Session 2: The Verb "To Be," Adjectives & Sentence

Fragments

Part A: The Foundations

1. Grammar Core: The Verb "To Be"

1. The Foundational Principle: Subject-Verb
Agreement (SVA)
Definition: Subject-verb agreement dictates that the
verb in a sentence must correctly align with its subject
in terms of number (singular or plural) and person (first,
second, or third).
 Number: A singular subject requires a singular verb. A plural
subject requires a plural verb.
 Person:
o First Person: The speaker (I, we).
o Second Person: The one being spoken to (you).
o Third Person: The one being spoken about (he, she, it,
they, or any noun).
Why it's essential: SVA prevents grammatical discord,
ensuring your sentences sound natural and
professional. Misalignment can lead to confusion,
awkward phrasing, and a perceived lack of grammatical
proficiency.

2. The "To Be" Verb: The Most Irregular (and

Important) Case
 The verb "to be" is unique because it changes its form
more significantly in the present tense than almost any
other verb in English. Most verbs only have two forms in
the present tense (e.g., walk for plural/I/you/we/they,
and walks for he/she/it). "To be" has am, is, and are.
2.1 Present Simple Tense: The Core Conjugation
The verb "to be" is unique in English, changing its form
significantly based on the subject. Understanding this conjugation
is fundamental for correct sentence construction.
1. First Person Singular (I):
 Verb Form: am
 Affirmative Example: I am a teacher.
 Negative Example: I am not a doctor.
 Question Example: Am I late?
2. Second Person (You):
 Verb Form: are
 This form is used whether "you" refers to one person
(singular) or multiple people (plural).
 Affirmative Example: You are kind. (e.g., addressing one
person) / You are all welcome. (e.g., addressing a group)
 Negative Example: You are not here.
 Question Example: Are you ready?
3. Third Person Singular (He / She / It / Singular Nouns):
 Verb Form: is
 This form is used for singular pronouns (he, she, it) and any
singular noun (e.g., "the car," "my friend," "the book").
  Affirmative Example: He is my brother. / She is happy. /
It is cold. / The coffee is hot.
 Negative Example: He is not tall. / The car is not red.
 Question Example: Is it sunny? / Is your friend here?
4. First Person Plural (We):
 Verb Form: are
 Affirmative Example: We are friends.
 Negative Example: We are not tired.
 Question Example: Are we leaving?
5. Third Person Plural (They / Plural Nouns):
 Verb Form: are
 This form is used for the plural pronoun "they" and any plural
noun (e.g., "the students," "the books," "my parents").
 Affirmative Example: They are busy. / The
students are studying.
 Negative Example: They are not students. / My parents are
not home.
 Question Example: Are they home? / Are the books on the
table

2.2 Applying "To Be" Agreement to Noun Subjects

The real test for learners is applying these forms when the
subject isn't a simple pronoun. You must correctly identify the
noun's number (singular or plural).
 Singular Noun Subject = is
o Examples:
  The cat is sleeping.
 My friend is visiting.
 This book is fascinating.
 The weather is unpredictable.
 Maria is a talented artist.
 Plural Noun Subject = are
o Examples:
 The cats are playing.
 My friends are visiting.
 These books are fascinating.
 The windows are dirty.
 Maria and John are talented artists.

2.3 Past Simple Tense: "Was" and "Were"

Just like in the present simple, the verb "to be" also has
distinct forms in the past simple tense, and these forms must
agree with their subject in number and person.
1. First Person Singular (I):
 Verb Form: was
 Example: I was happy yesterday.
2. Second Person (You):
 Verb Form: were
 This form is used whether "you" refers to one person or
multiple people in the past.
 Example: You were busy last night.
 3. Third Person Singular (He / She / It / Singular Nouns):
 Verb Form: was
 This form is used for singular pronouns and any singular
noun when referring to a past state or condition.
 Examples:
o He was tired after the game.
o She was there for the meeting.
o It was fun at the party.
o The meeting was productive. (Here, "meeting" is a
singular noun.)
4. First Person Plural (We):
 Verb Form: were
 Example: We were excited about the trip.
5. Third Person Plural (They / Plural Nouns):
 Verb Form: were
 This form is used for the plural pronoun "they" and any plural
noun in the past tense.
 Examples:
o They were late to the concert.
o The results were surprising. (Here, "results" is a plural
noun.)
 Examples:
o The meeting was productive. (Singular noun + was)
o The results were surprising. (Plural noun + were)
2.4 Other Tenses of "To Be"
 While am/is/are and was/were are the main SVA
challenges, "to be" also conjugates in other tenses. The
key is that "be" itself acts as the main verb or auxiliary.
 Present Perfect: has been (singular) / have been (plural)
o The student has been working hard.
o The students have been working hard.
 Past Perfect: had been (same for singular/plural)
o The report had been reviewed.
o The reports had been reviewed.
 Future Simple: will be (same for singular/plural)
o The event will be exciting.
o The events will be exciting.

3. General Subject-Verb Agreement Rules (Beyond "To Be")

These rules apply to all verbs, not just "to be." The key
difference is that for most verbs, only the third person singular
present simple form has an "-s" (e.g., he walks, she talks, it rains).
All other forms (I, you, we, they, plural nouns) use the base form
(e.g., I walk, they talk, we rain).
3.1 Basic Singular/Plural Nouns (Revisited)
 Singular Noun Subject = Singular Verb (-s form for 3rd
person singular present simple)
o The bird sings beautifully. (Not: The bird sing)
o My car needs new tires. (Not: My car need)
 Plural Noun Subject = Plural Verb (base form for present
simple)
o The birds sing beautifully. (Not: The birds sings)
 o My cars need new tires. (Not: My cars needs)

3.2 Compound Subjects

 Subjects joined by "and": Typically take a plural verb.
o Example: My brother and sister live in New York.
o Example: Reading and writing are important skills.
o Exception: If the two subjects refer to the same
person/thing or form a single unit (e.g., a common dish
or concept).
 Fish and chips is my favorite meal.
 The producer and director of the film is here. (One
person holds both roles)
 Subjects joined by "or," "nor," "either...or,"
"neither...nor": The verb agrees with the subject closest to it.
o Example: Neither the students nor the teacher is ready.
o Example: Neither the teacher nor the students
are ready.
o Example: Either my mom or my sisters pick me up.
o Example: Either my sisters or my mom picks me up.

3.3 Indefinite Pronouns

These can be tricky!
 Always Singular (take singular
verbs): each, every, either, neither, one, anybody, anyone, a
nything, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, no
one, nothing, somebody, someone, something.
 o Example: Everyone knows the answer. (Not: Everyone
know)
o Example: Each of the books is interesting. (Not: Each of
the books are)
o Example: Nobody understands the theory.
 Always Plural (take plural verbs): both, few, many, several.
o Example: Both agree with the decision.
o Example: Several complain about the workload.
 Depend on Context (take singular or plural verb depending
on the noun/pronoun they refer
to): all, any, most, none, some.
o Example (Non-count noun): All of the information
is accurate.
o Example (Count noun): All of the students are present.
o Example (Non-count noun): Some of the sugar
was spilled.
o Example (Count noun): Some of the cookies
were eaten.

3.4 Collective Nouns

Words like team, family, committee, group, audience, crew,
staff, government.
 Singular Verb: When the group acts as a single, unified
entity. (More common in American English).
o Example: The team wins every game.
o Example: My family is going on vacation.
  Plural Verb: When the individual members of the group are
acting separately or are being referred to individually. (More
common in British English).
o Example: The team are putting on their jerseys. (Each
member is putting on their own jersey).
o Example: The committee disagree on the proposal.
(Individuals within the committee disagree).
3.5 "There Is/Are" and "Here Is/Are"
The verb agrees with the true subject, which follows "there" or
"here."
 Example: There is a spider in the corner. (Subject: spider)
 Example: There are many people waiting. (Subject: people)
 Example: Here is your coffee. (Subject: coffee)
 Example: Here are the keys. (Subject: keys)

3.6 Inverted Subjects

When the subject appears after the verb (e.g., in questions or
with certain introductory phrases), the verb must still agree with
that subject.
 Example: How are the children? (Subject: children)
 Example: Under the bed lives a dust bunny. (Subject: dust
bunny)
 Example: Along the shore walk the tourists. (Subject:
tourists)

3.7 Intervening Phrases

 Phrases that come between the subject and the verb do not
affect agreement. The verb always agrees with the main subject.
 Example: The box of chocolates is on the table. (Subject:
box, not chocolates)
 Example: The manager, along with his
employees, was praised. (Subject: manager, not employees)
 Example: A list of names appears on the screen. (Subject:
list, not names)

3.8 Singular Nouns Ending in "-s"

Some nouns look plural but are grammatically singular.

 Examples: news, measles, mumps, physics, mathematics, ec
onomics, gymnastics.
o The news is depressing.
o Mathematics requires concentration.
3.9 Titles, Gerund Phrases, and Clauses as Subjects
When a title (of a book, movie, etc.), a gerund phrase
(verb+ing acting as a noun), or a noun clause acts as
the subject, it is always treated as singular.
 Example: "Pride and Prejudice is a classic novel." (Title)
 Example: "Exercising regularly improves your health."
(Gerund phrase)
 Example: "What she said is a mystery to me." (Noun clause)
3.10 Fractions, Percentages, and Quantities
The verb agrees with the noun in the "of" phrase that
follows the fraction, percentage, or quantity.
 Example: Half of the pie was eaten. (Pie is singular)
 Example: Half of the students were late. (Students are plural)
 Example: Ten percent of the budget is allocated to
marketing. (Budget is singular)
 Example: Ten percent of the employees are working from
home. (Employees are plural)
 Example: Five miles is a long distance to walk. (Treated as a
single unit)
 Example: Two hours is enough time. (Treated as a single unit)
3.11 Relative Pronouns (who, which, that)
When these pronouns are subjects, the verb agrees
with the antecedent (the noun/pronoun they refer to).
 Example: She is the student who excels in math. (Who refers
to "student" - singular)
 Example: These are the students who excel in math. (Who
refers to "students" - plural)
 Example: It is the car that goes fastest. (That refers to "car" -
singular)
3.12 "One of the..." vs. "The only one of the..."
 "One of the [plural noun] + [plural verb for relative
pronoun]"
o Example: She is one of the teachers who
inspire students. (Many teachers inspire; she is one of
them.)
 "The only one of the [plural noun] + [singular verb for
relative pronoun]"
 o Example: She is the only one of the teachers who
inspires students. (She is the only teacher who
inspires.)

1.2 Syntax: The Adjective Rule — Describing with "To Be"

Adjectives are the words that give detail and life to nouns.
Understanding their placement in English is key.

The Two Primary Positions of Adjectives:

1. Attributive Adjectives: These adjectives come directly
before the noun they describe. They act like permanent
labels for the noun.
o Formula: Adjective + Noun
o Examples:
 A sparkling diamond.
 The ancient ruins.
 An unforgettable experience.
 Several curious onlookers.
 His new car.
 Her calm demeanor.
 The exciting news.
2. Predicative Adjectives: These adjectives appear after a
linking verb (most commonly "to be," but also verbs like
seem, appear, feel, look, sound, taste, smell, become, get,
grow) and describe the subject of the sentence. The linking
verb connects the subject to its descriptive adjective.
 o Formula: Subject + Linking Verb + Adjective
o Examples with "To Be":
 The diamond is sparkling. (Subject: diamond, To
Be: is, Adjective: sparkling)
 The ruins are ancient. (Subject: ruins, To Be: are,
Adjective: ancient)
 The experience was unforgettable. (Subject:
experience, To Be: was, Adjective: unforgettable)
 The onlookers were curious. (Subject: onlookers, To
Be: were, Adjective: curious)
 His car is new. (Subject: car, To Be: is, Adjective:
new)
 Her demeanor seems calm. (Linking verb: seems)
 The news sounded exciting. (Linking verb:
sounded)
 I feel tired. (Linking verb: feel)
 He became ill. (Linking verb: became)

Common Learner Error: Adjective Placement

Many languages (e.g., Spanish, French, Italian) often place

adjectives after the noun. This leads to a common error in English.
 Incorrect: "He bought a house big."
o Why it's wrong: "Big" is an attributive adjective
modifying "house," so it must precede the noun.
o Correction Options:
1. Attributive: "He bought a big house."
 2. Predicative: "The house is big." (Here, "big"
describes the subject "house" after the verb "is.")
 Incorrect: "The dress blue is beautiful."
o Why it's wrong: "Blue" is trying to describe "dress"
directly before the main verb.
o Correction Options:
1. Attributive: "The blue dress is beautiful."
2. Predicative: "The dress is blue and beautiful."
 Incorrect: "She is a student hard-working."
o Why it's wrong: The compound adjective "hard-working"
should come before the noun "student."
o Correction Options:
1. Attributive: "She is a hard-working student."
2. Predicative: "The student is hard-working."

Remember the order: Adjective + Noun (attributive)

OR Subject + Linking Verb + Adjective (predicative). You
generally don't put a single adjective immediately after the noun
it describes unless it's part of a special phrase (e.g., "attorney
general," "body beautiful").

2. The Mechanics: Sentence Fragments — The Incomplete

Thought

A sentence fragment is a linguistic illusion: it looks like a

complete sentence but lacks the grammatical components to
stand alone.
The "Golden Rule" of Complete Sentences:

Every independent clause (a complete sentence) must possess

these three non-negotiable elements:
1. A Subject: The entity performing the action or being
described.
o Example Subject: The ancient map (what)
2. A Verb: The action or state of being.
o Example Verb: revealed (action) or was (state of being)
3. A Complete Thought: It must convey meaning that is self-
contained and requires no further explanation to be
understood.
o Example: The ancient map revealed a hidden
treasure. (This statement is complete.)
The "Wait, What?" Test:
If a sentence ends and you instinctively feel something is missing,
or a listener would ask for clarification, it's a strong indicator of a
fragment.

Common Fragment Types

2.1. Type 1: Missing the Verb (or Auxiliary Verb)

This type of fragment has a subject but fails to tell us what the
subject does or is.
 Fragment: "The gleaming, red sports car."
 o Problem: We know what (the car), but what about the
car? Is it parked? Is it fast? Is it yours? A verb is absent.
o Fixes:
 Add a linking verb: The gleaming, red sports car is
expensive.
 Add an action verb: The gleaming, red sports
car sped down the highway.
 Integrate into another sentence: I saw the
gleaming, red sports car driving past.
 Fragment: "My old, dusty bicycle in the garage."
o Problem: This describes the bicycle and its location, but
not its state or action.
o Fixes:
 My old, dusty bicycle is in the garage.
 My old, dusty bicycle remains in the garage.
 Fragment: "The children happily playing in the park."
o Problem: "Playing" is a participle, acting as part of an
adjective phrase describing "children." It needs an
auxiliary verb ("are," "were") to function as the main
verb.
o Fixes:
 The children are happily playing in the park.
 The children were happily playing in the park.
 I watched the children happily playing in the park.
(Integrated as a descriptive clause)

2.2. Type 2: Missing the Subject

 These fragments provide a verb or action, but we don't know
who or what is performing it.
 Fragment: "Was incredibly difficult to solve."
o Problem: The verb "was" is present, but what was
difficult? The subject is unknown.
o Fixes:
 The puzzle was incredibly difficult to solve.
 It was incredibly difficult to solve.
 Fragment: "Ran out the door and down the street."
o Problem: Who ran? The action is clear, but the actor is
missing.
o Fixes:
 He ran out the door and down the street.
 The dog ran out the door and down the street.
 Fragment: "Is an important quality in a leader."
o Problem: What is an important quality?
o Fixes:
 Integrity is an important quality in a leader.
 Being decisive is an important quality in a leader.

2.3. Type 3: Dependent Clause Fragments

This is a very common trap. These clauses have a subject and a

verb but are introduced by a subordinating word, making them
unable to stand alone. They always need to be attached to an
independent clause.
 Fragment: "Because the weather was unexpectedly severe."
o Problem: "Because" turns this into a reason, not a
complete statement. It makes you ask, "What
happened because the weather was severe?"
o Fixes:
 All flights were cancelled because the weather was
unexpectedly severe.
 Because the weather was unexpectedly severe, we
decided to stay home.
 Fragment: "Although she had practiced for months."
o Problem: "Although" introduces a contrast that is
incomplete without the main event.
o Fixes:
 Although she had practiced for months, she felt
nervous before the competition.
 She felt nervous before the competition, although
she had practiced for months.
 Fragment: "Who always brings the best snacks to meetings."
o Problem: "Who" is a relative pronoun. This phrase
describes someone but doesn't state a main action for
that person.
o Fixes:
 Sarah, who always brings the best snacks to
meetings, is everyone's favorite colleague.
 I spoke to the person who always brings the best
snacks to meetings.
  Fragment: "If you agree to these terms."
o Problem: "If" introduces a condition. What will happen if
you agree?
o Fixes:
 If you agree to these terms, we can proceed with
the contract.
 We can proceed with the contract if you agree to
these terms.


2.4. Type 4: Phrase Fragments (Participial, Prepositional,

Appositive, Infinitive)

These are groups of words that function as a single part of

speech (like an adjective, adverb, or noun) but lack the subject-
verb core needed for a full sentence.
 Participial Phrase Fragment: "Having finished all her
assignments early."
o Problem: "Having finished" is a participial phrase,
describing the subject of anotherclause. It doesn't have
a main verb of its own.
o Fixes:
 Having finished all her assignments early, she
decided to go to the movies.
 She was happy, having finished all her
assignments early.
 Prepositional Phrase Fragment: "Beneath the surface of the
calm lake."
 o Problem: This tells us where, but not what is beneath
the surface or what happenedthere.
o Fixes:
 A strange creature lurked beneath the surface of
the calm lake.
 Beneath the surface of the calm lake lies an entire
ecosystem.
 Appositive Phrase Fragment: "A renowned expert in medieval
literature."
o Problem: This phrase renames or further identifies a
noun, but it's just a description, not a complete
sentence.
o Fixes:
 Dr. Evelyn Reed, a renowned expert in medieval
literature, gave an insightful lecture.
 The speaker was Dr. Evelyn Reed, a renowned
expert in medieval literature.
 Infinitive Phrase Fragment: "To boldly go where no one has
gone before."
o Problem: "To go" is an infinitive, not a main verb that
can carry a sentence.
o Fixes:
 Their mission was to boldly go where no one has
gone before.
 They decided to boldly go where no one has gone
before.

Distinction: Accidental Error vs. Intentional Style

This distinction becomes critical for sophisticated writing.
 Accidental Fragment (Error): In formal essays, reports, or
professional communication, fragments are almost always
errors that undermine clarity and credibility.
o Error Example: "The company faced significant financial
challenges. Due to increased competition and rising
costs." (The second part is a prepositional phrase
fragment).
o Correction: "The company faced significant financial
challenges due to increased competition and rising
costs."
 Intentional Fragment (Style): In creative writing, journalism,
advertising, or dialogue, fragments can be powerful tools.
o Stylistic Example (Narrative): "The old house stood
silent. Empty. A shadow of its former self." (The
fragments "Empty" and "A shadow of its former self"
add concise, punchy description and mood.)
o Stylistic Example (Advertising): "New. Improved.
Irresistible." (Short, impactful fragments used for
marketing.)
o Stylistic Example (Dialogue): "Going to the store?" (A
common, informal question fragment).

Exercises:

S2E1 - [Link]
S2E2: [Link]

S2E3: [Link]

S2E4: [Link]

S2E5: [Link]

S2E6: [Link]