<br>

Monitoring &

Control

[Link]/exarn material_888
<br>

Monitoring & Control

(Power System)
1. Monitoring
Matlab: Power system ke parameters ko
continuously observe karna.
Monitored Parameters:
Voltage (KV)
Current (A)
Frequency (Hz)
Power (MW, MVA

Power factor
<br>

Tools:
SCADA (Supervisory Control And
Data Acquisition)
PMU(Phasor Measurement Units)
Smart meters
Remote terminal units (RTU)

G Example:
Ghar me bijli ka meter ek simple monitoring
device hai jo load aur consumption record
karta hai. Grid level pe SCADA wahi kaam
karta hai but large scale pe.
<br>

2. Control
Matlab: Agar system me koi parameter
(voltage, frequency, power flow) limit se
bahar chala jaye to usko back to normal
lana.
Types of Control:
-
1. Frequency Control Load Frequency
Control (already cover kiya)
2. Voltage Control - Excitation, Tap
changers, Capacitors
3. Load Dispatch Control - Generation
scheduling for economy + reliability
4. Supervisory Control (SCADA)
-
Centralized control through
Computers
<br>

3. SCADA in Monitoring & Control

Full form: Supervisory Control And Data

Acquisition.
Components:
MTU (Master Terminal Unit) -
Control center
RTU(Remote Terminal Unit) – Field

devices
Communication network
HMI(Human Machine Interface)
Functions:
Data acquisition
Remote monitoring
Remote control (circuit breaker
ON/OFF,tap change, etc.)
Alarm & event reporting
<br>

4. Importance in Exam
Monitoring ensures reliability + stability.
Control ensures system operation within
limits.
Most common exam line:
"Monitoring is observation, Control is
action."
 - Full Guide (Power
<br>

SCADA
System Monitoring & Control)
1)SCADA kya hota hai - simple
definition
=
SCADA Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition.
Grid context me iska kaam: field devices
(substation, generator, line) se real-time data
leke control center tak bhejna, wahan
monitor/visualize karna, alarms handle karna,
aur jab zaroorat ho remote control commands
(breaker ON/OFF, tap change, setpoint)
bhejna.
<br>

2) SCADA ka high-level architecture

(components)
• Field Sensors/ Transducers
Measure: voltage, current, frequency,
power, temperature, breaker status.
• Intelligent Electronic Devices (|EDs) /

RTUs / PLCs
RTU(Remote Terminal Unit): field

data collect karta, analog/discrete

signals digitize karta, control
commands execute karta.
PLC: fast control loops (usually
substation automation or plant
control).
<br>

IED: protection devices (relay) jo

protection + measurement dono
karte.
Communication Network
Wired (fiber, leased lines), wireless
(microwave, GSM/4G/5G), serial
-
links SCADA master aur RTUs
Connect karte hain.
SCADA Master / MTU(Master Terminal
Unit)
Central server(s) jo data collect
karta, HMIprovide karta, commands
authorize karta.
<br>

HMI(Human Machine Interface)

Operator screens, mimicdiagrams,
trend plots,alarm windows.
Historian / Database
Time-series storage for trends, event
logs, auditing.
Engineering Workstation / Applications
Configuration, reporting,trending,
advanced analytics, state estimator
(when integrated with EMS).
Security /Gateway / Firewal|/ DMZ
Network protection & protocol
gateways.
<br>

4) SCADA ka working flow (step-by

step)
1. Sensor measures physical quantity
transducer converts to electrical signal.
2. RTU/IED reads analog/discrete inputs,
scales values, timestamps them.
3. RTUsends data to Master (polling or
event-driven).
4. SCADA Master updates HMI, raises
alarms if thresholds crossed, logs data to
historian.
5. Operator inspects HMI - if control
needed, issues command via HMI.
6. Master sends command to RTU RTU

executes and sends acknowledgment.

7. All events logged for audit.
<br>

Q1. SCADA ke main components me

kaunsa field data acquisition karta hai?
(a) HMI
(b) RTU/
(c) Historian
(d) MTU

Explanation: RTU(Remote Terminal Unit)

sensors se analog/discrete inputs read karta
hai, scale karta hai aur Master ko bhejta hai.
HMIdata display karta hai, MTUmaster
functions karta hai, historian data store karta
hai.
<br>

Q2. Which protocol is specifically designed

for substation automation and supports
GOOSE messaging?
(a) Modbus
(b) DNP3
(c) IEC 61850 /
(d) IEC 60870-5-101

Explanation: IEC 61850 includes GOOSE

(Generic Object-Oriented Substation Events)
for fast status exchange and MMS for
engineering. Modbus/DNP3 are telemetry
protocols; IEC 60870also telecontrol but IEC

61850is substation-specific.
<br>

Q3. SCADA me analog value ko 4-20 mA

format me bhejne ka maksad kya hai?
(a) Low power consumption
(b) Standardized scaling and noise immunity

(c) Faster data transfer

(d) Encryption

Explanation: 4-20mA is an industry standard

for analogsensors; below-range (4 mA)
indicates sensor/power fault; current loops
are less noisy over long cables.
<br>

Q4. Event-driven communication (change-of

state) ka fayda kya hai?
(a) Always more secure
(b) Reduces traffic and delivers important
events faster /
(c) Eliminates need for RTUs
(d) Replaces historian

Explanation: Event-driven sends updates

when status changes, so unnecessary
periodic polling traffic reduces and critical
events are reported promptly.
<br>

Q5. SCADA system kitime-synchronization

sabse zyada important kyun hoti hai?
(a) Backup ke liye
(b) Accurate timestamping of events and
correct sequence-of-events analysis
(c) Faster polling
(d) Reduces bandwidth

Explanation: Accurate time ensures events

from different substations can be correlated
and correct sequence-of-events (SOE)
maintained - critical for faultanalysis.
<br>

Q6. Which of the following is NOT typical

SCADA function?
(a) Remote breaker control
(b) Real-time measurement acquisition
(c) Long-term financial accounting /
(d) Alarm management

Explanation: SCADA does monitoring and

control; long-term accounting is a
business/ERP function (though SCADA
historian data may feed it).
<br>

Q7. DNP3 protocol ka ek major advantage kya

hai?
(a) Works only on fiber optics
(b) Supports unsolicited messages and time

stamping
(c) Encrypts data by default
(d) Replaces IEC 61850

Explanation: DNP3allows outstation (RTU) to

send unsolicited messages (event-driven) and
has support for timestamping;
security/encryption not inherent (needs add
ons).
<br>

Q8. SCADA network me DMZ ka role kya hai?

(a) Store historian data only
(b) Isolate/mediate traffic between IT and OT
networks (secure gateway)
(c) Replace firewals
(d) Provide power backup

Explanation: DMZ (demilitarizedzone) is a

buffer zone where services exposed to IT or
external networks sit; it reduces direct
exposure of OT to IT/Internet.
<br>

Q9. Ifa protection relay trips a

breaker locally,
SCADA master should normally:
(a) Re-close breaker immediately without
checks
(b) Wait for RTUstatus update and log the
event /
(c) Shutdown entire system
(d) Send an alarm to historian only

Explanation: Protection actions are local and

fast; SCADA receives trip status, logs it, raises
alarms and operator may act. SCADA should
notoverride protection logic blindly.
<br>

Q10. Best practice for securing SCADA

remote access is:
(a) Use default passwords for convenience
(b) Allow direct SSH from Internet
(c) Use VPN with multi-factor authentication
and strict access control /
(d) Disable logging to improve performance

Explanation: Remote access must be via

secure VPN, MFA, role-based access, logging
and least-privilege. Default passwords and
open SSH are insecure.
<br>

Load Dispatch Centre

(LDC) - Power System ka
"Control Room"
1. LDC kya hota hai?
Ye ek central control centre hota hai jo poore
power system ka real-time monitoring &

control karta hai.

Matlab, kaha se kitni bijli generate karni
hai, kahan bhejni hai, frequency aur
voltage ko limit me rakhna hai - sab LDC
decide karta hai.
<br>

GSimple soch:
Jaisa railway ka control room hota hai jo
trains katime, route aur safety dekhta hai,
waise hi LDC power system ki "train" yani
electricity ka flow manage karta hai.
<br>

2. Bharat me LDC ka hierarchy

India me 3 level ke Load Dispatch Centres
hote hain:
1. NLDc (National Load Dispatch Centre) -
Sabse upar
Location: New Delhi
Poore desh ka grid coordination
karta hai
Inter-region power transfer aur
national frequency komaintain karta
hai
<br>

2. RLDC (Regional Load Dispatch Centres)

-5 regions
Northern, Western, Eastern,
Southern, North-Eastern
• Har RLDC apne region ka generation
+
transmission monitor karta hai
3. SLDc (State Load Dispatch Centres) -
Har state me
State ke andar generation, demand
aur load-shedding manage karta hai
Example: Gujarat SLDC, Maharashtra
SLDC

Flow samajh: NLDC RLDC - SLDC -

Substation/Plant
<br>

3. LDC ke mainfunctions
Real-time monitoring: Voltage, frequency,
power flow dekhna
Load-Generation Balance: Demand ke
hisaab se generation adjust karna
Frequency Control: 50 Hz ke aas-paas
rakhna (49.90-50.05 Hz band me)
Voltage Control: Reactive power manage
karna (capacitor, reactor, tap changer
ON/OFF karwana)
<br>

Scheduling & Despatch:

Kitne MW kaunsa plant generate
karega, ye daily schedule banate hain
Outage Planning: Transmission line /
generator maintenance ka plan aur
approval
SCADA & Communication: Real-time data
receive karna aur remote command
bhejna
Load Shedding: Emergency me load cut
karna taaki system collapse na ho
Integration of Renewables: Solar/wind ki

variability ko balance karna

<br>

4. Real-life example
Maan lo Gujarat SLDC ko dikh raha hai ki aaj
shaam kodemand 18,000 MW hone wali hai,
lekin available generation sirf 17,500 MW hai.

Wo RLDC ko inform karega, aur kuch

extra power import karega (NTPC plant
se ya dusre state se).
Agar import possible na ho, to load
shedding ka plan banayega (industrial
feeders ko cut karega,
hospitals/essential ko priority dega).
<br>

5. LDC aur SCADA ka relation

SCADA = Data collection system (field
control centre tak).
LDC = Jo operator baith kar SCADA data
ke base pe decision & control karta hai.
GMatlab: SCADA "aankh" hai, LDC
"dimaag" hai.
<br>

6. Exam me puchte important points

NLDC operated by POSOC0 (Power
System 0peration Corporation Ltd.)
RLDC ke paas real-time operational
control hota hai, lekin ownership nahi
hota (plants states/companies ke hote
hain).
SLDC ko bola jata hai: "Nerve Centre of
Power System Operation"
Primary objective: Reliability, Security,
Economy
<br>

Q11. NLDC(National Load Dispatch

Centre) is operated by:
(a) CEA
(b) POSOCO /
(c) PGCIL
(d) Ministry of Power

Explanation (Hindi):
HRA NLDC 3R RLDCs ht POSOCo (Power
System Operation Corporation Ltd.) aildiI

CEA =
policy aur technical guideline
banata hai.
PGCIL =
transmission network ka HItGCh.
=
Ministry of Power administrative body.
<br>

Q12. Main function of RLDC is:

(a) To maintain load-generation balance in its

region /
(b) To issue electricity bills
(c) To buld power plants
(d) To repair transmission lines

Explanation (Hindi):
RLDC (Regional LDC) apne region me real
time generation aur demand ka balance
maintain karta hai.

Billing DISCOMs karti hain,

Plant buildingaur repair companies karti
hain.
<br>

Q13. Responsibility of SLDC includes:

(a) State-level generation scheduling /

(b) International power trading
(c) Designing power equipment
(d) Nuclear power regulation

Explanation (Hindi):
SLDC (State LDC) ek state ke andar:

Generation scheduling karta hai,

Load management karta hai,
Emergency me load shedding bhi decide
karta hai.
<br>

Q14. Which of the following is a key

responsibility of LDC?
(a) Load forecasting & scheduling
(b) Outage & maintenance coordination
(c) Emergency load shedding & grid security
actions
(d) All of the above /
Explanation (Hindi):
LDCka H|H multi-purpose hai:

Load forecasting,
Scheduling outage coordination,
&

Emergency load shedding aur grid

security actions.
<br>

Q15. Main objective of NLDC is:

(a) To generate electricity
(b) To maintain national grid reliability &

frequency
(c) To install transmission towers
(d)To regulate tariffs

Explanation (Hindi):
NLDC khud generation nahi karta, iska hH
hai:

National grid reliability maintain karna,

Frequency (50 Hz) ko limit ke andar
control karna,
Regions ke beech coordination karna.
<br>

Q16. How many RLDCs are there in

India?
(a) 3
(b) 4
(c) 5/
(d) 6

Explanation(Hindi):
RA 5 RLDC :
Northern, Western, Eastern, Southern,
North-Eastern.
Ye alag-alag regions ke liye monitoring
aur scheduling karte hain.
<br>

Q17. Which centre is called the "nerve

centre of power system operation'"?
(a) NLDC
(b) RLDC
(c) SLDC/
(d) Generating Station

Explanation (Hindi):
SLDC ko "Nerve Centre" kaha jata hai kyunki
wo state ke andar real-time monitoring &

control karta hai.

<br>

Q18. Load Dispatch Centres control

system frequency mainly by:
(a) Changing consumer loads
(b) Generation scheduling & AGC /
(c) Installing new substations
(d) Transmission tower height

Explanation (Hindi):
System frequency demand-generation
mismatch se badalti hai.

• LDC AGC (Automatic Generation Control)

aur generation scheduling ke through
frequency ko maintain karta hai.
<br>

Q19. Which of the following is NOT a

function of LDC?
(a) Real-time monitoring
(b) Scheduling and despatch
(c) Energy accounting
(d) Manufacturing of generators

Explanation (Hindi):
LDCkarta hai: real-time monitoring,
scheduling,energy accounting.
Par generator manufacturing unka hPH nahi
hai.
<br>

Q20. Outage planning in power systems

is coordinated by:
(a) Consumers
(b) Load Dispatch Centres /
(c) Ministry of Finance
(d) Distribution transformers

Explanation (Hindi):
Jab transmission line ya generator
maintenance ke liye band karna hota hai, uska
outage planning aur coordination LDC karta
hai. Ye system reliability ke liye zaroori hai.
<br>

Automatic Generation Control (AGC)

1. Definition

AGC ek control mechanism hai jo power

system frequency aur tie-line power flows ko
automatic tareeke se control karta hai.
r Iskamain i&4: Frequency ko 50 Hz ke
kareeb rakhna aur area-wise scheduled
power interchange maintain karna.
<br>

2. Why AGC is Needed?

Agar demand > generation frequency
gir jaati hai (< 50 Hz).
Agar generation> demand frequency
bad jaati hai (> 50 Hz).
Continuous manual control possible nahi,
isiliye automatic control system (AGC)
use hota hai.
<br>

3. Functions of AGC
1. Frequency Control ensure karta hai ki

system stable rahe.

2. Tie-line Power Control jab multiple
areas connected hote hain, AGC ensure
karta hai ki har area apna scheduled
power hi bheje/receive kare.
3. Economic Dispatch generators ka
output is tarah adjust karta hai ki fuel
cost minimumn ho.
4. Load sharing demand badhne ya kam
hone par generators proportionally share
load karein.
<br>

4. Components of AGC
Governor turbine ka speed control
karta hai.
Speed Governor Droop Characteristic
frequency ke change ke hisaab se power
adjust hoti hai.
Secondary Control (AGC Signal)
central command se generator output
change hota hai.
Load-Frequency Control (LFC) AGC ka

part hai jo frequency deviation ko

hi ek

remove karta hai.

<br>

5. Control Levels
1. Primary Control
Fast response (seconds me).

Governor control karta hai.

Frequency deviation ko kam karta
hai, lekin completely eliminate nahi.
2. Secondary Control (AGC)
Time scale: minutes.
Centralized control through LDC.
Frequency kowapas nominal (50 Hz)
par le aata hai.
3. Tertiary Control
Long-term control (hours).
Economic dispatch aur reserve
management ke liye.
<br>

6. Real Life Example

Soch bus kadriver (generator
ki ek

governor) speed control karta hai

accelerator se. Agar bus pe load badh
jaaye (zyaada passengers), bus slow ho
jaati hai.
Driver turant accelerator daba deta hai
(Primary control).
Lekin conductor (AGC) central command
ke according driver ko bolta hai ki
constant speed maintain karo chahe load
kuch bhi ho.
G Is tarah bus (system) ki speed
(frequency) stable rehti hai.
<br>

7. Key Terms for Exam

ACE (Area Control Error) - Frequency
deviation + Tie-line power error ka
combination. AGC ACE kozero karne ki
koshish kartahai.
Tie-line Bias Control Har area apna
trequency error aur tie-line error dono ke
hisaab se power adjust kare.
Governor Droop Frequency change per
MW change ratio.
<br>

Q21. In AGC, the controlled variable is:

(a) Turbine inlet pressure
(b) Generator frequency /
(c) Transmission line voltage
(d) Transformer tap position

Explanation (Hindi):
AGC kayA HTH hai frequency deviation ko
control karna.

Agar demandzyaada ho frequency

girti hai.
Agar demand kam ho - frequency badh
jaati hai.
Isliye controlled variable hai frequency.
<br>

Q22. Area Control Error (ACE) is a

combination of:
(a) Frequency error only
(b) Tie-line power error only
(c) Frequency error + Tie-line power error /
(d) Voltage deviation

Explanation (Hindi):
ACE = Af (frequency deviation) + AP_tie (tie
line deviation).
AGC ACE ko zero karne kihifRT karta hai.
<br>

Q23. Which control action is associated

with AGC?
(a) Primary control by governor
(b) Secondary control
(c) Tertiary control
(d) Voltage regulation

Explanation (Hindi):

Primary controlgovernor karta hai,jo fast

hai.
Secondary control (AGC) centralized
signal bhej kar generators ka output
adjust karta hai.
Tertiary control long-term planning hai.
Isliye Hg 3R (b).
<br>

Q24. Tie-line bias control ensures:

(a) Each area independently controls its own
load-frequency /
(b) Frequency is ignored
(c) Only one generator controls the whole
system
(d) Voltage is kept constant

Explanation (Hindi):
Tie-line bias control me har control area apna
ACE minimize karta hai apna load aur tie

line deviation dono control karta hai.

GIsse independent yet coordinated control

possible hota hai.
<br>

Q25. Governor droop characteristic

relates:
(a) Voltage and Reactive Power
(b) Frequency and Active Power /
(c) Current and Power Factor
(d) Load and Transformer tap

Explanation (Hindi):
=
Droop Af/ AP

Jab load badhta hai to frequency ghat

jaati hai aur generator apna power output
proportional increase karta hai.
Ye relation frequency active power ke
sg hota hai.
<br>

Q26. Which of the following reduces

steady-state frequency error?
(a) Primary control
(b) Secondary control (AGC)
(c) Governor droop
(d) Inertia constant

Explanation (Hindi):

Primary control frequency deviation ko

chH karta hai par error eliminate nahi

karta.
Secondary control (AGC) frequency ko
nominal 50 Hz par restore kartahai.
<br>

a
Q27. In two-area system, AGC helps
in:

(a) Maintaining only local frequency

(b) Maintaining both frequency & tie-line
power flow /
(c) only reducing voltage dips
(d) Only increasing efficiency

Explanation (Hindi):
Do control area interconnected hote hain
AGC dono ka frequency balance aur tie-line

scheduled interchange maintain karta hai.

<br>

Q28. The input signal to AGC is:

(a) Load demand curve
(b)Area Control Error (ACE)/
(c) Transmission losses
(d) Turbine temperature

Explanation (Hindi):
AGC directly ACE (Area Control Error) koinput
leta hai.
&
ACE = Af + AP_tie.
Ye input generatorsko adjust karne ke liye use
hota hai.
<br>

Q29. Economic dispatch is achieved in

AGC by:

(a) Governor action

(b) Optimum generation allocation
(c) Voltage regulators
(d) Load shedding

Explanation (Hindi):
AGC ka ek important role hai economic
dispatch - matlab generators ko aise
schedule karna kitotal fuel cost minimum ho
aur demand bhi meet ho.
<br>

Q30. Which of the following is NOT an

objective of AGC?
(a) Maintain system frequency
(b) Maintain tie-line schedule
(c) Maintain voltage profile /
(d) Economic operation of generators

Explanation (Hindi):
AGC ka hH hai

Frequency maintain karna,

Tie-line flow control,
Economicdispatch.
Lekin voltage profile maintain karna ka
h|4 AGC ka nahihai, wo AVR (Automatic
Voltage Regulator) karta hai.
<br>

Economic Load Dispatch (ELD)

1. Definition
r Economic Load Dispatch ka matlab hai:
"Available generators ka load aise share karna
kitotal generation cost minimum ho aur
system demand + losses puri ho jaye."
<br>

2. Why ELD is Needed?

Har generator ki fuel cost alag hoti hai
(coal, gas, hydro).
Agar demand 1000 MW hai aur 3
generators available hain, to har ek
generator ko kaise operate karna chahiye
taki minimum paisa kharch ho ye ELD

decide karta hai.

<br>

3. Cost Function of Generator

Har thermal plant ka fuelcost approx ek
quadratic function hota hai:

F(P) = a; + b;P + cçP

a; = fixed cost
b; = linear fuel cost
• C;=incremental cost coefficient
P;=generator output (MW)
<br>

4. Incremental Fuel Cost (IFC)

=
Incremental fuel cost generation cost ka
derivative with respect to power.

dF; = b; + 2c;P,
dP.
Iska matlab: 1
MWextra generate karne ke
liye kitna extra fuelcost lagega.
<br>

5. Condition for Economic Dispatch

Without losses (ideal case):

dF dF;
.=)
dP dP
=
Yahan incremental cost of system
(Rs/MWh)
Matlab sabhigenerators ka marginal cost
same hona chahiye.

With transmission losses:

dF;
=\•Pgi
dP.
jahaan Pi penalty factor adjust kiya jata
haitransmission losses ke liye.
<br>

6. Real-Life Example
Soch bhai tere paas 2 water tanks hain aur
donome motor lagake pani bharna hai.
Pehla motor fast hai par zyada electricity
khata hai (high cost).
Dusra motorslow hai par cheap hai(low
cost).
GAgar dono ko ek sahi ratio me chalaya
jaye, to am paisa lagega aur kaam bhi
jaldi ho jayega.
Yehi economic load dispatch haipower
plants ke liye.
<br>

7. Constraints in ELD
1. Power Balance Constraint

+
P= Pp PL

(total generation= demand + losses)

2. Generator Limits

Pi(min)
P< Pi(man)

3. Ramp Rate Limits (generator kitni fast

increase/decrease kar sakta hai).
<br>

8. Solution Methods
A-iteration method (incremental cost
equality).
Newton-Raphson method (numerical).
Programming methods (linear/non-linear
programming).
<br>

9. Key Points for Exam

=
ELD ka target minimum fuel cost.
Condition: Incremental costs equal.
Penalty factor transmission losses ke
liye.
=
Constraints load balance + generator
limits.
Hydro plants ka water discharge
constraint hota hai (fuel cost nahi hota).

One-line summary:
Economic Load Dispatch ek optimization
technique hai jo har generator ke output ko is
tarah set karta hai ki totalfuel cost minimum
ho aur demand + losses bhi puri ho jaye.
<br>

Q31. Economic Load Dispatch aims to:

(a) Minimize transmission losses
(b) Minimize total generation cost/
(c) Minimize reactive power
(d) Maximize frequency

Explanation (Hindi):
ELD ka H
T hai total fuelcost minimum
karna.
Transmission loss aur reactive power alag
optimization me dekhe jaate hain.
<br>

Q32. The fuelcost function of a

generator is usually expressed as:
(a) Linear
(b) Quadratic /
(c) Exponential
(d) Logarithmic

Explanation (Hindi):
Thermal plant ka fuelcost function approx
quadratic form me hota hai:

F(P) =a+bP+ cP?

<br>

Q33. Incremental fuel cost is given by:

(a) dF/dV
(b) dF/dP /
(c) F/P
(d) P/F

Explanation (Hindi):
Incremental fuel cost ka matlab hai 1 MW

extra power generate karne ke liye kitna extra

fuelcost lagega.

dF
dP
=b+ 2cP
<br>

[Link] equality criterion for ELD

without losses is:
(a)
dF/dP = dF,/dP, = = A

(b) F = F2
(c) =
P P
(d) V=V,
Explanation (Hindi):
Sabhigenerators ka incremental cost equal
hona chahiye:

dF1 dF2
=A
dP dP
Isse cost minimize hota hai.
<br>

Q35. When transmission losses are

considered, the ELD condition becomes:
(a) dFi/dP, = \
(b) dF/dP, = A·Pi
(c) dF/dP =
P
(a) dF;/dP, = \Pgi

Explanation (Hindi):
Losses ke liye penalty factor (Pgi) include
karna padta hai:

dF;
=\Pgi
dP,
<br>

Q36. The penalty factor in ELD accounts

for:
(a) Generator efficiency
(b)Transmission losses /
(c) Fuel price
(d) Voltage drops

Explanation (Hindi):
Penalty factor ko use karke generation
allocation me transmission losses adjust kiye
jaate hain.
<br>

Q37. Which method is commonly used

to solve ELDproblems?
(a) Gauss-Seidel
(b) -iteration /
(c) Euler's method
(d) Runge-Kutta

Explanation (Hindi):
ELD ke liye sabse common & simple method
hai -iteration method, jisme incremental cost
equality satisfy kiya jata hai.
<br>

Q38. Which constraint must always be

satisfied in ELD?
(a) Power balance equation /
(b) Transformer rating
(c) Voltage stability
(d) Reactive power balance

Explanation (Hindi):
Power balance constraint:

+ PL
)P=Pp
Ye sabse fundamental condition hai.
<br>

Q39. Hydro power plants in ELD are

treated differently because:
(a) They have high fuel cost
(b) They don't use fuel /
(c) They are very small
(d) They have constant frequency

Explanation(Hindi):
Hydro plants me fuel cost nahi hota, unka
constraint hota haiwater discharge. Isiliye
thermal plants se alag treat hote hain.
<br>

Q40. The Lagrangian function in ELD is

formed by:
(a) Addingcost function + load balance
Constraint /
(b) Multiplyingcost with power
(c) Subtracting generator limits
(d) Adding voltage equations

Explanation (Hindi):
ELD optimization ke liye Lagrangian function
use hotahai:

+
L=)F(P) A(Pp-)P)
Ye technique constraints ke HCost
minimize karti hai.