Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines
(AMN13104)
B Tech. Mechanical (3rd Semester)
Chapter-1: Introduction
by to Fluid Mechanics
Akshoy Ranjan Paul
Associate Professor
Email: arpaul2k@[Link]
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED MECHANICS
MOTI LAL NEHRU NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY 1
ALLAHABAD
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SEQUENCE OF CHAPTER 1: Introduction
Introduction
Objectives
1.1 Fluid Concept
1.2 Units and Dimensions
1.3 Fluid Continuum
1.4 Flow Patterns
1.5 Fluid Density
1.6 Viscosity
1.7 Surface Tension
1.8 Vapour Pressure
Summary
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Introduction
This chapter will begin with several concepts, definition,
terminologies and approaches which should be understood by the
students before continuing reading the rest of this module.
Then, it introduces the student with typical properties of fluid and
their dimensions which are then being used extensively in the next
chapters and units like pressure, velocity, density and viscosity.
Some of these can be used to classify type and characteristic of fluid,
such as whether a fluid is incompressible or not or whether the fluid
is Newtonian or non-Newtonian.
4
Objectives
• At the end of this chapter, you should be able to :
explain the concept of fluid continuity and flow representations
using streamlines, streaklines and pathlines,
Identify and describe typical fluid properties and their units and
dimensions
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Fluid Concept
• Fluid mechanics is a division in applied mechanics related to the
behaviour of liquid or gas which is either in rest or in motion.
• The study related to a fluid in rest or stationary is referred to fluid
static, otherwise it is referred to as fluid dynamic.
• Fluid can be defined as a substance which can deform continuously
when being subjected to shear stress at any magnitude. In other
words, it can flow continuously as a result of shearing action. This
includes any liquid or gas.
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1.1 Fluid Concept
• Thus, with exception to solids, any other matters can be categorised
as fluid. In microscopic point of view, this concept corresponds to
loose or very loose bonding between molecules of liquid or gas,
respectively.
• Examples of typical fluid used in engineering applications are water,
oil and air.
• An analogy of how to understand different bonding in solids and
fluids is depicted in Fig. 1.1
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Fluid Concept
• Thus, with exception to solids, any other matters can be categorised
as fluid. In microscopic point of view, this concept corresponds to
loose or very loose bonding between molecules of liquid or gas,
respectively.
• Examples of typical fluid used in engineering applications are water,
oil and air.
• An analogy of how to understand different bonding in solids and
fluids is depicted in Fig. 1.1
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Fluid Concept
Free surface
k k
(a) Solid (b) Liquid (c) Gas
Figure 1.1 Comparison Between Solids, Liquids and Gases
• For solid, imagine that the molecules can be fictitiously linked to
each other with springs.
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Fluid Concept
In fluid, the molecules can move freely but are constrained through a
traction force called cohesion. This force is interchangeable from
one molecule to another.
For gases, it is very weak which enables the gas to disintegrate and
move away from its container.
For liquids, it is stronger which is sufficient enough to hold the
molecule together and can withstand high compression, which is
suitable for application as hydraulic fluid such as oil. On the surface,
the cohesion forms a resultant force directed into the liquid region
and the combination of cohesion forces between adjacent molecules
from a tensioned membrane known as free surface.
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Units and Dimensions
• The primary quantities which are also referred to as basic
dimensions, such as L for length, T for time, M for mass and Q for
temperature.
• This dimension system is known as the MLT system where it can be
used to provide qualitative description for secondary quantities, or
derived dimensions, such as area (L), velocity (LT-1) and density
(ML-3).
• In some countries, the FLT system is also used, where the quantity F
stands for force.
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Units and Dimensions
• An example is a kinematic equation for the velocity V of a
uniformly accelerated body,
• V = V0 + at
where V0 is the initial velocity, a the acceleration and t the
time interval. In terms for dimensions of the equation, we
can expand that
LT-1 = LT -1 + LT-2 • T
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Fluid Continuum
• Since the fluid flows continuously, any method and technique
developed to analyse flow problems should take into consideration
the continuity of the fluid. There are two types of approaches that
can be used:
1. Eulerian approach — analysis is performed by defining a control
volume to represent fluid domain which allows the fluid to flow across
the volume. This approach is more appropriate to be used in fluid
mechanics.
2. Lagrangian approach — analysis is performed by tracking down all
motion parameters and deformation of a domain as it moves. This
approach is more suitable and widely used for particle and solid
mechanics.
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Concept of continuum
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Fluid Continuum
The fluid behaviour in which its properties are continuous field
variables, either scalar or vector, throughout the control volume is
known as continuum. From this concept, several fluid or flow
definitions can be made as follows:
Steady state flow — A flow is said to be in steady state if its
properties is only a function of position (x,y,z) but not time t:
x,y,z), V = V x,y,z)
An example is the velocity of a steady flow of a river where the upstream and
downstream velocities are different but their values does not change through time.
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Fluid Continuum
• Uniform flow — A flow is said to be uniform if its velocity and all
velocity components is only a function of time t:
• V = V t)
An example is the air flow in a constant diameter duct where the velocity is constant
throughout the length of the duct but can be increased uniformly by increasing the
power of the fan.
• Isotropic fluid — A fluid is said to be isotropic if its density is not a
function of position (x,y,z) but may vary with time t:
t)
An example is the density of a gas in a closed container where the container is
heated. The density is constant inside the container but gradually increases with
time as the temperature increases.
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Density
• Density of a fluid, ,
• Definition: mass per unit volume,
slightly affected by changes in temperature and pressure.
•
• = mass/volume = m/
•
• Units: kg/m3
•
• Typical values:
• Water = 1000 kg/m3; Air = 1.23 kg/m3
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Viscosity
• Viscosity, , is a measure of resistance to fluid flow as a result of
intermolecular cohesion. In other words, viscosity can be seen as
internal friction to fluid motion which can then lead to energy loss.
• Different fluids deform at different rates under the same shear stress.
The ease with which a fluid pours is an indication of its viscosity.
Fluid with a high viscosity such as syrup deforms more slowly than
fluid with a low viscosity such as water. The viscosity is also known
as dynamic viscosity ().
Units: Ns/m2 or kg/m/s
Typical values of :
Water = 1.1410-3 kg/m/s; Air = 1.7810-5 kg/m/s
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VISCOSITY
Viscosity: A property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion
or the “fluidity”.
Drag force: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction. The
magnitude of this force depends, in part, on viscosity
A fluid moving relative to a
body exerts a drag force on
the body, partly because of 19
friction caused by viscosity.
Newton’s Law of Viscosity:
The behavior of a fluid in
laminar flow between two
parallel plates when the upper
plate moves with a constant
velocity.
Shear stress
Shear force
dynamic viscosity
Fluids for which the rate of deformation is kg/m s or N s/m2 or Pa s
proportional to the shear stress are called 1 poise = 0.1 Pa s 20
Newtonian fluids.
Variation of shear stress with the
rate of deformation for Newtonian
The rate of deformation (velocity gradient) of and non-Newtonian fluids (the
a Newtonian fluid is proportional to shear slope of a curve at a point is the
stress, and the constant of proportionality is apparent viscosity of the fluid at
the viscosity. that point).
21
Kinematic viscosity,
m2/s or stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm2/s)
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The viscosity of liquids decreases and the viscosity
of gases increases with temperature.
L length of the cylinder
number of revolutions per unit time
This equation can be used to calculate the viscosity of a fluid
by measuring torque at a specified angular velocity.
23
Therefore, two concentric cylinders can be used as a
viscometer, a device that measures viscosity.
Classification of fluids
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Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
obey refer
Fluid Newton’s law Newtonian fluids
of viscosity
Newton’s’ law of viscosity is given by; Example:
Air
Water
du
(1.1) Oil
Gasoline
dy Alcohol
Kerosene
= shear stress Benzene
= viscosity of fluid Glycerine
du/dy = shear rate, rate of strain or velocity gradient
• The viscosity is a function only of the condition of the fluid, particularly its
temperature.
• The magnitude of the velocity gradient (du/dy) has no effect on the magnitude of .
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Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
Do not obey
Fluid Newton’s law Non- Newtonian
of viscosity fluids
• The viscosity of the non-Newtonian fluid is dependent on the velocity
gradient as well as the condition of the fluid.
Newtonian Fluids
a linear relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient (rate of shear),
the slope is constant
the viscosity is constant
non-Newtonian fluids
slope of the curves for non-Newtonian fluids varies 26
Stress-strain curve for different types of fluid
27
𝑛
𝑑𝑢
=𝐴 +𝐵 7.11
𝑑𝑦
28
29
If the gradient m is constant, the fluid is termed as Newtonian fluid.
Otherwise, it is known as non-Newtonian fluid. Fig. 1.5 shows several
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.
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Kinematic viscosity,
Definition: is the ratio of the viscosity to the density;
/
• will be found to be important in cases in which significant viscous and
gravitational forces exist.
Units: m2/s
Typical values:
Water = 1.14x10-6 m2/s; Air = 1.46x10-5 m2/s;
In general,
viscosity of liquids with temperature, whereas
viscosity of gases with in temperature. 31
Specific Weight
Specific weight of a fluid,
• Definition: weight of the fluid per unit volume
• Arising from the existence of a gravitational force
• The relationship and g can be found using the following:
Since = m/
therefore = g (1.3)
Units: N/m3
Typical values:
Water = 9814 N/m3; Air = 12.07 N/m3
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Specific Gravity
The specific gravity (or relative density) can be defined in two ways:
Definition 1: A ratio of the density of a liquid to the density of
water at standard temperature and pressure (STP)
(20C, 1 atm), or
Definition 2: A ratio of the specific weight of a liquid to the
specific weight of water at standard temperature and pressure
(STP) (20C, 1 atm),
liquid liquid
SG
water @ STP water @ STP
Unit: dimensionless. 33
Surface Tension
• Surface tension coefficient s can be defined as the intensity of
intermolecular traction per unit length along the free surface of a
fluid, and its SI unit is N/m.
• The surface tension effect is caused by unbalanced cohesion forces
at fluid surfaces which produce a downward resultant force which
can physically seen as a membrane.
• The coefficient is inversely proportional to temperature and is also
dependent on the type of the solid interface.
• For example, a drop of water on a glass surface will have a different
coefficient from the similar amount of water on a wood surface.
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Surface Tension
• The effect may be becoming significant for small fluid system such as
liquid level in a capillary, as depicted in Fig. 1.6, where it will decide
whether the interaction form by the fluid and the solid surface is wetted or
non-wetted.
• If the adhesion of fluid molecules to the adjacent solid surface is stronger
than the intermolecular cohesion, the fluid is said to wet on the surface.
Otherwise, it is a non-wetted interaction.
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Surface Tension
The pressure inside a drop of fluid can be calculated using a free-body diagram of a
spherical shape of radius R cut in half, as shown in Fig. 1.7, and the force
developed around the edge of the cut sphere is 2R.
This force must be balance with the difference between the internal pressure pi and
the external pressure pe acting on the circular area of the cut. Thus,
2R = pR2
p = pi –pe =
2
R
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for interior of a liquid cylinder or a cylindrical jet as shown in fig.b
2rL p = 2L
p =2/r
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SURFACE TENSION AND
CAPILLARY EFFECT
• Liquid droplets behave like small balloons
filled with the liquid on a solid surface,
and the surface of the liquid acts like a
stretched elastic membrane under
tension.
• The pulling force that causes this tension
acts parallel to the surface and is due to
the attractive forces between the
molecules of the liquid.
• The magnitude of this force per unit
length is called surface tension (or
coefficient of surface tension) and is
usually expressed in the unit N/m.
• This effect is also called surface energy
[per unit area] and is expressed in the
equivalent unit of N m/m2. 38
Some consequences of surface
tension.
Attractive forces acting on a liquid
molecule at the surface and deep
inside the liquid.
Stretching a liquid film with a U-shaped
wire, and the forces acting on the
movable wire of length b.
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Surface tension: The work done per unit increase in the surface area of the liquid.
The free-body
diagram of half a
droplet or air
bubble and half a
soap bubble.
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Capillary effect: The rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid.
Capillaries: Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels.
The capillary effect is partially responsible for the rise of water to the top of tall trees.
Meniscus: The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube.
The strength of the capillary effect is quantified by Capillary Effect
the contact (or wetting) angle, defined as the angle
that the tangent to the liquid surface makes with
the solid surface at the point of contact.
The meniscus of colored water in a 4-mm-inner-
diameter glass tube. Note that the edge of the
meniscus meets the wall of the capillary tube at
a very small contact angle.
The contact angle for wetting and
nonwetting fluids.
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The capillary rise of water and the
The forces acting on a liquid column
capillary fall of mercury in a small-
that has risen in a tube due to the
diameter glass tube.
capillary effect.
Capillary rise is inversely proportional to the
radius of the tube and density of the liquid. 42
Vapour Pressure
• Vapour pressure is the partial pressure produced by fluid vapour in an
open or a closed container, which reaches its saturated condition or the
transfer of fluid molecules is at equilibrium along its free surface.
• In a closed container, the vapour pressure is solely dependent on
temperature. In a saturated condition, any further reduction in
temperature or atmospheric pressure below its dew point will lead to the
formation of water droplets.
• On the other hand, boiling occurs when the absolute fluid pressure is
reduced until it is lower than the vapour pressure of the fluid at that
temperature.
• For a network of pipes, the pressure at a point can be lower than the
vapour pressure, for example, at the suction section of a pump.
Otherwise, vapour bubbles will start to form and this phenomenon is
termed as cavitation.
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Cavitation and cavitation number:
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No-Slip and No-Temperature-Jump Conditions
When a fluid flow is bounded by a solid surface, molecular
interactions cause the fluid in contact with the surface to
seek momentum and energy equilibrium with that surface.
All liquids essentially, are in equilibrium with the surface
they contact. All gases are too, except under most rarefied
conditions. Excluding rarefied gases, then, all fluids at a
point of contact with a solid take on the velocity and
temperature of that surface.
Vfluid = Vwall
And
Tfluid = Twall
These are called the no-slip and no-temperature-jump
conditions, respectively. They serve as boundary conditions
for analysis of fluid flow past a solid surface.
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Summary
• This chapter has summarized on the aspect below:
Understanding concept of a fluid
Ways to visualise the flows and the continuity nature of the fluid
flow
Fluid properties of density, specific weight, specific gravity and
viscosity were discussed.
a Newtonian fluid against a non-Newtonian fluid, an in-viscid
flow against a viscous flow, and a wetted surface against a non-
wetted surface.
Discussion on the surface tension and vapour pressure
46