ICE2221: Signals and Systems

Section – A
Introduction: Definition of signals and systems; Overview
of specific systems, Classification of signals, Basic operation
on signals, Elementary signals, Properties of systems.

Text Book:
1. Simon Haykin & Barry Van Veen : Signals and Systems
 What Is a Signal?
❑ Signals, in one form or another, constitute a basic ingredient of
our daily lives. For example, a common form of human
communication takes place through the use of speech signals, in a
face-to-face conversation or over a telephone channel.
❑ A signal is formally defined as a function of one or more variables
that conveys information on the nature of a physical phenomenon.
❑When the function depends on a single variable, the signal is said
to be one dimensional. A speech signal is an example of a one-
dimensional signal whose amplitude varies with time, depending
on the spoken word and who speaks it. When the function depends
on two or more variables, the signal is said to be multidimensional.
An image is an example of a two-dimensional signal, with the
horizontal and vertical coordinates of the image representing the
two dimensions.
 What Is a System?
❑A system is formally defined as an entity that manipulates one or more
signals to accomplish a function, thereby yielding new signals. The
interaction between a system and its associated signals is illustrated
schematically in Fig. 1.
❑ The descriptions of the input and output signals depend on the
intended application of the system:
• In an automatic speaker recognition system, the input signal is a speech
(voice) signal, the system is a computer; and the output signal is the
identity of the speaker .
• In a communication system, the input signal could be a speech signal or
computer data, the system itself is made up of the combination of a
transmitter, channel, and receiver, and the output signal is an estimate
of the information contained in the original message.
 Overview of Specific Systems
❑ Here, we will expand on first two of the applications:
communication systems, control systems, microelectromechanical
systems, remote sensing, biomedical signal processing, and auditory
systems.
❑ Communication Systems: As depicted in Fig. 2, there are three
basic elements to every communication system: the transmitter, the
channel, and the receiver.
• The transmitter is located at one point in space, the receiver is
located at some other point separate from the transmitter; and the
channel is the physical medium that connects the two together. The
purpose of the transmitter is to convert the message signal
produced by a source of information into a form suitable for
transmission over the channel.
 Communication Systems
• The message signal could be a speech signal, a television (video) signal,
or computer data. The channel may be an optical fiber; a coaxial cable, a
satellite channel, or a mobile radio channel; each of these channels has
its specific area of application.
• As the transmitted signal propagates over the channel, it is distorted due
to the physical characteristics of the channel. Moreover; noise and
interfering signals contaminate the channel output, with the result that
the received signal is a corrupted version of the transmitted signal.
• The function of the receiver is to operate on the received signal so as to
reconstruct a recognizable form (i.e., produce an estimate) of the original
message signal and deliver it to its destination.
• The communication system can be of an analog or digital type. In signal-
processing terms, the design of an analog communication system is
relatively simple.
 Communication Systems (continued)
❑ In a digital communication system, if the message signal is of
analog form, as in speech and video signals, the transmitter
performs the following operations to convert it into digital form:
• Sampling, which converts the message signal into a sequence of
numbers, with each number representing the amplitude of the
message signal at a particular instant of time.
• Quantization, which involves representing each number produced
by the sampler to the nearest level selected from a finite number of
discrete amplitude levels. For example, we may represent each
sample as a 16-bit number, in which case there are 216 amplitude
levels. After the combination of sampling and quantization, we have
a representation of the message signal that is discrete in both time
and amplitude.
 Communication Systems (continued)
❑ Coding, the purpose of which is to represent each quantized
sample by a code word made up of a finite number of symbols. For
example, in a binary code, the symbols may be 1 's or 0’s.
 Quantization of Continuous-Amplitude Signals
• A digital signal is a sequence of numbers (samples) in which each
number is represented by a finite number of digits (finite precision).

• The process of converting a discrete-time continuous-amplitude

signal into a digital signal by expressing each sample value as a
finite (instead of an infinite) number of digits is called quantization.

• The error introduced in representing the continuous-valued signal

by a finite set of discrete value levels is called quantization error or
quantization noise.
 Quantization of Continuous-Amplitude Signals
• Let us illustrate the quantization process with an example. Let us
consider the discrete time signal as follows:

• It is obtained by sampling the analog exponential signal 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 =

0.9𝑡 , t >= 0 with a sampling frequency Fs = 1 Hz as shown in Figure
4(a). Table 1 which shows the values of the first 10 samples of x(n).
 Communication Systems (continued)
❑ There are two basic modes of communication:
• 1. Broadcasting, which involves the use of a single powerful
transmitter and numerous receivers that are relatively cheap to
build. Here, information-bearing signals flow only in one direction.
• 2. Point-to-point communication, in which the communication
process takes place over a link between a single transmitter and a
single receiver. In this case, there is usually a bidirectional flow of
information-bearing signals, with a transmitter and a receiver at
each end of the link.
 Control Systems
• The control of physical systems is widespread in industrial society.
Aircraft autopilots, mass-transit vehicles, automobile engines,
machine tools, oil refineries, paper mills, nuclear reactors, power
plants, and robots are all examples of the application of control.
• The object to be controlled is commonly referred to as a plant; in
this context, an aircraft is a plant. There are many reasons for using
control systems. From an engineering viewpoint, the two most
important ones are the attainment of a satisfactory response and
robust performance:
• 1. Response. A plant is said to produce a satisfactory response if its
output follows or tracks a specified reference input. The process of
holding the plant output close to the reference input is called
regulation.
 Control Systems (continued)
• 2. Robustness. A control system is said to be robust if it regulates its
objects well, despite the presence of external disturbances (e.g.,
turbulence affecting the flight of an aircraft) and in the face of
changes in the plant parameters due to varying environmental
conditions.
• The attainment of these desirable properties usually requires the
use of feedback, as illustrated in Fig. 6. The system shown is referred
to as a closed-loop control system or feedback control system.
• For example, in an aircraft landing system, the plant is represented
by the aircraft's body and actuator, the sensors are used by the pilot
to determine the lateral position of the aircraft, and the controller is
a digital computer.
 Control Systems (continued)
• The plant is described by mathematical operations that generate the
output y(t) in response to the plant input v(t) and external
disturbance V(t). The sensor included in the feedback loop measures
the plant output y(t) and converts it into electrical form. The sensor
output r(t) constitutes the feedback signal and is compared with the
reference input x(t) to produce a difference or error signal e(t). This
latter signal is applied to a controller, which, in turn, generates the
actuating signal v(t) that performs the controlling action on the
plant.
• A control system with a single input and single output is referred to
as a single-input, single-output (SISO) system. When the number of
plant inputs or outputs is more than one, the system is referred to as
a multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) system.
 Analog versus Digital Signal Processing
• The signal-processing operations involved in building
communication systems, control systems, among the many
applications of signal processing, can be implemented in two
fundamentally different ways: (1) an analog, or continuous-time,
approach and (2) a digital, or discrete-time, approach.
• The analog approach to signal processing was dominant for many
years, and it remains a viable option for many applications. As the
name implies, analog signal processing relies on the use of analog
circuit elements such as resistors , capacitors, inductors, transistor
amplifiers, and diodes.
• Digital signal processing, relies on three basic digital computer
elements: adders and multipliers and memory (for storage).
 Analog versus Digital Signal Processing (continued)
• The digital approach has the following important advantages over
analog signal processing:
❑ Flexibility, whereby the same digital machine (hardware) can be
used for implementing different versions of a signal-processing
operation of interest (e.g., filtering) merely by making changes to
the software (program) read into the machine. In the case of an
analog machine, the system has to be redesigned every time the
signal-processing specifications are changed.
❑ Repeatability, which refers to the fact that a prescribed signal-
processing operation (e.g., control of a robot) can be repeated
exactly over and over again when it is implemented by digital
means. In contrast, analog systems suffer from parameter variations
that can arise due to changes in the supply voltage.
 Classification of Signals
• Continuous-time and discrete-time signals:
• One way of classifying signals is on the basis of how they are
defined as a function of time. A signal x(t) is said to be a
continuous-time signal if it is defined for all time t. Figure 7
represents an example of a continuous-time signal whose amplitude
or value varies continuously with time. Continuous-time signals
arise naturally when a physical waveform such as an acoustic wave
or a light wave is converted into an electrical signal.
• The conversion is effected by means of a transducer; examples
include the microphone, which converts variations in sound
pressure into corresponding variations in voltage or current, and the
photocell, which does the same for variations in light intensity.
 Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
• A discrete-time signal is defined only at discrete instants of time.
Thus, the independent variable has discrete values only, which are
usually uniformly spaced. A discrete-time signal is often derived
from a continuous-time signal by sampling it at a uniform rate. Let
𝑇𝑠 denote the sampling period and n denote an integer that may
assume positive and negative values. Then sampling a continuous-
time signal x(t) at time t = n𝑇𝑠 yields a sample with the value x(n𝑇𝑠 ).
For convenience of presentation, we write

• Figure 7 illustrates the relationship between a continuous-time

signal x(t) and a discrete-time signal x[n] derived from it as shown by
Eq. (1).
Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
 Even and odd signals
• A useful property of signals relates to their symmetry under time
reversal.
• A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an even signal if it is identical to
its time-reversed counterpart, i.e., with its reflection about the
origin. In continuous time a signal is even if x(-t) = x(t), for all t, while
a discrete-time signal is even if x[-n] = x[n], for all n.
• A signal is referred to as odd if x(-t) = - x(t), x[-n] = -x[n].
• An odd signal must necessarily be 0 at t = 0 or n = 0, since it is
required that x(0) = - x(0) and x[0] = - x[0].
• Even signals are symmetric about the vertical axis, or time origin,
whereas odd signals are antisymmetric about the time origin.
Examples of even and odd continuous-time signals are shown in the following
Figure 9.
 Even and odd signals
• Let us suppose we are given an arbitrary signal x(t). We may
develop an even-odd decomposition of x(t) by applying the
corresponding definitions.
• Let x(t) be expressed as the sum of two components 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡)
and 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) as follows: 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡).
• Let us define 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) to be even and 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) to be odd; that is,
𝑥𝑒 (−𝑡) = 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) and 𝑥𝑜 (−𝑡) = − 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡)
• Putting t = - t in the expression for x(t), we may write
𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜 (−𝑡)
= 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡)
 Even and odd signals
• Solving for 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) and 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡), we thus obtain

1
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = [𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡 ]
2
and

1
𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = [𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡 ]
2
 Periodic signals and nonperiodic signals
• A periodic signal x(t) is a function of time that satisfies the condition
x(t) = x(t + T) for all t, (2)
• where T is a positive constant. If this condition is satisfied for T = T0,
then it is also satisfied for T = 2T0, 3T0, 4T0, .... The smallest value of T
that satisfies Eq. (2) is called the fundamental period of x(t).
Accordingly, the fundamental period T defines the duration of one
complete cycle of x(t). The reciprocal of the fundamental period T is
called the fundamental frequency of the periodic signal x(t); it
describes how frequently the periodic signal x(t) repeats itself. We
thus write
𝟏
𝒇= (3)
𝑻
 Periodic signals and nonperiodic signals
• The frequency f is measured in hertz (Hz), or cycles per second. The
angular frequency, measured in radians per second, is defined by
𝟐𝝅
𝜴 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 = (4)
𝑻

• since there are 2π radians in one complete cycle. Ω is often referred

to simply as the frequency.
Any signal x(t) for which no value of T satisfies the condition of Eq. (2)
is called an aperiodic, or nonperiodic signal. Figures 11 (a) and (b)
present examples of periodic and nonperiodic signals, respectively.

The periodic signal represents a square wave of amplitude A = 1 and

period T = 0.2s, and the nonperiodic signal represents a single
rectangular pulse of amplitude A and duration T1 .
Periodic signals and nonperiodic signals
• Problem 1. Figure 12 shows a triangular wave. What is the
fundamental frequency of this wave? Express the fundamental
frequency in units of Hz and rad/s.
Answer: 5Hz, or 10π rad/s.
Periodic signals and nonperiodic signals
Periodic signals and nonperiodic signals
 Deterministic signals and random signals
• Problem 2. Determine the fundamental frequency of the discrete-
time square wave shown in Fig. 13.
Answer: π/4 radians.

• Deterministic signal is a signal about which there is no uncertainty

with respect to its value at any time. Accordingly, we find that
deterministic signals may be modeled as completely specified
functions of time. The square wave shown in Fig. 11 and the
rectangular pulse shown in Fig. 11 are examples of deterministic
signals.
 Deterministic signals and random signals
• A random signal is a signal about which there is uncertainty before
it occurs. Such a signal may be viewed as belonging to an ensemble,
or a group, of signals, with each signal in the ensemble having a
different waveform. Moreover, each signal within the ensemble has
a certain probability of occurrence. The ensemble of signals is
referred to as a random process.
• The electrical noise generated in the amplifier of a radio or television
receiver is an example of a random signal. Its amplitude fluctuates
between positive and negative values in a completely random
fashion.
 Energy signals and power signals
• In electrical systems, a signal may represent a voltage or a current.
Consider a voltage v(t) developed across a resistor R, producing a
current i(t). The instantaneous power dissipated in this resistor is
defined by

• Here, the instantaneous power p(t) is proportional to the square of

the amplitude of the signal. In signal analysis, it is customary to
define power in terms of a 1-ohm resistor, so that, regardless of
whether a given signal x(t) represents a voltage or a current, we may
express the instantaneous power of the signal as
Energy signals and power signals
 Energy signals and power signals
• In particular, an energy signal has zero time-averaged power,
whereas a power signal has infinite energy.
• Periodic signals and random signals are usually viewed as power
signals, whereas signals that are both deterministic and nonperiodic
are usually viewed as energy signals.

• An issue of fundamental importance in the study of signals and

systems is the use of systems to process or manipulate signals. This
issue usually involves a combination of some basic operations. In
particular, we may identify two classes of operations.
 Basic Operations on Signals
• OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON DEPENDENT VARIABLES:
• Amplitude scaling: Let x(t) denote a continuous-time signal. Then
the signal y(t) resulting from amplitude scaling applied to x(t) is
defined by y(t) = cx(t), (9)
• where c is the scaling factor. According to Eq. (9), the value of y(t) is
obtained by multiplying the corresponding value of x(t) by the scalar
c for each instant of time t.
• A physical example of a device that performs amplitude scaling is an
electronic amplifier. A resistor also performs amplitude scaling when
x(t) is a current, c is the resistance of the resistor, and y(t) is the
output voltage.
• For discrete-time signals, we can write, y[n] = cx[n].
 OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON DEPENDENT VARIABLES
• Addition: Let x1(t) and x2(t) denote a pair of continuous-time signals.
Then the signal y(t) obtained by the addition of x1(t) and x2(t) is
defined by
y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t). (10)
• A physical example of a device that adds signals is an audio mixer,
which combines music and voice signals.
• In a manner similar to Eq. (10), for discrete-time signals, we can
write
y[n] = x1[n] + x2[n].
 OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON DEPENDENT VARIABLES
• Multiplication. Let x1(t) and x2(t) denote a pair of continuous-time
signals. Then the signal y(t) resulting from the multiplication of x1(t)
by x2(t) is defined by
y(t) = x1(t) x2(t). (11)
• That is, for each prescribed time t, the value of y(t) is given by the
product of the corresponding values of x1(t) and x2(t).
• A physical example of y(t) is an AM radio signal, in which x1(t)
consists of an audio signal plus a dc component and x2(t) consists of
a sinusoidal signal called a carrier wave.
• In a manner similar to Eq. (11), for discrete-time signals, we can
write y[n] = x1[n]x2[n].
 OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON DEPENDENT VARIABLES
• Differentiation. Let x(t) denote a continuous-time signal. Then the
derivative of x(t) with respect to time is defined by
𝒅
y(t) = 𝒙(𝒕). (12)
𝒅𝒕

• For example, an inductor performs differentiation. Let i(t) denote

the current flowing through an inductor of inductance L. Then the
voltage v(t) developed across the inductor is defined by
𝒅
v(t) = L 𝒊(𝒕).
𝒅𝒕
 OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON DEPENDENT VARIABLES
• Integration. Let x(t) denote a continuous-time signal. Then the
integral of x(t) with respect to time t is defined by
𝒕
y(t) = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝒙 𝝉 𝒅𝝉 (13)
where τ is the integration variable.
• For example, a capacitor performs integration. Let i(t) denote the
current flowing through a capacitor of capacitance C. Then the
voltage v(t) developed across the capacitor is defined by
𝟏 𝒕
v(t) = ‫׬‬−∞
𝒊 𝝉 𝒅𝝉.
𝒄
OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
 OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
• Time shifting: Let x(t) denote a continuous-time signal. Then the
time-shifted version of x(t) is defined by
y(t) = x(t – t0)
where t0 is the time shift. If t0 > 0, the waveform of y(t) is obtained by
shifting x(t) toward the right, relative to the time axis. If t0 < 0, x(t) is
shifted to the left.
• In the case of a discrete-time signal x[n], we define its time-shifted
version as
y[n] = x[n- m]
where the shift m must be a positive or negative integer.
 Precedence rule for time shifting and time scaling
• Let y(t) denote a continuous-time signal that is derived from another
continuous-time signal x(t) through a combination of time shifting
and time scaling; that is, y(t) = x(at - b).
• To obtain y(t) from x(t), the time-shifting and time-scaling operations
must be performed in the correct order. The proper order is based
on the fact that the scaling operation always replaces t by at, while
the time-shifting operation always replaces t by t - b.
• Hence, the time-shifting operation is performed first on x(t),
resulting in an intermediate signal v(t) = x(t - b).
• The time shift has replaced t in x(t) by t - b. Next, the time-scaling
operation is performed on v(t), replacing t by at and resulting in the
desired output y(t) = v(at) = x(at - b).
OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

1, 𝑛=0,1
Answer: y[n] =൜
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
 Elementary Signals
• Several elementary signals feature prominently in the study of
signals and systems. Among these signals are exponential and
sinusoidal signals, the step function, the impulse function, and the
ramp function, all of which serve as building blocks for the
construction of more complex signals.
• EXPONENTIAL SIGNALS:
• A real exponential signal, in its most general form, is written as
𝒂𝒕
x(t) = B𝒆 (14)
where both B and a are real parameters. The parameter B is the
amplitude of the exponential signal measured at time t = 0.
 EXPONENTIAL SIGNALS
• Depending on whether the other parameter a is positive or negative,
we may identify two special cases:
• Decaying exponential, for which a < 0
• Growing exponential, for which a > 0

These two forms of an exponential signal are illustrated in Fig. 19. Part
(a) of the figure was generated using a = -6 and B = 5. Part (b) of the
figure was generated using a = 5 and B = 1. If a = 0, the signal x(t)
reduces to a dc signal equal to the constant B.
EXPONENTIAL SIGNALS
• In discrete time, it is common practice to write a real exponential
signal as x[n] = B𝒆𝒂𝒏 (15)
SINUSOIDAL SIGNALS
 SINUSOIDAL SIGNALS

Following Figure 22 illustrates a discrete-time sinusoidal signal given

by Eq. (17) for A = 1, Φ = 0, and N = 12.
EXPONENTIALLY DAMPED SINUSOIDAL SIGNALS
STEP FUNCTION
RAMP FUNCTION
 Properties of Systems
• In mathematical terms, a system may be viewed as an interconnection of
operations that transforms an input signal into an output signal with
properties different from those of the input signal. The signals may be of
the continuous-time or discrete-time variety or a mixture of both. Let the
overall operator H denote the action of a system.
• Then the application of a continuous-time signal x(t) to the input of the
system yields the output signal
y(t) = H{x(t)} (27)
Figure 29(a) shows a block diagram representation of Eq. (27).
Correspondingly, for the discrete-time case, we may write
y[n] = H{x[n]} (28)
where the discrete-time signals x[n] and y[n] denote the input and output
signals, respectively, as shown in Fig. 29(b).
Properties of Systems
 Properties of Systems - Stability
• A system is said to be bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO) stable
if and only if every bounded input results in a bounded output. The
output of such a system does not diverge if the input does not
diverge.
• Let us consider a continuous-time system whose input-output
relation is as described in Eq. (27). The operator H is BIBO stable if
the output signal y(t) satisfies the condition
𝒚(𝒕) ≤ 𝑴𝒚 < ∞ for all t
whenever the input signals x(t) satisfy the condition
𝒙(𝒕) ≤ 𝑴𝒙 < ∞ for all t
Both 𝑴𝒙 and 𝑴𝒚 represent some finite positive numbers.
 Properties of Systems - Stability
• We may describe the condition for the BIBO stability of a discrete-time
system in a similar manner.
• From an engineering perspective, it is important that a system of interest
remain stable under all possible operating conditions. Only then is the
system guaranteed to produce a bounded output for a bounded input.
Unstable systems are usually to be avoided, unless some mechanism can
be found to stabilize them.
• Let us consider a discrete-time system whose output signal y[n] is the
average of the three most recent values of the input signal x[n]; that is,
y[n] = (1/3)(x[n] + x[n - 1] + x[n- 2]) (29)
• Such a system is referred to as a moving-average system, for two reasons.
First, y[n] is the average of the sample values x[n], x[n - 1], and x[n - 2].
Second, the value of y[n] changes as n moves along the discrete-time axis.
 Properties of Systems - Stability
• Show that the moving-average system described in Equation 29 is BIBO stable.
Properties of Systems - Stability
 Properties of Systems - Memory
• A system is said to possess memory if its output signal depends on
past or future values of the input signal. The temporal extent of past
or future values on which the output depends defines how far the
memory of the system extends into the past or future.
• A system is said to be memoryless if its output signal depends only
on the present value of the input signal.
• The moving-average system described by the following input-output
relation y[n] = (1/3)(x[n] + x[n - 1) + x[n - 2]) has memory, since the
value of the output signal y[n] at time n depends on the present and
on two past values of input signal x[n].
• A system described by the input-output relation, y[n] = 𝑥 2 [n] is
memoryless, since the value of the output signal y[n] at time n
depends only on the present value of the input signal x[n].
 Properties of Systems - Causality
• A system is said to be causal if the present value of the output signal
depends only on the present or past values of the input signal.
• The output signal of a noncausal system depends on one or more
future values of the input signal.
• For example, the moving-average system described by
y[n] = (1/3)(x[n] + x[n - 1] + x[n - 2])
is causal. By contrast, the moving-average system described by
y[n] = (1/3)(x[n + 1] + x[n] + x[n - 1])
is noncausal, since the output signal y[n] depends on a future value of
the input signal, namely, x[n + 1].
• The important point to note here is that causality is required for a
system to be capable of operating in real time.
 Properties of Systems - Invertibility
• A system is said to be invertible if the input of the system can be
recovered from the output.
• We may view the set of operations needed to recover the input
as a second system connected in cascade with the given system,
such that the output signal of the second system is equal to the
input signal applied to the given system.
• Let the operator H represent a continuous-time system, with the
input signal x(t) producing the output signal y(t). Let the output
signal y(t) be applied to a second continuous-time system
represented by the operator 𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒗 , as illustrated in Fig. 30.
 Properties of Systems - Invertibility

Figure 30 The notion of system invertibility. The second operator

𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒗 is the inverse of the first operator H. Hence, the input x(t) is
passed through the cascade connection of H and 𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒗 completely
unchanged.
 Properties of Systems - Invertibility
• Then the output signal of the second system is defined by
𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒗 𝒚(𝒕) = 𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒗 𝑯𝒙(𝒕) = 𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒗 𝑯𝒙(𝒕)
where we have made use of the fact that two operators H and
𝒊𝒏𝒗
𝑯 connected in cascade are equivalent to a single operator
𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒗 H. For this output signal to equal the original input signal x(t),
we require that
𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒗 𝑯 = 𝑰
where 𝑰 denotes the identity operator. The output of a system
described by the identity operator is exactly equal to the input.
The operator 𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒗 is called the inverse operator, and the
associated system is called the inverse system.
 Properties of Systems - Invertibility
• The property of invertibility is of particular importance in the
design of communication systems. When a transmitted signal
propagates through a communication channel, it becomes
distorted due to the physical characteristics of the channel.
• A widely used method of compensating for this distortion is to
include in the receiver a network called an equalizer, which is
connected in cascade with the channel in a manner similar to
that described in Fig. 30. By designing the equalizer to be the
inverse of the channel, the transmitted signal is restored to its
original form, assuming ideal (i.e., noiseless) conditions.
• In general, we may view a system as an operation, or a set of operations
performed on the input signal x(n) to produce the output signal y(n). We
say that the input signal x(n) is transformed by the system into a signal
y(n), and express the general relationship between x(n) and y(n) as
𝒚 𝒏 ≡ Ꚍ[𝒙(𝒏)] [30]
where the symbol Ꚍ denotes the transformation (also called an operator)
or processing performed by the system on x(n) to produce y(n). The
mathematical relationship in equation 30 is depicted graphically in Fig. 31.
 Properties of Systems – Time Invariance
• A system is called time-invariant if its input-output characteristics do
not change with time. To elaborate, suppose that we have a system Ꚍ
in a relaxed state which, when excited by an input signal x(n),
produces an output signal y(n).
Thus, we can write 𝒚 𝒏 ≡ Ꚍ[𝒙(𝒏)]

• Now suppose that the same input signal is delayed by k units of time
to yield x(n - k), and again applied to the same system. If the
characteristics of the system do not change with time, the output of
the relaxed system will be y(n - k). That is, the output will be the
same as the response to x(n), except that it will be delayed by the
same k units in time that the input was delayed.
 Properties of Systems – Time Invariance

• To determine if any given system is time invariant, basically, we excite

the system with an arbitrary input sequence x(n), which produces an
output denoted as y(n). Next, we delay the input sequence by some
amount k and recompute the output. In general, we can write the
output 𝒚 𝒏, 𝒌 ≡ Ꚍ[𝒙(𝒏 − 𝒌)]. Now if this output y(n, k) = y(n - k), for
all possible values of k, the system is time invariant. On the other
hand, if the output y(n, k) ≠ y(n - k), even for one value of k, the
system is time variant.
 Properties of Systems – Time Invariance
• Determine if the systems shown in Fig. 32 are time invariant or time variant.
Properties of Systems – Time Invariance
Properties of Systems – Time Invariance
 Properties of Systems – Linearity
• A linear system is one that satisfies the superposition principle. The
principle of superposition requires that the response of the system
to a weighted sum of signals be equal to the corresponding weighted
sum of the responses (outputs) of the system to each of the
individual input signals.
Properties of Systems – Linearity
 Example of a Linear System
• Let us have the discrete system shown in Figure 34(a) whose output
is defined as

• that is, the output sequence is equal to the negative of the input
sequence with the amplitude reduced by a factor of two. If we
apply an x1(n) input sequence representing a 1-Hz sinewave, we will
have a y1(n) output as shown in the center of Figure 34(b).

• The frequency-domain spectral amplitude of the y1(n) output is the

plot on the right side of Figure 34(b).
 Example of a Linear System
• Next, applying an x2(n) input sequence representing a 3-Hz
sinewave, the system provides a y2(n) output sequence, as shown in
the center of Figure 34(c) and the spectrum of the y2(n) output is
shown on the right side of Figure 34(c).

• When we apply an x3(n) input sequence that’s the sum of a 1-Hz

sinewave (x1(n)) and a 3-Hz sinewave (x2(n)), then y3(n) output is
produced as shown in the center of Figure 34(d).
• Here y3(n) is the sample-for-sample sum of y1(n) and y2(n). Figure
34(d) also shows that the output spectrum y3(n) is the sum of y1(n)
and y2(n). That is linearity.
 Example of a Nonlinear System
• A nonlinear system produces an output that is not equal to the sum
of y1(n) and y2(n) when its input is x1(n) + x2(n).
• A simple example of a nonlinear discrete system is that in Figure
35(a) where the output is the square of the input described by
 Properties of Systems – Linearity
• The superposition principle showed in the relation [31] can be
separated into two parts. First, suppose that a2 = 0. Then [31]
reduces to
 Properties of Systems – Linearity
• A relaxed linear system with zero input produces a zero output. If a
system produces a nonzero output with a zero input, the system may
be either non-relaxed or nonlinear. If a relaxed system does not
satisfy the superposition principle as given by the definition above, it
is called nonlinear.
Properties of Systems – Linearity
Properties of Systems – Linearity
Properties of Systems – Linearity