TRIGONOMETRY
Comprehensive Study Notes
Topics Covered
● Angle measurement (degrees & radians) and the unit circle
● Trigonometric ratios and special angle values
● Angles of elevation, depression and bearings
● The Sine Rule, Cosine Rule and area of a triangle
● Graphs, compound/double angle formulae and identities
● Solving trigonometric equations
1. Introduction to Trigonometry
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that studies the relationships between the angles and sides
of triangles. The word comes from the Greek "trigonon" (triangle) and "metron" (measure). Although it
began more than two thousand years ago as a tool for astronomers and surveyors to measure triangles
they could not physically reach, trigonometry now underpins navigation, engineering, physics,
astronomy, architecture, music theory, medical imaging and computer graphics.
At its core, trigonometry rests on a simple idea: in a right-angled triangle, once one of the acute angles
is fixed, the ratios between the lengths of any two sides are always the same, no matter how large or
small the triangle is. These constant ratios are called the trigonometric ratios, and they form the
foundation for everything else in the subject, from solving triangles to modelling waves and oscillations.
These notes cover the essential trigonometry syllabus: angle measurement, the basic trigonometric
ratios, special angles, the unit circle, angles of elevation/depression, bearings, the Sine and Cosine
Rules, area of a triangle, graphs of trigonometric functions, trigonometric identities, and solving
trigonometric equations.
2. Measuring Angles: Degrees and Radians
Angles can be measured in degrees or radians. A full rotation is 360 degrees (360°), and each degree is
divided into 60 minutes. Radians measure an angle by the length of the arc it cuts off on a circle of
radius 1: one radian is the angle subtended when the arc length equals the radius. A full rotation is 2π
radians, so 360° = 2π rad, giving the conversion:
180° = π radians, so 1° = π/180 rad and 1 rad = 180/π degrees.
Common angles and their radian equivalents: 30° = π/6, 45° = π/4, 60° = π/3, 90° = π/2, 180° = π, 270° =
3π/2, 360° = 2π. Radians are the natural unit in calculus and advanced work, while degrees remain
common in navigation, surveying and everyday geometry.
3. The Unit Circle
While right-angled triangles only allow angles between 0° and 90°, the unit circle extends the
definitions of sine and cosine to any angle, including negative angles and angles greater than 360°. The
unit circle is a circle of radius 1 centred at the origin of a coordinate plane. For any angle θ measured
anticlockwise from the positive x-axis, the point where the angle meets the circle has coordinates (cos
θ, sin θ).
This definition explains why sine and cosine values repeat every 360°: rotating a full circle returns to the
same point. It also explains the sign changes seen in the CAST rule, since the x-coordinate (cosine) is
negative in the second and third quadrants, and the y-coordinate (sine) is negative in the third and
fourth quadrants. Tangent, defined as sin θ / cos θ, can be visualised as the gradient of the line from the
origin to the point on the circle.
The unit circle also gives a clean geometric proof of the Pythagorean identity: since every point (cos θ,
sin θ) lies on a circle of radius 1 centred at the origin, it must satisfy the circle equation x² + y² = 1, which
is exactly sin²θ + cos²θ = 1.
4. Trigonometric Ratios in a Right-Angled Triangle
Consider a right-angled triangle with one acute angle labelled θ. Relative to θ, the three sides are
named the hypotenuse (the longest side, opposite the right angle), the opposite side (facing θ directly),
and the adjacent side (next to θ, but not the hypotenuse). The three basic trigonometric ratios are
defined as:
Ratio Definition Memory Aid
sine (sin θ) opposite / hypotenuse SOH
cosine (cos θ) adjacent / hypotenuse CAH
tangent (tan θ) opposite / adjacent TOA
The mnemonic SOH-CAH-TOA helps students remember these three relationships. Three further ratios
are the reciprocals of these: cosecant (cosec θ = 1/sin θ), secant (sec θ = 1/cos θ), and cotangent (cot θ
= 1/tan θ = cos θ/sin θ). Since tan θ = sin θ/cos θ, tangent can always be derived once sine and cosine
are known.
These ratios allow us to find an unknown side or angle in a right-angled triangle whenever enough
other information is given. For example, if a ladder leans against a wall making an angle of 60° with the
ground and reaches 8 m up the wall, the length of the ladder L satisfies sin 60° = 8/L, so L = 8 / sin 60° ≈
9.24 m.
The same ratios can also be used in reverse to find an unknown angle when two sides are known, using
the inverse trigonometric functions sin⁻¹, cos⁻¹ and tan⁻¹. For instance, in a right-angled triangle where
the opposite side is 5 cm and the adjacent side is 12 cm, the angle θ between the hypotenuse and the
adjacent side satisfies tan θ = 5/12, so θ = tan⁻¹(5/12) ≈ 22.6°. Once θ is known, the hypotenuse can
then be found using Pythagoras' theorem or another ratio, illustrating how the trigonometric ratios and
Pythagoras' theorem work together to fully solve a right-angled triangle.
5. Special (Exact) Angle Values
Certain angles produce exact, non-decimal trigonometric values that appear frequently in examinations
and should be memorised or derived from a 30-60-90 triangle and a 45-45-90 triangle:
θ sin θ cos θ tan θ
0° 0 1 0
30° 1/2 √3/2 1/√3
45° √2/2 √2/2 1
60° √3/2 1/2 √3
90° 1 0 undefined
These values come from two special triangles: an equilateral triangle bisected to give a 30°-60°-90°
triangle with sides in ratio 1 : √3 : 2, and an isosceles right triangle giving a 45°-45°-90° triangle with
sides in ratio 1 : 1 : √2. Beyond 90°, the sign of each ratio depends on the quadrant of the angle (the
CAST rule): all ratios are positive in the first quadrant, only sine in the second, only tangent in the third,
and only cosine in the fourth.
6. Angles of Elevation and Depression
The angle of elevation is the angle measured upward from the horizontal to a point above the observer;
the angle of depression is the angle measured downward from the horizontal to a point below the
observer. These two angles are equal when measured between the same two points, because the
horizontal lines at each point are parallel (alternate angles).
Problems involving elevation and depression are usually solved by sketching a clearly labelled right-
angled triangle showing the horizontal line, the line of sight, and the vertical height, then applying SOH-
CAH-TOA. Where two observations are made from different distances or heights, it may be necessary to
form two equations and solve them simultaneously to find an unknown height or distance.
Worked Example
From a point 40 m from the base of a tower, the angle of elevation of the top of the tower is 35°. Find the
height of the tower.
Solution: tan 35° = height / 40, so height = 40 × tan 35° ≈ 40 × 0.7002 ≈ 28.0 m.
7. Bearings
A bearing gives the direction of one point from another as an angle measured clockwise from north,
always written using three digits (e.g. 073°, 210°). Bearings are commonly combined with the sine and
cosine rules to solve navigation problems involving distances and directions between several points.
A useful related idea is the back bearing: the bearing of point A from point B, given the bearing of B
from A. If the original bearing is less than 180°, add 180° to find the back bearing; if it is 180° or more,
subtract 180°. For example, if the bearing of B from A is 060°, then the bearing of A from B is 060° +
180° = 240°. Bearing problems are often solved by drawing a diagram with north lines at each point,
marking the given angles, and then applying the Sine Rule, Cosine Rule, or basic right-angled
trigonometry as appropriate.
Worked Example
A ship sails from port A on a bearing of 060° for 50 km to point B. Find how far east of A the ship now is.
Solution: the eastward displacement is 50 × sin 60° ≈ 50 × 0.8660 ≈ 43.3 km.
8. The Sine Rule
For any triangle (not just right-angled) with sides a, b, c opposite angles A, B, C respectively, the Sine
Rule states:
a / sin A = b / sin B = c / sin C
The Sine Rule is used when we know either two angles and one side (AAS or ASA), or two sides and an
angle opposite one of them (SSA, the 'ambiguous case', which can sometimes give two possible
triangles).
Worked Example
In triangle ABC, angle A = 40°, angle B = 65°, and side a = 12 cm. Find side b.
Solution: b / sin 65° = 12 / sin 40°, so b = 12 × sin 65° / sin 40° ≈ 12 × 0.9063 / 0.6428 ≈ 16.9 cm.
9. The Cosine Rule
The Cosine Rule generalises the Pythagorean theorem to any triangle and is used when we know all
three sides (SSS) or two sides and the included angle (SAS):
a² = b² + c² − 2bc·cos A
This can be rearranged to find an angle when all three sides are known:
cos A = (b² + c² − a²) / (2bc)
Worked Example
A triangle has sides b = 8 cm, c = 10 cm, and included angle A = 50°. Find side a.
Solution: a² = 8² + 10² − 2(8)(10)cos 50° = 64 + 100 − 160(0.6428) ≈ 61.2, so a ≈ 7.82 cm.
10. Area of a Triangle Using Trigonometry
When two sides and the included angle of a triangle are known, its area can be found without needing
the height:
Area = (1/2) ab sin C
where a and b are two sides and C is the angle between them. This formula is especially useful in
surveying and navigation problems where a height is not directly measurable.
Worked Example
Find the area of a triangle with sides 7 cm and 9 cm and an included angle of 55°.
Solution: Area = (1/2)(7)(9) sin 55° ≈ 31.5 × 0.8192 ≈ 25.8 cm².
11. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
The graphs of y = sin x, y = cos x and y = tan x reveal the periodic (repeating) nature of the trigonometric
functions.
y = sin x: a smooth wave passing through the origin, oscillating between −1 and 1, with period 360° (2π
radians). It rises from 0 at x = 0° to a maximum of 1 at x = 90°, back to 0 at 180°, down to −1 at 270°, and
returns to 0 at 360°.
y = cos x: identical in shape to sine but shifted 90° to the left; it starts at its maximum value of 1 when x
= 0°, crosses zero at 90°, reaches −1 at 180°, and completes the cycle at 360°.
y = tan x: unlike sine and cosine, tangent is not bounded — it increases from 0 without limit as x
approaches 90°, where it is undefined (a vertical asymptote), then reappears from a large negative
value just after 90°. Its period is only 180° (π radians), half that of sine and cosine.
General trigonometric functions of the form y = a sin(bx + c) + d involve four transformations: 'a'
controls the amplitude (height of the wave), 'b' controls the period (period = 360°/b or 2π/b), 'c'
produces a horizontal (phase) shift, and 'd' shifts the whole graph vertically.
12. Compound and Double Angle Formulae
Compound angle formulae express the trigonometric ratio of a sum or difference of two angles in terms
of the ratios of the individual angles:
sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B
tan(A ± B) = (tan A ± tan B) / (1 ∓ tan A tan B)
Setting B = A in the compound formulae produces the double angle formulae, which are extremely
useful for simplifying expressions and solving equations involving 2θ:
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
cos 2A = cos²A − sin²A = 2cos²A − 1 = 1 − 2sin²A
tan 2A = 2 tan A / (1 − tan²A)
These formulae allow angles that are not 'special' to be evaluated exactly when expressed as a sum or
difference of special angles. For example, sin 75° = sin(45° + 30°) = sin45°cos30° + cos45°sin30°, which
can be evaluated exactly using the special-angle table from Section 5.
13. Trigonometric Identities
An identity is an equation that holds true for all valid values of the angle. The most important is the
Pythagorean identity, derived directly from the Pythagorean theorem applied to the unit circle:
sin²θ + cos²θ = 1
Dividing throughout by cos²θ or sin²θ produces two further useful identities:
1 + tan²θ = sec²θ 1 + cot²θ = cosec²θ
Other essential relationships include the quotient identity tan θ = sin θ / cos θ, and the complementary
angle identities sin(90° − θ) = cos θ and cos(90° − θ) = sin θ, which reflect the fact that the two acute
angles in a right-angled triangle always add to 90°.
Identities are used to simplify trigonometric expressions and to prove that two expressions are
equivalent, which is a common examination task. For example, to simplify sin θ · cot θ, rewrite cot θ as
cos θ/sin θ, giving sin θ · (cos θ/sin θ) = cos θ.
As a second example, the expression (1 − cos²θ)/sin θ can be simplified by first replacing 1 − cos²θ with
sin²θ using the Pythagorean identity, giving sin²θ/sin θ, which simplifies to sin θ. Practising this kind of
substitution — recognising when 1 − cos²θ, 1 − sin²θ, sec²θ − 1, or cosec²θ − 1 can be replaced — is one
of the most valuable skills for identity-proving questions.
14. Solving Trigonometric Equations
Solving a trigonometric equation means finding all angles within a given range (commonly 0° to 360°)
that satisfy it. The general approach is to isolate the trigonometric ratio, find the reference (acute)
angle using inverse trigonometric functions, and then use the CAST rule to find every solution within
the required range.
For equations involving tan θ, only one solution typically occurs in each 180° interval, since tangent has
a period of 180°. For quadratic-type trigonometric equations (e.g. 2sin²θ − sinθ − 1 = 0), treat sin θ as
the unknown, factorise or use the quadratic formula, then solve each resulting simple equation
separately.
For example, factorising 2sin²θ − sinθ − 1 = 0 as (2sinθ + 1)(sinθ − 1) = 0 gives sin θ = −1/2 or sin θ = 1.
Solving sin θ = −1/2 for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360° gives a reference angle of 30°, with sine negative in the third and
fourth quadrants, so θ = 210° or θ = 330°; solving sin θ = 1 gives θ = 90°. Combining both results gives
three solutions in total: θ = 90°, 210°, 330°. Always check the given range carefully, since restricting or
extending the interval changes how many solutions are required.
Worked Example
Solve sin θ = 0.5 for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°.
Solution: the reference angle is sin⁻¹(0.5) = 30°. Since sine is positive in the first and second quadrants, θ = 30°
or θ = 180° − 30° = 150°.
15. Summary of Key Points
● Trigonometry studies the relationships between angles and sides of triangles.
● The three primary ratios — sine, cosine and tangent — are defined from a right-angled triangle
using SOH-CAH-TOA.
● Special angles (0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 90°) have exact trigonometric values worth memorising.
● Angles of elevation/depression and bearings apply trigonometric ratios to real-world distance
and direction problems.
● The Sine Rule and Cosine Rule extend trigonometry beyond right-angled triangles to any
triangle.
● The area of a triangle can be found using Area = (1/2)ab sin C when two sides and the included
angle are known.
● The graphs of sine, cosine and tangent are periodic; sine and cosine have period 360°, tangent
has period 180°.
● The Pythagorean identity sin²θ + cos²θ = 1 and its derivatives are central tools for simplifying
expressions and solving equations.
● Trigonometric equations are solved by finding a reference angle and applying the CAST rule to
locate all solutions in the required range.