Grade 11

Subject: History

Unit 3: Peoples, States and Historical Processes in

Ethiopia and the Horn to the End of the 13th Century

Introduction
Ethiopia is one of four countries in the Horn of Africa, alongside Eritrea, Somalia, and
Djibouti, a region widely regarded as the cradle of humankind. The 1974 discovery of
“Lucy” (Dinqnesh), a 3.18-million-year-old hominid found at Hadar in the Afar lowlands,
underscores this deep history. Ethiopia is also a mosaic of peoples, languages, and
religions shaped by long historical, social, and political processes, yet shared values such as
patriotism and hospitality unite its diverse population. This unit surveys the languages,
religions, and settlement patterns of the region, along with the Pre-Aksumite, Aksumite,
Zagwe, and other early states that shaped Ethiopian history to the end of the 13th century.

Learning Outcomes
• Differentiate the main language super-families of Ethiopia.

• Examine the nature of interaction among different peoples of Ethiopia to the end of the
thirteenth century.
• Analyze the major achievements of the Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite kingdoms.

• Evaluate the main political, economic, social, and cultural features of the peoples and
states of Ethiopia to the end of the thirteenth century.

• Evaluate the success and failure of the Zagwe Dynasty and list the major religions of
Ethiopia.

3.1. Languages, Religions and Peoples of Ethiopia and the

Horn

3.1.1. Language Families

Ethiopia is the only country in Africa with its own indigenous alphabet, the Ethiopic
script, and is home to roughly 85 languages. African languages generally belong to four
super-families: Afro-Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo, and Khoisan, of which the first
two are spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn.

Afro-Asiatic Families in Ethiopia

 • Cushitic — the most widely spoken, divided into North, Central, East, and South
Cushitic branches, including Afan Oromo, Somali, Afar, Sidama, and Hadiya.

• Omotic — spoken mainly in the Omo Valley in southern and southwestern Ethiopia,
including Wolaita, Gamo, and Kafa; found only in Ethiopia.

• Ethio-Semitic — divided into North (Tigre, Tigrigna, Ge’ez) and South (Amharic,
Gurage, Harari, Argoba, the extinct Gafat).

The Nilo-Saharan super-family is spoken mainly in Benishangul-Gumuz and Gambella,

including the Anuak, Nuer, Berta, and Gumuz peoples, with most speakers of this family
living outside Ethiopia.

3.1.2. Major Religions of Ethiopia

Religious life in Ethiopia includes both indigenous belief systems and monotheistic
religions introduced from elsewhere.

Indigenous Religions
Waqefanna, practiced by the Oromo, centers on a supreme god called Waqa, assisted by
divine manifestations called Ayyana and mediated by Qallu/Qalliti priests and the
spiritual leader Abba Muda. A similar system among the Hadiya centers on a god called
Waa, assisted by figures such as Worqimene.

Judaism
Tradition holds that Judaism entered Ethiopia as early as the 8th century B.C., linked to
the legend of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, whose son Menelik I is said to have
brought Jewish priests to Ethiopia.

Christianity
Christianity was introduced in the 4th century A.D. when Frumentius converted the
Aksumite king Ezana (baptized Abreha), confirmed by Ezana’s trilingual inscription.
Frumentius was consecrated by the patriarch Athanasius in Alexandria as the first
bishop, beginning centuries of Egyptian oversight of the Ethiopian Church until Abba
Basilios became the first Ethiopian-born patriarch in 1959. The Nine Saints later spread
Christianity widely, translating the Bible into Ge’ez and founding monastic centers such
as Debre Damo; Saint Yared is credited with developing the church’s liturgical music.

Islam
Facing persecution in Arabia, followers of the Prophet Muhammed, led by his cousin
Jafar, found refuge with the Aksumite king in 615 A.D., a peaceful reception that shaped
Islam’s non-violent spread into Ethiopia through the Dahalak Islands and the port of
Zeila.

3.1.3. Settlement of Peoples of the Region

Settlement patterns across Ethiopia and the Horn reflect long environmental, socio-
economic, and political processes. Cushitic and Semitic speakers expanded from the area
between the Red Sea and the Blue Nile into northern, central, and eastern Ethiopia, while
Omotic speakers settled mainly along the Omo River basin and Nilo-Saharan speakers
along the Ethio-Sudanese border.

📌 Fact to Remember: A Land of Many Faiths.

Ethiopia is one of the few places in the world where indigenous religions, Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam have coexisted and interacted for well over a thousand years.

3.2. Pre-Aksumite States and their Geographical Setting

Punt
Punt was the earliest historically known state in the Horn of Africa, known through
Egyptian records of naval trading expeditions, most famously that of Queen Hatshepsut
(1490–1468 B.C.), which brought back frankincense, myrrh, ivory, and gold in exchange for
weapons and jewelry. Its precise location remains debated, with scholars proposing sites in
Somalia or northern Ethiopia.

Da’amat
Da’amat (980–400 B.C.) was the first historically known state within Ethiopia, centered at
the capital Yeha, 30 kilometers northeast of Aksum. It flourished as a trading hub for ivory
and rhinoceros horn with South Arabian merchants, produced iron tools and weapons, and
grew millet, with other centers at Qohaito and Matara later serving as trade stops between
Adulis and Aksum.

📌 Fact to Remember: Trade Before Aksum.

Long before the rise of Aksum, the states of Punt and Da’amat had already established
trade networks linking Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa to Egypt and the Arabian
Peninsula.

3.3. The Aksumite Kingdom

The Aksumite state emerged around 200–100 B.C. and grew to span territory from the Red
Sea coast to the edge of the Ethiopian plateau, and possibly as far south as northern
Shewa. Its main port, Adulis, connected it to trade routes reaching Aden, Zeila,
Mogadishu, and beyond.

Trade and International Relations

Aksum exported ivory, myrrh, emeralds, frankincense, gold, and hides, importing textiles,
glassware, and metal goods from Egypt, India, Rome, and Persia. King Zoscales (c. 76–89
A.D.) reportedly spoke Greek fluently, and Aksum maintained ties with Ceylon and Asia
Minor. Internal trade with Sasu (likely near Beni Shangul) was conducted through a form
of silent trade. By the 3rd–7th centuries, Aksum minted gold, silver, and bronze coins and
was considered one of the world’s four great powers alongside Rome, Persia, and China.

Notable Rulers
King Gadarat (c. 200 A.D.) campaigned across the Red Sea into South Arabia. King Kaleb
(r. 500–535 A.D.) defeated the Himyarite prince Dhu-Nuwas with Byzantine naval support
after Dhu-Nuwas’s persecution of Christians. His son Gebre Mesqel (535–548) built the
Zur Amba church, during whose reign Yared composed the church’s liturgical hymns.

A B
Figure 3.1: One of the still-standing steles of Aksum, and pre- and post-Christian Aksumite coins

Decline of Aksum
From the late 7th century, Aksum declined due to environmental degradation, reduced
agricultural output, and the destruction of Adulis by Arab forces around 702 A.D., which
cut off its trade routes. Rebellions by the Beja, the Agaw, and Queen Bani al-Hamwiyah
(Yodit) further weakened the kingdom.

Cultural Achievements
• Monumental stele architecture, including one 33-meter stele decorated on all four
sides.
• Development of the Ge’ez alphabet, with 26 consonant letters, from earlier Sabean
script.
• Invention of a 12-month solar calendar still used as Ethiopia’s official calendar.

• A Ge’ez numeral system comparable to Hebrew, Arabic, and Greek numerals.

📌 Fact to Remember: One of Four Great Powers.

By the 3rd century A.D., Aksum was ranked alongside Rome, Persia, and China as one
of the four great powers of the ancient world, reflecting its wealth from Red Sea trade.
3.4. The Sultanate of Shewa

The Sultanate of Shewa, one of the earliest Muslim sultanates in the Ethiopian region,
was founded around 896 A.D. by Khalid ibn al-Walid under the Makhzumite dynasty, with
its capital at Walele in northern Hararghe. Weakened by conflict with the Kingdom of
Damot and pressure from the neighboring Sultanate of Ifat, the Makhzumite dynasty was
overthrown in 1285 A.D. by the Walasma dynasty of Ifat, ending the Sultanate of Shewa.

📌 Fact to Remember: A Sultanate Caught Between Powers.

The Sultanate of Shewa's fall in 1285 A.D. shows how smaller medieval states in the
region were often absorbed by stronger rival powers such as Damot and Ifat.

3.5. The Zagwe Dynasty

Founded around the mid-12th century by Mera Tekle Haymanot, a general who overthrew
his father-in-law Dil Na’od, the last Aksumite king, the Zagwe dynasty (r. 1050–1270) was
centered at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela) in the Bugna district of Wag and Lasta. Its territory
stretched from the old Aksumite highlands to northern Shewa and the Lake Tana region.

Figure 3.2: Bete-Giyorgis, one of the 11 rock-hewn churches of Lalibela

The Zagwe period is best remembered for its rock-hewn churches, especially Bete Giyorgis
at Lalibela, carved in the shape of a perfect cross and recognized as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 1978. King Lalibela sought to build a “second Jerusalem” in Ethiopia after
Muslim control of the Red Sea made pilgrimage to Jerusalem difficult.

The dynasty ended amid succession disputes and opposition from groups who viewed the
Zagwe kings as illegitimate under the Kibre Negest legend of Solomonic descent. Yekuno-
Amlak (r. 1270–1285), aided by churchman Abune Teklehaymanot, defeated the last
Zagwe king, Yetbarek, in 1270, restoring the Solomonic dynasty.

📌 Fact to Remember: The Second Jerusalem.

 King Lalibela commissioned Ethiopia's famous rock-hewn churches to create a
pilgrimage site at home after political changes made travel to Jerusalem increasingly
difficult for Ethiopian Christians.

3.6. The Kingdom of Damot

The Kingdom of Damot, located south of the Abay (Blue Nile) River, was a powerful
medieval state that forced the Sultanate of Shewa to pay tribute and defeated armies sent
by the Zagwe dynasty. Facing this threat, the Muslim state of Shewa and the new
Christian state under Yekuno Amlak allied against Damot. Its independence ended when
King Amda Tsiyon subdued it in the 14th century, and under later Oromo population
movements, some of its people migrated north of the Abay to settle in southern Gojjam in
the late 16th and early 17th centuries.

📌 Fact to Remember: A Regional Power in the South.

Damot's ability to force tribute from the Sultanate of Shewa and repel Zagwe armies
shows that medieval Ethiopian history involved multiple competing centers of power,
not just the northern highland kingdoms.

3.7. The Bete-Israel (Ethiopian Jews)

The Bete-Israel were an occupational caste in Ethiopia, associated with pottery,

blacksmithing, and leatherworking, and lived mainly in Wogera, Quara, Tegede, Welqayt,
and Simen. Their relationship with the Christian kingdom grew increasingly tense between
1413 and 1478, culminating in wars led by successive emperors.

King Yishaq defeated the Bete-Israel in Wogera around 1413 and decreed that only those
baptized as Christians could inherit land, otherwise being declared “Felasi” (exile) — the
likely origin of the term “Felasha.” Denied land rights, many turned to crafts such as
blacksmithing, especially under Zera Ya’iqob (r. 1434–1468), and later building, with
structures surviving at Guzara, Gorgora, and Azezo.

Religious texts such as the Te’ezaza Senbet likely date from Zera Ya’iqob’s reign, and
Bete-Israel practices influenced Ethiopian Orthodoxy in areas such as the Saturday
Sabbath and dietary rules. The Bete-Israel continued to resist central authority, at times
supporting rebels such as Ahmed Bin Ibrahim al-Ghazi, until they were subdued by King
Suseneyos.

📌 Fact to Remember: Resilience Through Craft.

Denied land ownership after their defeat by King Yishaq, the Bete-Israel turned to
blacksmithing and building, skills that made them indispensable to the very kingdom
that had marginalized them.
Key Terms Glossary

• Cradle: A place of origin, referring to the Horn of Africa as the birthplace of humankind.

• Civilization: A complex society marked by cities, specialized labor, and organized

government.
• Culture: The shared beliefs, customs, and practices of a group of people.

• State: An organized political community under a single government.

• Christianity: A monotheistic religion based on the teachings of Jesus Christ.

• Islam: A monotheistic religion based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammed.

• Obelisk: A tall, four-sided stone pillar, often tapering to a point; related to Aksumite
stelae.
• Stele: A carved stone monument, such as those found at Aksum, often marking graves
or commemorating events.
• Rock-hewn: Carved directly out of solid rock, as with the churches of Lalibela.

• Solomonic: Relating to the dynasty claiming descent from King Solomon, restored by
Yekuno-Amlak in 1270.
• Inscription: Text carved or engraved onto a hard surface, such as stone or metal.

• Zagwe: The dynasty that ruled parts of Ethiopia from the mid-12th century to 1270,
known for the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela.
Practice Exam
Unit 3: Peoples, States and Historical Processes in Ethiopia and the Horn to the End of
the 13th Century

I. True or False
1. Ethiopia is the only country in Africa with its own indigenous alphabet.

2. The Cushitic language family is the most widely spoken in Ethiopia and the Horn.

3. Christianity was introduced to Ethiopia through the conversion of King Ezana.

4. The Prophet Muhammed's followers were rejected and turned away by the Aksumite
king.
5. Da'amat, with its capital at Yeha, was the first historically known state within
Ethiopia.
6. Aksum was considered one of the four great powers of the ancient world.

7. The Zagwe dynasty is best known for building the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela.

8. The Sultanate of Shewa was overthrown by the Walasma dynasty of Ifat in 1285 A.D.

9. The Kingdom of Damot was located north of the Abay (Blue Nile) River.

10. The Bete-Israel were forced to convert to Christianity after their defeat by King
Yishaq.

II. Matching
Match each item in Column A with the correct term in Column B. Column B contains one
extra item that will not be used.

Column A Column B
1. Ezana A. Ruling family of the Sultanate of Ifat
2. King Lalibela B. Political center of the Zagwe dynasty
3. Makhzumite C. Aksumite king who first accepted
Christianity
4. Walasma D. Ruling family of the Sultanate of
Shewa
5. Adulis E. Port of Aksum
6. Roha F. Rock-hewn churches
7. Punt G. First historically known state in the
Horn
Column A Column B
8. Damat H. First locally known state in Ethiopia
I. Islam

III. Multiple Choice

1. Which language family is spoken only within Ethiopia?

A. Ethio-Semitic B. Omotic
C. Nilo-Saharan D. Cushitic

2. The Oromo indigenous religion Waqefanna centers on a supreme god called:

A. Waa B. Inti
C. Waqa D. Ahura Mazda

3. Who converted the Aksumite king Ezana to Christianity?

A. Frumentius B. Saint Yared
C. Athanasius D. Abune Teklehaymanot

4. The Nine Saints are best known for:

A. Building the Lalibela churches B. Translating the Bible into Ge'ez
C. Founding the Sultanate of Shewa D. Defeating the Zagwe dynasty

5. Followers of the Prophet Muhammed first fled to Ethiopia in:

A. 570 A.D. B. 615 A.D.
C. 634 A.D. D. 702 A.D.

6. The capital of the pre-Aksumite state of Da'amat was:

A. Adulis B. Yeha
C. Matara D. Aksum

7. Aksum's major port on the Red Sea was:

A. Zeila B. Berbera
C. Adulis D. Mogadishu

8. The longest Aksumite stele measures approximately:

A. 15 meters B. 20 meters
C. 33 meters D. 50 meters

9. The Zagwe dynasty was founded by:

A. Yekuno-Amlak B. Dil Na'od
C. Mera Tekle Haymanot D. Lalibela

10. The rock-hewn church built in the shape of a perfect cross is:
A. Debre Damo B. Bete Giyorgis
C. Debre Libanos D. Debre Asbo

11. The Sultanate of Shewa's ruling dynasty was called:

A. Walasma B. Makhzumite
C. Zagwe D. Solomonic

12. The Kingdom of Damot was located:

A. North of the Abay River B. South of the Abay River
C. On the Red Sea coast D. In the Omo Valley

13. Yekuno-Amlak restored which dynasty in 1270?

A. Zagwe B. Makhzumite
C. Solomonic D. Walasma

14. The Bete-Israel were primarily known for their skills as:
A. Sailors and traders B. Blacksmiths and builders
C. Farmers and herders D. Scribes and priests

15. King Yishaq's decree led to the likely origin of the term:
A. Zagwe B. Felasha
C. Waqefanna D. Solomonic

IV. Fill in the Blank

1. The 1974 discovery of a 3.18-million-year-old hominid at Hadar was nicknamed
______________.
2. The Ethiopian Orthodox liturgical hymns are attributed to ______________.

3. The Aksumite king who accepted Christianity was ______________.

4. The Zagwe dynasty was ended by ______________, who restored the Solomonic
dynasty.
5. The occupational caste later called the Bete-Israel lived mainly in areas such as
Wogera and ______________.

V. Short Answer
1. Explain the roles that the Nine Saints and Saint Yared played in the spread and
development of Christianity in Ethiopia.

2. Describe the causes of the decline of the Aksumite kingdom, and explain how these
factors were connected to one another.