become un-
balanced. The ball then changes from a state of rest to a state of motion.
In rocket flight, forces become balanced and unbalanced all the time. A rocket on the launch pad
is balanced. The surface of the pad pushes the rocket up while gravity tries to pull it down. As the
engines are ignited, the thrust from the rocket unbalances the forces, and the rocket travels upward.
Thrust is defined as the amount of push used to get the rocket traveling upwards.
Consider a grocery cart full of groceries that you are pushing down an aisle. Let's pretend there is
no friction from the wheels or from the floor. The cart weighs 75 pounds and you are pushing it at
100 ft/min. What force must you exert on the cart to keep it moving in a straight line at this constant
speed? The answer is none. You exerted a force to start it from rest, and you will need to exert a
force to stop it, but no force is needed to keep it moving at constant velocity if there is no friction.
Inertia is the tendency of an object at rest to stay at rest and an object in motion to stay in motion.
(See associated Activity Four at the end of the chapter.)

Newton's Second Law of Motion: the

rate of change in the momentum of a A F M A
body is proportional to the force acting
upon the body and is in the direction of
the force.
This law is essentially a mathematical
equation. There are three parts: mass (m),
acceleration (a), and force (f) so that f =
ma (force equals mass times accelera-
tion). The amount of force required to accelerate a body depends on the mass of the body. The more
mass, the more force is required to accelerate it.
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change in velocity with respect to time. Use a cannon as an
example to help explain. When the cannon is fired, an explosion propels a cannon ball out the open
end of the barrel. It flies to its target. At the same time, the cannon itself is pushed backward. The
force acting on the cannon and the ball is the same. Since f = ma, if the mass increases, then the ac-
celeration decreases; if the mass decreases, then the acceleration increases.
Apply this principle to a rocket. Replace the mass of the cannon ball with the mass of the gases
being ejected out of the rocket engine. Replace the mass of the cannon with the mass of the rocket
moving in the other direction. Force is the pressure created by the controlled explosion taking place

12
inside the rocket's engines. That pressure accelerates the gas one way and the rocket the other.
Another example of this law would be a hockey puck sliding over the ice. That puck has a quan-
tity of motion that slowly decreases due to being in contact with the ice, which causes friction.

Newton's Third Law of Motion: for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
A rocket can lift off from a launch pad only when it expels gas out of its engine. The rocket
pushes on the gas, and the gas in turn pushes on the rocket. The example of a skateboard and rider il-
lustrates this point. Imagine the skateboard and rider at rest. The rider jumps off the skateboard. The
jumping is called the action. The skateboard responds to that action by traveling some distance in the
opposite direction. The skateboard's opposite motion is called the reaction. Another example is a
man walking on level ground pushes against the ground with his feet. The earth also pushes against
his feet with an equal and opposite force.
With rockets, the action is the expelling of gas out of the engine. The reaction is the movement of
the rocket in the opposite direction. To enable a rocket to lift off from the launch pad, the action, or
thrust, from the engine must be greater than the weight of the rocket. (See associated Activity Five,
Six, and Seven at the end of the chapter.)

ROCKET SYSTEMS
Modern rockets consist of four major systems: air- Person or
frame, guidance, control, and propulsion. These four sys- Equipment Payload
tems work together to deliver the payload. The payload is
defined as whatever the rocket is carrying. For instance, Guidance
System
the payload of a military rocket might be explosives, while
the payload of a civilian rocket might be satellites. The as- Air- Control
frame System
tronauts and their data are also part of the payload.
The airframe provides the shape of the rocket and all Propellant
of the other systems are contained within it. The airframe
must be light-weight, yet structurally strong. It must with- Propulsion
System
stand heat, stress, and a lot of vibration. The primary ob-
jective in the design and construction of an airframe is to
build a structure that will withstand all anticipated stresses Major Systems of Rockets
while using the least possible weight. For example, the
airframe of the Atlas rocket is thinner than a dime. When
the Atlas has no fuel aboard, it must be pressurized to
keep it from collapsing. The airframe is the skin of the
rocket and serves as the wall of the propellant tanks.
This eliminates the need for separate internal tanks and
saves in weight, too.
The guidance system is the "brain" of a rocket. It is
responsible for getting the rocket and its payload to its
destination. In a military missile, the guidance system
delivers the warhead to its target. In a civilian rocket, the
guidance system is responsible for delivering the space-
craft to its proper orbit or destination.
The guidance system is small compared to the rest of
the rocket. This photo on the right gives you an idea of
its actual size. It is a self-contained electronic unit with a The Guidance System

13
computer. The computer is programmed to guide the
rocket on a desired trajectory. There is also a radio link Payload
between the rocket's mission controllers and its guidance
system. This allows changes to be made if necessary. Igniter
The control system takes the information from the
guidance system and steers the rocket to its destination.
The control system also keeps the rocket stable. The con- Casing
(Body tube)
trol system is actually several controls that work to stabi-
lize and steer the rocket. These controls allow for Core
changes to be made during the rocket's flight.
Propellant
Vanes, movable fins, gimbaled nozzles, and attitude- (Grain)
control rockets are a few examples of controls that can
help steer or stabilize a rocket. Vanes are like small fins
that are placed inside the exhaust of the rocket engine. Combustion
Chamber
Tilting the vanes deflects the exhaust and changes the di-
rection the rocket is going. A gimbaled nozzle is one that Fins
sways while the exhaust passes through it. This also
changes a rocket's direction. A rocket’s movable fins can
be tilted to change the rocket's direction, as well. The Throat
most commonly used control system is the attitude- Nozzle
Solid Fuel Propulsion System
control rockets. Small clusters of engines are mounted all
around the vehicle. By firing the right combination of
these small rockets, the vehicle can be turned in any di-
rection.
The propulsion system consists of everything directly Payload
associated with propelling the rocket. This includes the
propellant used, the containers for the propellant, and the
Oxidizer
engine. The propellant doesn't mean just the fuel, but in-
cludes both the fuel and the oxidizer. The fuel is the
chemical the rocket burns and the oxidizer (oxygen) must
be present. Rockets must carry oxygen with them be-
cause there is none in space. Fuel
There are two rocket propellants, liquid and solid.
Solid rocket propellants were used for 700 years before
Pumps
the liquid propellant was created. The solid propellant is
carried in the combustion chamber and is much simpler Injectors
than the liquid propellant. The solid propellant is illus- Fins
trated in the picture on the right. The fuel is usually a Combustion
mixture of hydrogen compounds and carbon, and the oxi- Chamber
dizer is made up of oxygen compounds.
The liquid propellant is much more complicated. Nozzle
Liquid propellants are carried in compartments separate Liquid Fuel Propulsion System
from the combustion chamber, one for the fuel and one for
the oxidizer. The liquid propellant is usually kerosene or liq-
uid hydrogen; the oxidizer is usually liquid oxygen.
The liquid propellant is what is commonly used today. It is heavier than a solid propellant, but
easier to control. (See associated Activity Eight at the end of the chapter.)

14
THE ROCKET ENGINE AND THE WORLD LAND SPEED RECORD
A rocket can operate in space, where there is almost no air. A rocket can produce more power for
its size than any other kind of engine. For example, the main rocket engine of the Space Shuttle
weighs only a fraction as much as a train engine, but it would take 39 train engines to produce the
same amount of power. When that enormous power is applied to a car, speeds in excess of 1000
miles per hour are possible. More and more rockets are going to be used along with jet engines to
make cars go faster. (See associated Activities Nine and Ten at the end of the chapter.)
Gary Gabelich was
the driver of a car called
the “Blue Flame” that set
the land speed record on
October 28, 1970. The
car was rocket-powered
and reached a speed of
622.407 miles per hour.
The car was almost 42
feet long, weighed 7,700
pounds, and had a height
at the fin of 7’6”. Its fuel
was pressure fed The Blue Flame was a rocket-powered car that exceeded
methane and the oxidizer 600 miles per hour. Image courtesy of the Viper Club

was hydrogen peroxide.

It had a thrust power of close to 50,000 pounds.
In the following section you will learn that the
sound barrier was broken on land in a car, featured
here, called the Thrust SSC. Although not rocket
powered, but jet-engined powered, high interest and
commonalities in thrust power led to inclusion in
this chapter.

This illustration clearly shows how the oxidizer and

fuel can be self-contained. In an aerospace craft or
an automobile, an enormous amount of power can
Thrust SSC be made available. Image courtesy of NASA

15
The British Hold The Record For the World’s Fastest Car

Back in 1997, a British team was the first to break the sound barrier on land in a jet-powered car.
The team was put together by Richard Noble, who directed a project that built and ran an incredible
car called the Thrust SSC. He is also a previous land-speed record holder.
Thrust SSC (Super Sonic Car) is a British-designed and built project. The leadership in the team
effort included Noble, Glynne Bowsher, and Jeremy Bliss. The driver was Andy Green (a Royal Air
Force pilot who flies the famous Tornado aircraft).
On October 15, 1997, Green piloted the most powerful, most extraordinary car ever to be de-
signed to attack the Land Speed Record to a speed of 763 miles per hour (1,228 km/hour) to offi-
cially break the sound barrier on land. There was an earlier claim that an American rocket car, called
the Budweiser Rocket, broke the sound barrier. That controversy is still being resolved.
The Thrust SSC car broke the official record on
the Black Rock Desert in Nevada. It was powered by
two Rolls Royce Spey Turbofan engines from an
American McDonnell F-4 Phantom fighter and was
equipped with afterburners. The two engines devel-
oped a combined thrust of 50,000 pounds or approxi-
mately 110,000 horsepower. During the “run for the
record,” the engines burned an incredible 4.8 gallons
per second of fuel. The official records show that the
car achieved the following speeds:
• Flying mile 1227.986 km/h (763.035 mph)
Royal Air Force pilot, Andy Green, was also the • Flying kilometer 1223.657 km/h (760.343 mph)
pilot of the SSC and holds the record as being the
“Fastest Man Alive on Earth.”

This is a cutaway illustration, by Lawrence

Watts and the Castrol Corporation, that shows the
components of the Thrust SSC. It is 16.5 m (54 ft)
long, 3.7 m (12 ft) wide, and weighs 10.5 tons.
Image courtesy of Richard Noble

16
 Former record
holder and Thrust
SSC Director,
Richard Noble
Image courtesy of
Richard Noble
At speed, the Thrust SSC is going 1100 feet per second

The Thrust SSC after its monumental run of 763 miles per hour — fifty years almost to the day after Chuck
Yeager broke the sound barrier in the skies over what is now Edwards Air Force Base, CA

THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA TAKE THE CHALLENGE

An American and Canadian team have joined together to bring the world land speed record back
to North America. It is called the North American Eagle Land Speed Program. The challenge is to
make the transition from subsonic to supersonic speed and break the current land speed record of
763 miles per hour. The team is using a modified F-104 Starfighter that will make the runs. Al-
though, again, not rocket powered, but jet-engine powered, this information is included for interest
and close alignment to the principles of rocket propulsion.

17
 The United States and Canada are making a joint effort to be the fastest car on Earth.
This is the North American Eagle. Image Courtesy of the North American Eagle Land Speed Program

What are the Expected Results?

Edward Shadle and co-Director Keith Zanghi had this to say about the effort and its impact on
mankind: “Few people on this earth have ventured into the realm of such high speeds on the surface
of this earth. Researchers today may not be able to explain what phenomenon occurs as a vehicle
transitions past the speed of sound and what happens beyond that speed, but that's because man has
not been able to go there, until now. We want to know, and we want to share that information. Many
questions beg to be answered about this issue. What bearings can handle the weight loading and rev-
olutions per minute in these high-speeds? Can the aluminum-alloy wheels withstand the tremendous
centrifugal force? What about the shock wave and acoustical absorption of it into the earth's surface?
Can we keep this beast controlled and stopped safely? To the average individual, these issues may not
seem worth bothering to learn about. However, most people who had a difficult time envisioning the
benefits from the space race program of NASA in the '60s, are now taking those benefits for granted;
microwave ovens, VCR and DVD players, cellular phones, and the computer to name a few. The
knowledge gained can have more far-reaching impact than would appear at first. This has usually
been the case with research that seems initially frivolous.” (To keep up with the progress of the North
American Eagle program, and the benefits to future aerodynamic progress, go to
[Link])

NEXT STEP, PROJECT BLOODHOUND – A ROCKET POWERED

CAR THAT WILL BREAK 1000 MILES PER HOUR ON THE GROUND
BLOODHOUND SSC (Super Sonic Car) has gone through ten design evolutions since work
started. The original plan had been to position the small 200 kg rocket above the heavier 1,000 kg
EJ200 Eurofighter Typhoon jet engine and the car was designed accordingly over the following 18
months.

18
 Bloodhound SSC

As the project developed it became clear that more thrust was required to overcome the aerody-
namic drag. This culminated in a hybrid rocket weighing 400 kg. The extra thrust also created a fresh
challenge for the engineering team: The rocket firing would violently pitch the car nose-down, desta-
bilizing the whole vehicle.
The engineering team lead by John Piper, engineering director, began a radical re-design of the
car which saw the jet engine positioned over the rocket. This re-design was made possible by partner
Intel providing one of the largest computer clusters in the country. Designs are tested using Compu-
tational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) technology developed at Swansea University. Tests that previously
took one day to be run could now be completed in just a couple of hours with the increase in com-
puting resource provided by Intel.

Wheel design
Lockheed Martin UK has been developing the BLOODHOUND SSC wheel design to ensure they
can withstand forces of 50,000 radial g at the rim and support a 6.5 ton car travelling at 1,050 mph.
Research by Lockheed Martin UK has focused on a 90 cm diameter wheel design, constructed from
forged aerospace-grade aluminum.

Rocket test program

BLOODHOUND SSC will feature the largest hybrid rocket ever designed in the United King-
dom. The rocket weighs in at 400 kg, it is 45 cm (18 inches) in diameter and, at 425 cm (14 feet)
long, is the same length as a Formula One car. The rocket is designed to produce 27,500 lbs of
thrust. Together with BLOODHOUND SSCs EJ200 jet engine (20 000 lb thrust), this will give the
car a total of 212 kN (47,500 lb) of thrust – the equivalent of 135,000 HP, or the power of 180 For-
mula One cars.

World Land Speed Record run site

The BLOODHOUND team scoured the globe looking for the perfect run location on which to
make their attempt on the World Land Speed [Link] site needed to fulfill some very specific
criteria: It had to be 10 miles long, have one mile of clear run off at each end, be dead flat, and be
firm enough to support a 6.5 ton car moving at 1,000 mph. The search began with a computer pro-
gram that utilized Space Shuttle radar survey data and satellite imagery to identify potential loca-
tions. It produced several thousand possibilities, which were then whittled down using Google Earth.
Following a rigorous process of elimination, the short list contained some 35 deserts and salt flats,
including: Bonneville Salt Flats and the Black Rock desert, USA; Lake Tuz, Turkey; Verneuk Pan,
South Africa plus Lake Gairdner and Lake Eyre, Australia.
Andy Green, driver of BLOODHOUND SSC, visited the majority of these deserts to conduct on-

19
site surveys in order to identify the location best suited to a record-breaking run. Verneuk Pan in the
Northern cape of South Africa came out on top. Verneuk Pan is the site of Malcolm Campbell’s ill-
fated bid for the World Land Speed Record in 1929, which is 830 m above sea level. With his engine
performance limited by the thin air, Campbell only managed 218.5 mph.
A thorough survey conducted at Verneuk Pan found it wasn’t practical to clear the stone-littered
surface. However, a previously discounted desert lying 400 km north was identified as a possible run
site. A more detailed survey found the ideal location: Hakskeen Pan, Northern Cape province, South
Africa. Hakskeen Pan offers a 12 mile-long track across a perfectly flat dried-up lake bed. The sur-
face is relatively free from debris and stones but it is crossed by a dirt track which will need to be re-
moved prior to record-breaking runs in 2011. The Project has received fantastic support from the
Northern Cape Government, which has undertaken to prepare Hakskeen Pan for the World Land
Speed Record runs as part of the Northern Cape’s development as a world-class adventure sports lo-
cation.

Sponsors
The Project currently has 166 product sponsors supporting it. These range from specialist product
suppliers such as Goodridge Hoses to multinationals such as, Lockheed Martin and IT partner, Intel.
Many of these companies have borne the brunt of the recession, but have come onboard to sup-
port this groundbreaking education program as they see first-hand that their industries have a real
need for more skilled engineers, mathematicians, and scientists. This has become a great challenge to
produce the next generation of aerospace and aerodynamic scientists, engineers, and mathematicians.
The excitement of such endeavors is hoped to inspire students toward more STEM-related career
choices.

Bloodhound SSC

20
 2
Activity Four - Law of Inertia (Newton’s First Law)
Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to demonstrate New-
GRAVITY

ton’s First Law of Motion, the law of inertia. BALL AT

Material: stack of checkers, ball REST
Procedure:
1. Stack the checkers, leaving one out for step #2.
2. Shoot the extra checker so it hits the bottom
checker. When you shoot the checker, you are introduc- LIFT
ing an outside force to the stack of checkers. When it
hits the bottom checker, its inertia is transferred and the bottom checker moves with almost the same
speed and inertia.
3. Next, you can take a ball and cup it in your hand, like the picture to the right. It is in a state of rest.
Gravity is pushing down on the ball, while your hand is pushing up. If you remove your hand, the
ball drops and is in a state of motion. It stayed at rest until an unbalanced force, gravity, makes it
move downward.
Summary: Newton’s First Law of Motion explains that an object at rest remains at rest and a body in
motion tends to stay in motion at a constant velocity unless acted on by an outside force. Energy is
transferred from the moving checker (the outside force) to the checker at the bottom of the stack (object
at rest), resulting in the bottom checker being moved. Depending on the surface of the table or floor
being used, 100% of the energy will not be transferred to the other checker due to friction. Friction is
the force of two objects in contact that results in the slowing or stopping of an object. A smooth surface
results in less friction. A rougher surface, such as carpet, creates more friction. A rocket cannot launch
until a force acts upon it resulting in its launch. As the rocket travels through the atmosphere, atmos-
pheric drag (fluid friction) works against the upward motion of the rocket.

Activity Five - 3-2-1 POP

Purpose: This activity helps explain how thrust is generated in a rocket. It also
demonstrates Newton’s Third Law of Motion.

Materials: heavy paper (60-110 index stock or construction paper), plastic 35

mm canister with lid on inside of canister (or equivalent), student sheets, cello-
phane tape, scissors, effervescing antacid tablet, paper towels, water, and eye
protection (Note: In the past, Fuji film canisters were free and easy to locate.
Due to digital photography this is no longer the case. A good source to locate
film canisters is Educational Innovations @ [Link] Item #
CAN-300 12@$7.95.)
Procedure:
1. Wrap and tape a tube of paper around the film canister. The lid end of the
canister goes down.

21
2. Tape fins to your rocket.
3. Roll a cone of paper and tape it to the rocket's upper end.
4. Ready for flight.

Tape

Cone Pattern Overlap this

(Cone can be edge to form
Lid any size) cone

Countdown:
5. Turn the rocket upside down and fill the canister one-third full of water.
Work quickly on these next steps!
6. Drop in 1/2 of the antacid tablet.
7. Snap lid on tight.
8. Turn rocket right-side up and set on ground.
9. Stand back.
10. LIFT OFF!
Summary: Once the fizzy tablet reacts with the water in the film canister,
gas bubbles are produced. Much pressure is produced by the gas building
up inside the canister. Unlike a balloon, the canister cannot expand as the
amount of gas being produced increases. Eventually, so much gas pressure
is produced that it forces the canister to pop open. The gas rushing down-
4 ward out of the canister causes the rocket to move upward, demonstrating
Newton’s third law of motion. Real rockets work in a similar way; how-
ever, they use real rocket fuel.

Activity Six - Two Balloons (Newton’s Third Law)

Purpose: This activity demonstrates Newton’s Third Law of Motion.

Materials: two balloons, inflated and tied

Procedure:
1. Squeeze the two balloons together, pushing with only one of them. PUSHER PUSHED
The pusher is compressed by the force of the push. The pushed is
also compressed from pushing back with equal force.
2. To prove further that they are pushing on each other equally, let go all at
once. The balloons spring back into shape and push each other apart.
Summary: In this demonstration, only one balloon is doing the pushing,
but the other balloon is pushing back at an equal and opposite force. When
the balloons are released, they push apart equal distances.

22
Activity Seven - Roller Skates and Jug
(Newton’s Third Law) REACTION ACTION

Purpose: This activity demonstrates Newton’s Third Law of Motion.

Material: roller skates and plastic jug of water

Procedure:
Wearing roller skates, with feet parallel, throw a plastic jug of water to a friend 10 feet away
(as you push forward, you roll backward). OR, use a skateboard to demonstrate the same thing.
Stand on a skateboard with the board not moving. Then jump off the board. Your jumping off is the
action, and the board moving in the opposite direction is the reaction.

Summary: Newton’s Third Law of Motion states that for every action, there is an equal and oppo-
site reaction. Throwing the jug forward (action) results in the person with the skates or skateboard to
move in the opposite direction (reaction). This action parallels the hot gases from the burning fuel
that rush out of the rocket (action) results in the rocket moving in the opposite direction (reaction).

Activity Eight - Antacid Tablet Race - Experiment 1

Purpose: Use scientific investigation skills to compare the reaction rates of effervescent antacid tablets
under different conditions, in alignment with the discussion of liquid propellents in the chapter.

Materials: effervescent antacid tablets (4 per group), two Beakers (or glass
or plastic jars), tweezers or forceps, scrap paper, watch or clock with second
hand, thermometer, eye protection, and water (warm and cold)

Procedure: Experiment 1
1. Fill both jars half full with water that is the same temperature.
2. Put on your eye protection.
3. Predict how long it will take for the tablet to dissolve in the water. Drop a
tablet in the first jar. Shade in the stop watch face for the actual number of
minutes and seconds it took to complete the reaction. The stopwatch can
measure 6 minutes.

0 15 0 15
30 30
Jar 1 Results 45 Jar 2 Results 45
5 1 5 1
Temperature: _____ 15
Temperature: _____ 15
Your prediction: _____ seconds 30 Your prediction: _____ seconds 30
45 45
4 2 4 2

3 3

Procedure: Experiment 2
1. Empty the jars from the first experiment. Put warm water in one jar and cold in the other.
2. Measure the temperature of the first jar. Predict how long it will take for a tablet to dissolve. Drop
a tablet in the jar. Shade in the clock face for the actual number of minutes and seconds it took to
complete the reaction.
3. Measure the temperature of the second jar. Predict how long it will take for a tablet to dissolve in
the water. Drop a tablet in the jar. Shade in the clock face for the actual number of minutes and
seconds it took to complete the reaction.

23
 0 15 0 15
30 30
45 45
5 1 5 1
Jar 1 Results 15
Jar 2 Results 15
Temperature: _____ 30 Temperature: _____ 30
Your prediction: _____ seconds 4
45 Your prediction: _____ seconds 4
45
2 2

3 3

Describe what happened in the experiment and why.

How can you apply the results from these experiments to improve rocket performance?
Summary: The amount of surface area of the tablet and the temperature of the water will affect the
reaction of the tablets. This activity relates to increasing the power of rocket fuels by manipulating
surface area and temperature. When rocket propellants burn faster, the mass of exhaust gases ex-
pelled increases, as well as the speed at which those gases accelerate out of the rocket nozzle. Based
on Newton’s Second Law of Motion, increasing the efficiency of rocket fuels increases the perform-
ance of the rocket. Expanding the burning surface increases its burning rate. This increases the
amount of gas (mass) and acceleration of the gas as it leaves the rocket engine.

Activity Nine - Rocket Racer

Purpose: Experiment with force and Newton’s Laws of Motion in this activity.
Materials: four straight pins, styrofoam meat tray, masking tape, flexible straw, scissors, drawing
compass, marker pen, small round party balloon, ruler, and student sheets (one set per group); 10-
meter tape measure or other measuring markers for track (one for whole class)
Procedure:
1. Distribute the materials and construction tools to each group. If you are
going to construct a second racer, save the styrofoam tray scraps for later.
Hold back the additional materials for the second racer until you need them.
2. Build racer, as per directions below.
(Note) You should plan the arrangement of parts on the tray before cutting
them out. If you do not wish to use scissors, you can trace the pattern pieces
with the sharp point of a pencil or a pen. The pieces will snap out of the styro-
foam if the lines are pressed quickly.
3. Lay out a track on the floor approximately 10 meters long, (or about 33 feet). Several
metric tape measures joined together can be placed on the floor for determining how far the racers
travel. Distances should be measured in 10 centimeter intervals.
4. Distance data sheets and a drawing of constructed racer should be prepared to recond test runs and
actual runs of races.
5. Test racers as they are completed. Fill in the data sheets and create a report cover with a drawing
of the racer they constructed.
6. If a second racer will be constructed, distribute design pages before starting construction.
Build Racer:
[Link] a pattern to fit on the styroform tray. You need one car body, four wheels, and four hub-
caps. Use a compass to draw the wheels. Lay out your pattern on the tray and then cut them out.
2. Blow up the balloon and let the air out. Tape the balloon to the short end of a flexible straw and
then tape the straw to the rectangle.
3. Push pins through the hubcaps into the wheels and then into the edges of the rectangle.
4. Blow up the balloon through the straw. Squeeze the end of the straw. Place the racer on the floor
and let it go.

24
 CAR BODY HUBCAPS

WHEELS

Summary: This activity demonstrates Newton’s Laws of Motion. The rocket racer stays at rest unless
the force of air released from the balloon causes it to move forward. It will continue moving forward
until the air is exhausted from the balloon. (1st law) The more air that is placed in the balloon, the
farther the rocket racer travels. (2nd law) Air rushing out of the end of the racers causes the racer to
move forward. (3rd law)
Activity Ten - Newton Car
Purpose: Experiment with a slingshot-like device that throws a film canister filled with various ob-
jects, and demonstrate Newton’s Laws of Motion.
Materials: wooden block about 10x20x2.5 cm (about 4x8x1 inch), 3 3-inch #10
wood screws (round head), 12 round pencils or short lengths of similar dow-
els, plastic film canister or equivalent, assorted materials for filling can-
ister (washers, nuts, etc.), 3 rubber bands, cotton string, matches or
lighter, eye protection for each student, metric beam balance
(primer balance), vice, screwdriver, and a meter or measuring
stick or device

Procedure:
1. Tie six string loops the size shown here.
2. Fill up your film canister and weigh it in grams. Record the mass in the
Newton Car Report Chart.
3. Set up your Newton Car as shown in the picture. Slip the rubber band through the string loop.
Stretch the rubber band over the two screws and pull the string back over the third screw. Place
the rods 6 centimeters (about 2.5 inches) apart. Use only one rubber band the first time.
4. Put on your eye protection!
5. Light the string and stand back. Record the distance the car traveled on the chart.
6. Reset the car and rods. Make sure the rods are the same distance apart. Use two rubber bands.
Record the distance the car travels.
7. Reset the car with three rubber bands. Record the distance it travels.
8. Refill the canister and record its new mass.
9. Test the car with the new canister mass and with one, two and three rubber bands. Record the dis-
tances the car moves each time.
10. Plot your results on the graph. Use one line for the first set of measurements and a different line
for the second set.
Summary: Besides demonstrating Newton’s First and Third Laws of Motion, this activity is an ex-
cellent tool for investigating Newton’s Second Law of Motion, which states that force equals mass
times acceleration. Manipulating different variables, such as the size of the string loop and the place-
ment of the mass on the car, influences the results. By experimenting with a number of variables on
a rocket, scientists can design a rocket that flies according to the purpose for which it was designed.

25
Newton Car Report:
Team Members:
_____________________________________ _______________________________________
_____________________________________ _______________________________________
_____________________________________ _______________________________________

RUBBER BANDS DISTANCE TRAVELED

1
Mass 1
______
2
Grams
3

Describe what happened when you tested the car with one, two, and three rubber bands.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

RUBBER BANDS DISTANCE TRAVELED

1
Mass 2 2
______
Grams
3
Describe what happened when you tested the car with one, two, and three rubber bands.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Write a short statement explaining the relationship between the amount of mass in the canister, the
number of rubber bands, and the distance the car traveled.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Mass 1= _______grams (weight)
Mass 2= _______grams (weight)
3
Number of Rubber Bands

SAMPLE

0
50 100 150 200
Distance in Centimeters

26
Learning Outcomes
3
- Describe the requirements for achieving the X-Prize.
- Describe SpaceShipOne’s achievements.
- Describe the future flight sequence of SpaceShipTwo.

Important Terms
SpaceShipOne – aircraft with suborbital capability
SpaceShipTwo – SpaceShipOne’s successor that could possibly offer the general public space travel

ROCKETS IN THE SECOND MILLENIUM

In 1995, Dr. Peter H. Diamandis conceived an award, which he called the “Ansari X-Prize” that
would encourage PRIVATE space flight. The requirements were that a non-government-supported
aerospace craft would have to fly to an altitude of 100 km or 62 miles above the surface of the Earth
and return safely. Then, within a period of 2 weeks, the same flight would have to be repeated. On
both occasions, the vehicle was required to carry the weight of three adult humans. For this accom-
plishment, a prize of $10,000,000 would be awarded.
The organizers of the Ansari X-Prize, together with the scientific community, set the altitude of 62
miles, or 100 kilometers, as the line that defines the beginning of space. Twenty-six teams from 7
countries competed for the prize and many attempts to win it were made over a period of 8 years.
On June 21, 2004, Mike Melvill, test pilot for Scaled Composites of Mojave Aerospace Ventures,
flew their entry for the competition, SpaceShipOne, on
a record-breaking flight. Melvill reached an altitude of
328,491 feet, making him the first private pilot to earn
NASA’s highly-coveted astronaut wings.
Three months later, on September 29, Melvill flew
SpaceShipOne again on the first official mission to
meet the requirements set forth in the rules of compe-
tition for the X-Prize. He accomplished all competi-
tion requirements on that flight. Then, on October 4,
another test pilot for Scaled Composites, Brian Binnie,
flew the vehicle to an altitude of 347,442 feet, or 69.2
miles to win the prize. That flight marked the 47th an-
niversary of the Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik.
On November 6, 2004, Scaled Composites was
Test flight crew of SpaceShipOne. From left to right,
awarded the $10M prize. Since that time, more than
top to bottom, Brian Binnie, Pete Siebold, Michael
$1.3B has been invested world-wide in a new industry Melvill, Douglas Shane. Photography by Bill Deaver.
… private space travel. Image courtesy of Aerospace Ventures LLC

27
 THE NEXT FRONTIER –
PRIVATE SPACE TRAVEL
Commercial Airline-Type Space Travel –
Virgin Galactic
The first thing that comes to mind with the
word “commercial” is, “how much does it cost
to go to space if you’re just a passenger and not
an astronaut?” Initially, it will be $200,000 per

Aeronautical engineer, Burt Rutan, is shown dis-

cussing the SpaceShipOne project with Microsoft’s
The flight profile of SpaceShipOne from release to land- co-founder Paul G. Allen. Permission was given to
ing. Image courtesy of Mojave Aerospace Ventures, LLC Civil Air Patrol by Aerospace Ventures, LLC.

The aerospace “mother ship,” known as “White Knight” is shown here carrying
SpaceShipOne on a test flight. Image courtesy of Mojave Aerospace Ventures, LLC

28
 SpaceShipOne Schematic

SpaceShipOne after
its successful flight
with Mike Melvill as
the pilot.
Image Courtesy of
Mojave Aerospace
Ventures, LLC

person. Virgin Galactic, a company that is a subsidiary of English-based Virgin Airlines and owned
by British billionaire Sir Richard Branson, is building the first “airline to space.”
The success of SpaceShipOne prompted the businessman to explore the possibility of offering the
general public space transportation in a specially-built spacecraft known as SpaceShipTwo. Initially,
the venture will take paying passengers on a sub-orbital flight to an altitude of 110 kilometers, or 68
miles, into the thermosphere. SpaceShipTwo will reach 4,200 km/h (2,600 mph) using a single hy-
brid rocket motor, which goes by the name RocketMotorTwo. During the flight, passengers will ex-
perience a short period of weightlessness. The complete flight will take about 2.5 hours, with the
first flights set to begin 2011.
From “ space bases” located near Upham, New Mexico, and Mojave, California, two crewmem-
bers and six passengers will be taken aloft by the technologically-advanced “mother ship” known as
White Knight Two. The first spaceliner that is taken aloft by White Knight Two, has been christened
VSS (Virgin SpaceShip) Enterprise. This is a name given to honor the television and movie icon Star
Trek’s Enterprise.
In New Mexico, there will be a 10,000 foot runway and a completely outfitted terminal facility for
the pioneering space passengers. The State of New Mexico has invested close to $200 million dollars
in the project.
For their “ticket,” passengers will board the space craft for a series of safety briefings and then be
taken to an altitude of 50,000 feet. SpaceShipTwo will then separate from the WhiteKnight II and be
rocketed into suborbital space. When the 110 km, or 68 mile, altitude is reached, passengers will be
allowed to experience approximately 6 minutes of weightlessness. The passengers will be allowed to
release themselves from their seats and float around the cabin. The reason for this extended period of
weightlessness is the altitude reached is at the boundary of space. By going to 110 km, and a speed
of Mach 3, additional time in space can be realized.

29
 During re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere, Space-
ShipTwo will fold it’s wings upward and be gently
slowed to prepare for a glide to landing at the space
port.
Sir Richard Branson unveiled the project on Decem-
ber 7, 2009, at the Mojave Spaceport, the home base for
Burt Rutan’s Scaled Composite’s operation. Branson’s
company, Virgin Galactic, is part of an international
conglomerate known as the Virgin Group. All of the ini-
tial testing and marketing takes place in the United
Sir Richard Branson and Burt Rutan showcase a model of the
WhiteKnight II and SpaceShipTwo for a press conference.

WhiteKnight II and SpaceShipTwo in flight in preparation for launch – Image courtesy of Virgin Galactic

The first space base will be located in the State of New Mexico.

30
A test firing of the SpaceShipTwo rocket at the Mojave facility – Image courtesy of Virgin Galactic

This illustration shows the difference between SpaceShipOne

and SpaceShipTwo in dimensions. Courtesy of Virgin Galactic

31
 After a thrilling venture into space, Virgin Galactic’s
SpaceShipTwo prepares for re-entry and a slower speed
for landing. Image courtesy of Virgin Galactic

States; however, there are plans for other space facilities

in England, Scotland, Sweden, and Dubai. Initial orders
are for two White Knight IIs and a fleet of five Space-
ShipTwos. The future also includes collaboration with
NASA for the possibility of launching low orbit satellites.
This can be done at a greater savings of money than
using extremely powerful, and extremely expensive con-
ventional orbital rockets. The future of rocketry for con-
tinued space travel and exploration is only beginning.
The possibilities are limitless and all because of a sim-
ple propulsion principle used in the exciting area of
rocketry! (See associated Activities Eleven, Twelve, and
Thirteen at the end of the chapter.)

Flight profile of SpaceShipTwo

from release to landing

32
 3
Activity Eleven - Bottle Rocket and Bottle Rocket Launcher
Purpose: This activity demonstrates how a rocket works and Newton’s Laws of Motion. It also pro-
vides detailed, in-depth instructions to follow, much like the stringent rules governing the Arsari X-
Prize!
Materials for Building Bottle Rocket: 2-liter plastic soft drink bottles, low-temperature glue guns,
poster board, tape, modeling clay, scissors, safety glasses, decals, stickers, marker pens, launch pad
for the bottle rocket launcher. Begin saving 2-liter bottles several days or weeks in advance so that
you will have enough each participant. You also need a bottle rocket launcher to complete this
activity. Instructions for building the launcher are below.

e
Glu
Procedure:

Hot
1. Wrap and glue or tape a tube of poster board around the 2 liter bottle.
2. Cut out several fins of any shape and glue them to the tube.
3. Form a nose cone and hold it together with tape or glue.
4. Press a ball of modeling clay into the top of the nose cone for weight.
5. Glue or tape nose cone to upper end of bottle.
6. Decorate your rocket.
Materials for Bottle Rocket Launcher: four 5" corner irons with 12 3/4" wood screws, one 5"
mounting gate, two 6" spikes, two 10" spikes or metal tent stakes, two 5"x1/4" carriage bolts with 6
1/4” nuts, one 3" eyebolt with two nuts and washers, four 3/4" diameter washers to fit bolts, one #3
rubber stopper with a single hole, one snap-in tubeless tire valve, wood board 12"x18"x3/4", a 2-liter
plastic bottle, electric drill and bits including a 3/8" bit, screw driver, pliers or open-end wrench to fit
nuts, vice, 12' of 1/4" cord, a pencil, and a bicycle pump with psi measurement
Rubber Carriage
Procedure: Stopper Tire Bolt
1. Prepare the rubber stopper by enlarging the hole with Stem
Nut
a drill. Grip the stopper lightly with a vice and gently
enlarge the hole with a 3/8" bit and electric drill. The
rubber will stretch during cutting, making the finished Washer
Mounting
hole somewhat less than 3/8". Plate Nut
2. Remove the stopper from the vice and push the nee- Attach Bicycle
Pump Here
dle valve end of the tire stem through the stopper
from the narrow end to the wide end.
3. Prepare the mounting plate by drilling a 3/8" hole
through the center of the plate. Hold the plate with a Wood Base
vice during drilling and put on eye protection. En- Attachment of Mounting Plate and Stopper
large the holes at the opposite ends of the plates, using
a drill bit slightly larger than the holes to do this. The holes must be large enough to pass the car-
riage bolts through them. (See diagram)
4. Lay the mounting plate in the center of the wood base and mark the centers of the two outside holes
that you enlarged. Drill holes through the wood big enough to pass the carriage bolts through.

33
5. Push and twist the tire stem into the hole you drilled in the center of the mounting plate. The fat
end of the stopper should rest on the plate.
6. Insert the carriage bolts through the wood base from the bottom up. Place a hex nut over each bolt
and tighten the nut so that the bolt head pulls into the wood.
7. Screw a second nut over each bolt and spin it about half-way down the bolt. Place a washer over
each nut and then slip the mounting plate over the two bolts.
8. Press the neck of a 2-liter plastic bottle over the stopper. You will be using the bottle's wide neck
lip for measuring in the next step.
9. Set up two corner irons so they look like bookends. Insert a spike through the top hole of each
iron. Slide the irons near the bottle neck so that the spike rests immediately above the wide neck
lip. The spike will hold the bottle in place while you pump up the rocket. If the bottle is too low,
adjust the nuts beneath the mounting plate on both
sides to raise it. Hold Down
Bottle
10. Set up the other two corner irons as you did in the Neck Bar
previous step. Place them on the opposite side of
the bottle. When you have the irons aligned so that
the spikes rest above and hold the bottle lip, mark Corner
Iron
the centers of the holes on the wood base. For more Carriage
Mounting
precise screwing, drill small pilot holes for each Plate
Bolt
screw and then screw the corner irons tightly to the
base on the opposite side of the bottle. When you
have the irons aligned so that the spikes rest above
and hold the bottle lip, mark the centers of the holes Wood Base
on the wood base. For more precise screwing, drill Positioning corner irons
small pilot holes for each screw and then screw
the corner irons tightly to the base.
11. Install an eye bolt to the edge of the opposite
holes for the hold-down spikes. Drill a hole and
hold the bolt in place with washers and nuts on
Hold Down
top and bottom. Spike Launch
12. Attach the launch "pull cord" to the head end of Release
Cord
Hold Down
each spike. Run the cord through the eye bolt. Spike
13. Make final adjustments to the launcher by at-
taching the pump to the tire stem and pumping
up the bottle. Refer to the launching instruc-
tions for safety notes. If the air seeps out around
the stopper, the stopper is too loose. Use a pair To Pump
of pliers or a wrench to raise each side of the
Completed launcher ready for firing
mounting plate, in turn, to press the stopper with
slightly more force to the bottle neck. When satisfied with the position, thread the remaining hex
nuts over the mounting plate and tighten them to hold the plate in position.
14. Drill two holes through the wood base along one side. The holes should be large enough to fit
large metal tent stakes. When the launch pad is setup on a grassy field, the stakes will hold the
launcher in place when you yank the pull cord. The launcher is now complete.
Launch Safety Instructions:
1. Select a grassy field that measures approximately 30 meters, or 98 feet, across. Place the launcher
in the center of the field and anchor it in place with the spikes or tent stakes. If it is a windy day,
place the launcher closer to the side of the field from where the wind is coming so that the rocket
will drift onto the field as it comes down.

34
2. Have each student or student group setup their rocket on the launch pad. Other students should
stand back several meters. It will be easier to keep observers away by roping off the launch site.
3. After the rocket is attached to the launcher, the student pumping the rocket should put on eye pro-
tection. The rocket should be pumped no higher than about 50 pounds of pressure per
square inch.
4. When pressurization is complete, all students should stand in back of the rope for the countdown.
5. Before conducting the countdown, be sure the place where the rocket is expected to come down is
clear of people. Launch the rocket when the recovery range is clear by having one student pull the
pull cord.
6. Only permit the students launching the rocket to retrieve it.

Summary: Energy is given to the stationary rocket when the stored air pressure inside the bottle is
released, causing the rocket to go from a state of rest to a state of motion. (1st law) The force of the
pressure escaping equals the mass of the rocket times its acceleration. Because the mass of the
rocket is changing due to the escaping air pressure, force and acceleration will also be changing dur-
ing flight. (2nd law) The air being forced out of the nozzle of the bottle results in the bottle being
thrust upward. (3rd law)

Activity Twelve - Altitude Tracking

Purpose: Use math skills to determine how high the rocket traveled.

Materials: altitude tracker pattern, altitude calculator pattern, thread or lightweight string, scrap
cardboard or poster board, glue, cellophane tape, small washer, brass paper fastener, scissors, razor
blade knife and cutting surface, meter or measuring stick, rocket, and launcher

Procedure:
Constructing the Altitude Tracker Scope
90
80
1. Glue the altitude tracker pattern onto a piece of cardboard.
70
Al
60

Do not glue the dotted portion of the tracker above the it 50

40
t
0
ud 30 20 10

dashed line. e T
racker
2. Cut out the pattern and
cardboard along the out-
s to
long
r Be
cke
ude Tra
Attit

side edges. This

3. Roll the part of the pattern Sample

not glued to the cardboard into Altitude Tracker
a tube and tape it as shown in
the illustration.
4. Punch a tiny hole in the apex of
the protractor quadrant.
5. Slip a thread or lightweight string
through the hole. Knot the thread or string on the backside.
6. Complete the tracker by hanging a small washer from the
other end of the thread as shown in the diagram to the right.

Launch rockets and measure

altitude with Altitude Tracker

35
 Roll this section over and tape the
upper edge to the dashed line.
Shape the section into a sighting tube.

90
80
Alti

70
60
tu

50 40
30
de

20

Tr
10 0

ack
This Attitude Tracker belongs to
___________________________.
er
90
80
70
Al

60

it 50
40
t

0
ud 30 20 10

Altitude Tracker
e Pattern
Tr a c k e r
gs to
elon
er B
Track
ude
Attit
This

Sample
Altitude Tracker

36
Procedure:
Constructing the Altitude Calculator
1. Copy the two patterns for the altitude calculator onto heavyweight paper or glue
the patterns on to lightweight poster board. Cut out the patterns.
2. Place the top pattern on a cutting surface and cut out the three windows.
3. Join the two patterns together where the center marks are located. Use a
brass paper fastener to hold the pieces together. The pieces should ro-
tate smoothly.
(See next page for pattern.)
?
Procedure:
Using the Altitude Tracker
1. Setup a tracking station location a short distance away
from the rocket launch site. Depending upon the ex-
pected altitude of the rocket, the tracking station should

0
90 10
80 20
70 30
60 40

Al
50
r
tit k e
u dT rea c

be 5 meters (16.5 ft), 15 meters (49 ft,) or 30 meters

to
s
ng
lo
r Be
ke
ac
Tr
e
ud
tit
At
is
Th
(98 ft) away. Generally, a 5-meter distance is sufficient 15 meters
for paper rockets and antacid-powered rockets. A
15-meter distance is sufficient for bottle rockets, and a baseline
30-meter distance is sufficient for model rockets. Using the Altitude Tracker
2. As a rocket launches, the person doing the tracking will
follow the flight with the sighting tube on the tracker. The tracker should be held like a pistol and
kept at the same level as the rocket when it is launched. Continue to aim the tracker at the highest
point the rocket reached in the sky. Have a second student read the angle that the thread or string
makes with quadrant protractor. Record the angle.

Procedure:
Determining the Altitude
1. Use the Altitude Calculator to determine the height the rocket
reached. To do so, rotate the inner wheel of the calculator so
that the nose of the rocket pointer is aimed at the angle meas-
ured in Step 2 of the previous procedure.
2. Read the altitude of the rocket by looking in the window.
If you use a 5-meter (16.5 ft) baseline, the altitude the
rocket reached will be in the window beneath the 5.
To achieve a more accurate measure, add the
height of the person holding the tracker to cal-
culate altitude. If the angle falls between two-
degree marks, average the altitude numbers
above and below the marks.
0

90

10
80

20
90 0
80
40
30
r Al
70
60 10

k e
70 60 50 50 30 20
40

Al t i c ti
t u dT rea tu r
dT er a c k e
to
ngs

ot
sg
Belo

no

Summary: This activity makes use of simple

leB
ker

re
Trac

kc
arT
ude

ed
Attit

ut
ittA
This

sih
T

trigonometry to determine the altitude a rocket 30 meters 30 meters

reaches in flight. Accuracy can be increased by baseline baseline
having two people use an altitude tracker at dif-
Two station tracking uses the
ferent locations and averaging the results. average of the two stations

37
 C UL ATO R -
A L BA
C CK
DE

W
I TU

HE
A LT

EL
+
0 0 0
90
0

1.3
0.4
57.2
2.6 171
0.9 28. 343
5 4
2.6
18 85. 85
1.3
.6 1
5.3
13 170
4 8
1.
.7 55
.9

10
2

41 11
.3

5.

.8
4
10 .2 80
2.9

5 2
8.7
3.5

7.1
4.2

32
82
6
5
7

11
.4

.2
8.7

26
10.

21.

15 75
64
17.9
14

12.6

15
5

.3
4
17

52
.3

42
21

70
25.2

20
35.8

.9
30
25

65
30

60
35

55
40

50
45

Altitude Calculator back

U D E C A LC U L
T IT AT
L O R
A Directions:
1. Rotate the nose of the rocket
to the angle you measured.
BASELINE
5 15 30 m
cut cut
+ out out
cut
out

2. Look at the number in the window

for the distance of the tracking
station location from the launch site.
The number will tell you the
altitude of the rocket in meters.

Altitude Calculator front

38
Activity Thirteen - Goddard Rocket
Purpose: Demonstrate Newton’s Laws of Motion by creating and experimenting with flight with a
flight-worthy foam rocket that is named after the first man to develop a liquid-fueled rocket in 1926,
Robert Goddard. (This particular rocket resembles Goddard’s 1931 rocket.)

Materials: 14 " length of 1 -3/4" outside diameter foam pipe insulation, a foam meat tray for fin
templates, a # 64 rubber band for propulsion, a nylon cable tie to tie the rubber band in the fuselage
of the rocket, a metal washer, and a hot glue gun to bond the foam parts together
Procedure:
1. Copy the fin template to the right on a copy machine.
2. Place the fin template on the foam meat tray and cut out fins.
3. Place the “fin guide” on page 40 around the foam fuselage
to show where to equally — place the fins.
4. Hot glue the foam fins to the fuselage by putting the
hot glue on the fin only and placing it on the fin
guide.
5. Tie the rubber band to the washer and insert
the washer into the fuselage.
6. Pull a cable tie around the nose with the
end of the rubber band hanging out
and cinch it down tight. Clip the re-
maining tail of the cable tie. Drop a
bit of hot glue over the cut edge of
the cut cable tie to avoid cutting fingers.
7. To launch, put one thumb in the tail pipe of the rocket
and stretch the rubber band with the other.

Summary: The launch of a foam rocket is a good

demonstration of Newton’s Third Law of Motion.
The contraction of the rubber band produces an
action force that propels the rocket forward
while exerting an opposite and equal force
on the launcher. The foam rocket receives
its entire thrust from the force produced Goddard
by the elastic rubber band. The thrust Rocket Fins
of real rockets typically continues for
several seconds or minutes, causing
continuous acceleration, until propellants are exhausted. The
foam rocket gets a quick pull and thrusting is over. Once in
flight, it coasts. Furthermore, the mass of the foam rocket
doesn’t change in flight. Real rockets consume propellants
and their total mass diminishes. Nevertheless, the flight
of a foam rocket is similar to that of real rockets. Its
motion and course is affected by gravity and by drag
or friction with the atmosphere. For an in-depth
explanation of how the foam Goddard rocket
works and relates to the forces of flight, read
the “background” information at
[Link]
Rockets_Foam_Rocket.pdf.

39
 Goddard Rocket Assembly

Fin Guide

Fin

The rubber band tied to the

washer is inserted in the
fuselage and secured
with a cable tie. When mounting fins, use the
ge hot glue on the meat tray foam,
la
se not on the black insulation.
Fu

Close cable tie then snip off extra

piece using toenail clippers.

Cable Tie

Wrap this guide around the 3/4" outside diameter pipe foam tube a little more than 3 "
from the rocket's tail pipe. The two ends should meet at the seam of the foam tube. Put a
small piece of tape on this guide to hold it in place. Hot glue one rocket fin on to the
seam of the foam tube. The arrows show where the other two fins should be mounted.

40