SAT MATH

COMPLETE MASTERY GUIDE

Every Topic. Every Trap. Every Word Problem Type.

26 Chapters | All Topics from College Panda | Digital SAT Edition

How to Use This Guide
This document covers every SAT Math topic tested on the Digital SAT. Each chapter includes:
• Theory — formulas, rules, and full concept explanations
• SAT Traps — the exact mistakes the test is designed to make you commit
• Practice Problems — real SAT-style questions including word problems and multi-topic
questions
• Answer Explanations — full reasoning, not just the answer

Study Strategy:
1. Read Theory until you understand the concept, not just memorize it
2. Study the Traps section carefully — this is where most points are lost
3. Attempt each problem before reading the explanation
4. If you got it wrong, identify exactly which trap caught you
5. Return to weak chapters after completing the full book
Chapter 1: Exponents & Radicals

Theory
Laws of Exponents
Rule Example
x^a * x^b = x^(a+b) x^3 * x^4 = x^7
x^a / x^b = x^(a-b) x^7 / x^3 = x^4
(x^a)^b = x^(ab) (x^2)^3 = x^6
x^0 = 1 (x not equal to 0) 7^0 = 1
x^(-a) = 1/x^a 2^(-3) = 1/8
x^(m/n) = nth root of x^m 8^(2/3) = (cube root 8)^2 = 4
(xy)^a = x^a * y^a (2x)^3 = 8x^3
(x/y)^a = x^a / y^a (x/3)^2 = x^2/9

Simplifying Square Roots

• sqrt(ab) = sqrt(a) * sqrt(b) -> sqrt(72) = sqrt(36*2) = 6*sqrt(2)
• sqrt(a/b) = sqrt(a) / sqrt(b)
• To simplify: pull out perfect square factors from under the root

SAT TRAPS
sqrt(a^2 + b^2) is NOT a + b — NEVER split a square root over addition
(x + y)^2 is NOT x^2 + y^2 — always expand: x^2 + 2xy + y^2
x^(-2) means 1/x^2, NOT negative x squared
(-2)^4 = 16, but -2^4 = -16 (the negative is outside the power)
x^(1/2) = sqrt(x), NOT x divided by 2

Practice Problems
Problem 1

If 9^x = 27, what is the value of x?

A) 1
B) 3/2
C) 2
D) 3
Answer: B)
Rewrite with same base: (3^2)^x = 3^3 -> 2x = 3 -> x = 3/2.

Problem 2

A bacteria colony starts at 500 and doubles every 3 hours. How many bacteria are
there after 12 hours?
A) 4,000
B) 6,000
C) 8,000
D) 10,000
Answer: C)
12 hours / 3 hours per doubling = 4 doublings. 500 * 2^4 = 500 * 16 = 8,000. TRAP: 12 is NOT the
exponent. Always divide total time by the period first.

Problem 3

Which expression is equivalent to sqrt(50x^3) for x > 0?

A) 5x*sqrt(2x)
B) 25x*sqrt(2x)
C) 5x^2*sqrt(2)
D) 10x*sqrt(5x)
Answer: A)
sqrt(50x^3) = sqrt(25 * 2 * x^2 * x) = 5x*sqrt(2x). Pull out perfect square parts: 25 and x^2.
Chapter 2: Expressions

Theory
Key Algebraic Identities
Identity Expansion
(a+b)^2 a^2 + 2ab + b^2
(a-b)^2 a^2 - 2ab + b^2
(a+b)(a-b) a^2 - b^2 (difference of squares)
(a+b)(c+d) ac + ad + bc + bd (FOIL)

Factoring Steps
6. Always pull out the GCF first: 6x^2 + 9x = 3x(2x + 3)
7. Check for difference of squares: a^2 - b^2 = (a+b)(a-b)
8. For trinomials x^2+bx+c: find two numbers that multiply to c and add to b
9. For ax^2+bx+c: use AC method or guess-and-check

Fractional Expressions
• To add fractions: find LCD. 1/x + 1/y = (x+y)/(xy)
• To simplify: factor numerator and denominator, then cancel common factors
• To split: (a+b)/c = a/c + b/c (you CAN split the numerator)
SAT TRAPS
c/(a+b) is NOT c/a + c/b — you can NEVER split the denominator
-(x - 3) = -x + 3, NOT -x - 3 (distribute the negative to every term)
(a-b)^2 = a^2 - 2ab + b^2, NOT a^2 - b^2
After canceling factors, the canceled value is EXCLUDED from the domain
Combining, dividing, splitting fractions: always factor first

Practice Problems
Problem 4

Which expression is equivalent to (x^2 - 9)/(x - 3)?

A) x - 3
B) x + 3
C) x^2 - 3
D) (x-3)^2
Answer: B)
Factor numerator as difference of squares: x^2-9 = (x+3)(x-3). Cancel (x-3): result = x+3.

Problem 5

If 2(x+3) - (x-1) = 14, what is x?

A) 6
B) 7
C) 8
D) 9
Answer: B)
2x+6-x+1 = 14 -> x+7 = 14 -> x = 7. TRAP: -(x-1) = -x+1, NOT -x-1.

Problem 6

A rectangle has area x^2+5x+6. Its width is (x+2). What is its length?
A) x+3
B) x+4
C) 2x+5
D) x^2+3
Answer: A)
Factor: x^2+5x+6 = (x+2)(x+3). Length = area/width = x+3. CONNECTED: Expressions + Factoring +
Geometry.
Chapter 3: Manipulating & Solving Equations

Theory
Core Strategy for Any Equation
10. Multiply both sides by LCD to clear all fractions
11. Distribute all parentheses carefully
12. Combine like terms on each side
13. Isolate the variable
14. CHECK your answer in the ORIGINAL equation

Techniques for Isolating Variables

• Variable in denominator: multiply both sides by the denominator
• Variable under square root: isolate the root, then square both sides
• Variable in exponent: make bases equal, then set exponents equal

Extraneous Solutions
When you square both sides OR multiply by a variable expression, you may create false
(extraneous) solutions. Always substitute your answer back into the ORIGINAL equation to
verify.

Matching Terms (Coefficient Comparison)

If two expressions are equal for ALL values of x, then matching coefficients must be equal.
Example: If 2(x+k) = kx+8 for all x, then: coefficient of x: 2 = k, and constant: 2k = 8 -> k = 4.
Both must hold simultaneously.

SAT TRAPS
Dividing both sides by a variable loses solutions where that variable equals zero
Squaring both sides creates extraneous solutions — always verify
Multiplying by (x-a) makes x=a automatically suspect — check it
When the problem has no solution: same x-coefficient, different constants
When checking, substitute into the ORIGINAL (not a simplified version)

Practice Problems
Problem 7
If sqrt(2x+1) = x-1, which of the following is the solution set?
A) {0, 4}
B) {4} only
C) {0} only
D) No solution
Answer: B)
Square both sides: 2x+1 = x^2-2x+1 -> x^2-4x = 0 -> x(x-4) = 0 -> x=0 or x=4. Check x=0: sqrt(1) = 0-
1 = -1? NO. Extraneous. Only x=4 works.

Problem 8

If (2x-3)/5 - (x+1)/3 = 1, what is x?

A) 19
B) 24
C) 29
D) 34
Answer: C)
Multiply ALL terms by 15: 3(2x-3) - 5(x+1) = 15 -> 6x-9-5x-5 = 15 -> x = 29. TRAP: the 1 on the right
also gets multiplied by 15.

Problem 9

For what value of k does 3x + k = 3(x+4) have no solution?

A) 4
B) 8
C) 12
D) Any k not equal to 12
Answer: D)
3x+k = 3x+12. Subtract 3x: k = 12. If k=12: infinitely many solutions. If k is anything else: no solution.
Chapter 4: Other Types of Equation Questions

Theory
Infinite vs. No Solutions
Situation What It Means
Same x-coefficient AND same constant Infinitely many solutions (identical lines)
Same x-coefficient BUT different constants No solutions (parallel lines)
Different x-coefficients Exactly one solution

Absolute Value Equations

• |x| = 5 means x = 5 OR x = -5
• |x - 3| = 7 means x - 3 = 7 OR x - 3 = -7
• |x| < 5 means -5 < x < 5 (AND — values between)
• |x| > 5 means x < -5 OR x > 5 (OR — values outside)
• |expression| = negative number -> NO SOLUTION (absolute value is always >= 0)

Finding Number of Solutions

For the equation ax + b = cx + d:
• Solve normally. If you get a valid x value: one solution
• If you get 0 = 0 (always true): infinitely many solutions
• If you get 0 = 5 (never true): no solutions

SAT TRAPS
Absolute value is ALWAYS >= 0. If |x| = -3, the answer is no solution, not x = -3
Do NOT forget the negative case when solving |expression| = positive number
For infinite solutions, BOTH the x-coefficient AND the constant must match
|a + b| is NOT |a| + |b| in general
Absolute value inequalities: < means AND (between); > means OR (outside)

Practice Problems
Problem 10

How many solutions does |2x - 3| = -1 have?

A) 0
B) 1
C) 2
D) Infinitely many
Answer: A)
Absolute value is always >= 0 and can NEVER equal -1. Zero solutions. This is one of the most
commonly missed SAT questions.

Problem 11

A factory produces bolts. Acceptable length L (mm) satisfies |L - 50| <= 2. What is the
acceptable range?
A) L <= 48
B) 48 <= L <= 52
C) L >= 52
D) 47 <= L <= 53
Answer: B)
|L-50| <= 2 -> -2 <= L-50 <= 2 -> 48 <= L <= 52. Real-world absolute value: 'acceptable range' always
signals an absolute value inequality.

Problem 12

For what value of k does kx + 3 = kx - 7 have infinitely many solutions?

A) 0
B) 1
C) No value of k
D) All values of k
Answer: C)
Subtracting kx from both sides: 3 = -7. This is always false regardless of k. So NO value of k gives
infinite solutions.
Chapter 5: Functions

Theory
Function Notation
• f(x) = the output when the input is x
• f(3) = substitute x = 3 everywhere in the formula
• f(x+1) = substitute (x+1) for EVERY x in the formula — NOT f(x)+1
• f(g(x)) = composite: apply g first, then apply f to that result

Key Vocabulary
Term Meaning
Zero / Root x-value where f(x) = 0 (x-intercept on graph)
Undefined x where denominator = 0 or sqrt of negative
number
Domain All valid input (x) values
Range All possible output (y) values
f(g(x)) Composite function: apply g first, then f
f(x) = g(x) Where the two functions intersect on a graph

When a Function Is Undefined

• Rational function: undefined where denominator = 0
• Square root function: undefined where expression inside < 0
• Both: exclude values making denominator 0 OR radicand negative

Zeros, Roots, x-intercepts, and Factors

These are all the SAME thing expressed differently:
• If f(r) = 0, then r is a zero/root, (r, 0) is an x-intercept, and (x - r) is a factor of f(x)
• Example: f(x) = (x-2)(x+5) has zeros at x=2 and x=-5, factors (x-2) and (x+5)

SAT TRAPS
f(x+1) is NOT f(x)+1 — substitute the whole (x+1) for every x
f(g(x)) is NOT f(x) times g(x) — composite is not multiplication
f(g(x)) is NOT the same as g(f(x)) — order matters
 Zero of f means f(x) = 0, NOT x = 0
Points as function inputs: f(a) = b means the point (a, b) is on the graph

Practice Problems
Problem 13

If f(x) = x^2 - 4 and g(x) = x + 2, what is f(g(x))?

A) x^2 + 4x
B) x^2 + 4x + 4
C) x^2 - 4x
D) x^2 + 4x - 4
Answer: A)
f(g(x)) = f(x+2) = (x+2)^2 - 4 = x^2+4x+4-4 = x^2+4x. Work inside-out.

Problem 14

A company profit P (thousands) is P(x) = -x^2+6x-5, where x = years. In which years

does the company break even?
A) Years 1 and 5
B) Years 2 and 4
C) Year 3 only
D) Years 0 and 6
Answer: A)
Set P(x)=0: -x^2+6x-5=0 -> x^2-6x+5=0 -> (x-1)(x-5)=0 -> x=1 or x=5. Break even = zeros of P(x).
CONNECTED: Functions + Quadratics + Word Problems.

Problem 15

For what value of x is f(x) = (2x+1)/(x-3) undefined?

A) -1/2
B) 0
C) 3
D) -3
Answer: C)
Denominator = 0 when x-3 = 0, so x = 3. At x=3 the function has a vertical asymptote.
Chapter 6 & 7: Lines, Linear Relationships & Models

Theory
Equations of Lines
Form When to Use
y = mx + b (slope-intercept) When slope and y-intercept are known
y - y1 = m(x - x1) (point-slope) When slope and one point are known
Ax + By = C (standard form) Slope = -A/B y-intercept = C/B

• Slope = (y2 - y1) / (x2 - x1) = rise / run

• To find x-intercept: set y = 0 and solve
• To find y-intercept: set x = 0 and solve

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

• Parallel lines: SAME slope, DIFFERENT y-intercept
• Perpendicular lines: slopes are NEGATIVE RECIPROCALS (m2 = -1/m1)
• Horizontal line: y = k (slope = 0)
• Vertical line: x = k (slope = UNDEFINED — not zero)

Interpreting Linear Models

In C = 15h + 50 (a real-world linear equation):
• 15 = slope = rate of change = cost per hour
• 50 = y-intercept = starting value = flat fee when h = 0
• The slope always tells you the per-unit change
• The y-intercept always tells you the initial or fixed value

SAT TRAPS
Slope formula: (y2-y1)/(x2-x1) — do NOT put x values in the numerator
Perpendicular slope = -1/m, NOT just -m (take the negative reciprocal)
Standard form Ax+By=C has slope = -A/B (negative A over B, not A/B)
Parallel lines have equal slopes but DIFFERENT y-intercepts
Vertical line has UNDEFINED slope, NOT zero slope (zero slope = horizontal)
If asked what '15' means in C=15h+50, say 'cost per hour', not 'the number 15'
Practice Problems
Problem 16

A taxi charges $3 flat fee plus $2 per mile. A second taxi charges $1 plus $3 per mile.
After how many miles do they cost the same?
A) 1 mile
B) 2 miles
C) 3 miles
D) 4 miles
Answer: B)
Set equal: 3+2x = 1+3x -> 2 = x. At 2 miles both cost $7. CONNECTED: Linear equations + Word
problem.

Problem 17

Line k passes through (1,3) and (4,9). Line m is perpendicular to k and passes through
(2,0). What is the y-intercept of m?
A) -1
B) 0
C) 1
D) 2
Answer: C)
Slope of k = (9-3)/(4-1) = 2. Perpendicular slope = -1/2. Line m: y = -1/2(x-2) + 0 = -x/2 + 1. Y-intercept
= 1.

Problem 18

In the equation P = -3t + 120, P is pressure in psi and t is time in minutes. What does -
3 represent?
A) The initial pressure
B) The pressure decreases by 3 psi per minute
C) The pressure after 3 minutes
D) The total decrease in pressure
Answer: B)
Slope = rate of change = -3 means pressure DECREASES by 3 psi every minute. The y-intercept 120
is the initial pressure.
Chapter 8: Percent

Theory
Core Percent Formulas
Formula Example
x% of y = (x/100) * y 30% of 80 = 0.30 * 80 = 24
Percent change = (New-Old)/Old * 100% (90-75)/75 * 100 = 20% increase
Increase by r%: multiply by (1 + r/100) Increase 25%: multiply by 1.25
Decrease by r%: multiply by (1 - r/100) Decrease 20%: multiply by 0.80
What % of A is B? -> B/A * 100 What % of 60 is 15? -> 15/60*100 = 25%
B is r% of what? -> B / (r/100) 45 is 30% of what? -> 45/0.30 = 150

Successive Percent Changes — Multiply Factors

Apply percent changes by MULTIPLYING — never adding percentages.
• Price up 10% then down 20%: * 1.10 * 0.80 = * 0.88 (net 12% decrease)
• Price up 20% then down 20%: * 1.20 * 0.80 = * 0.96 (net 4% decrease — NOT zero)

SAT TRAPS
Increasing by 20% then decreasing by 20% does NOT return to original (net 4% loss)
Percent change uses ORIGINAL value in denominator, NOT the new value
Percent of a percent: convert BOTH to decimals before multiplying
'25% more than x' = 1.25x but '25% of x' = 0.25x (very different!)
Markup/markdown problems: always identify the original base before calculating

Practice Problems
Problem 19

A student scored 75 on the first test and 90 on the second. What is the percent
increase?
A) 15%
B) 16.7%
C) 20%
D) 25%
Answer: C)
(90-75)/75 * 100 = 20%. TRAP: Many divide by 90 (new value) getting 16.7%. Always divide by the
ORIGINAL (old) value.

Problem 20

A jacket costs $80, marked up 25%, then discounted 20%. What is the final price?
A) $76.00
B) $78.00
C) $80.00
D) $84.00
Answer: C)
$80 * 1.25 * 0.80 = $80 * 1.00 = $80. The factors cancel here exactly, but always show your work.

Problem 21

A store's profit was $12,000 last year. It increased by 15% this year, then decreased by
$500 due to a one-time expense. What is the final profit?
A) $13,300
B) $13,500
C) $13,800
D) $14,300
Answer: A)
$12,000 * 1.15 = $13,800. Then $13,800 - $500 = $13,300. CONNECTED: Percent + arithmetic
subtraction in one problem.
Chapter 9: Exponential vs. Linear Growth

Theory
Identifying Linear vs. Exponential
Clue in Problem Model Type
Increases by $200 each year (fixed amount) LINEAR: y = 200x + b
Increases by 5% per year (fixed percent) EXPONENTIAL: y = a(1.05)^x
Doubles every 3 years EXPONENTIAL: y = a(2)^(x/3)
Half-life of 5 years EXPONENTIAL: y = a(0.5)^(x/5)
Loses 10 units per month (fixed amount) LINEAR: y = -10x + b
Loses 10% per month (fixed percent) EXPONENTIAL: y = a(0.90)^x

Exponential Growth and Decay Formula

y = a(1 + r)^t (growth)
y = a(1 - r)^t (decay)
• a = initial value
• r = rate per period (as a decimal)
• t = number of time periods

Compound Interest
A = P(1 + r/n)^(nt)
• P = principal (initial amount)
• r = annual interest rate (as decimal)
• n = number of times compounded per year (quarterly=4, monthly=12, daily=365)
• t = number of years

Linear vs. Exponential: Data Test

• LINEAR: differences between consecutive y-values are CONSTANT
• EXPONENTIAL: RATIOS between consecutive y-values are constant

SAT TRAPS
Fixed amount per period = LINEAR. Fixed percentage per period = EXPONENTIAL
Doubling is exponential (base 2), not adding the same amount each time
 For half-life use base 1/2, NOT simple subtraction
Compound interest quarterly: rate becomes r/4, periods become 4t
Linear growth rate = slope. Exponential growth rate = base of the power

Practice Problems
Problem 22

A radioactive substance has a half-life of 5 years. Starting with 200g, how much
remains after 15 years?
A) 12.5g
B) 25g
C) 50g
D) 100g
Answer: B)
15 years = 3 half-lives. 200 * (1/2)^3 = 200/8 = 25g.

Problem 23

$5,000 is invested at 6% annual interest, compounded monthly. Which expression

gives the amount after 3 years?
A) 5000(1.06)^3
B) 5000(1.005)^36
C) 5000(1.06)^36
D) 5000(0.005)^36
Answer: B)
Monthly rate = 0.06/12 = 0.005. Total periods = 3*12 = 36. A = 5000(1.005)^36.
Chapter 10: Rates, Conversions & Ratios

Theory
Unit Conversions — Chain Method
Multiply by conversion fractions that cancel the unwanted units:
60 miles/hour * (5280 feet/1 mile) * (1 hour/3600 sec) = 88 feet/second

Area and Volume Conversions

• 1 foot = 12 inches -> 1 foot^2 = 144 inches^2 (SQUARE the conversion factor)
• 1 foot = 12 inches -> 1 foot^3 = 1728 inches^3 (CUBE the conversion factor)
• NEVER just multiply the length conversion for area or volume

Ratios
• Ratio a:b means for every a of one thing, there are b of another
• Total parts = a + b
• If boys:girls = 3:5 and total = 40: boys = (3/8)*40 = 15, girls = (5/8)*40 = 25
• 'The ratio of x to y is 3:5' means x/y = 3/5, NOT x=3 and y=5

Average Rate of Change

Average rate of change = (change in output)/(change in input) = (y2-y1)/(x2-x1)
This is the SLOPE between two points. For linear functions it is constant. For non-linear
functions it varies by interval.

SAT TRAPS
Area conversions require SQUARING the length conversion factor
Volume conversions require CUBING the length conversion factor
Average speed = total distance / total time — NOT (speed1 + speed2)/2
Ratio a:b does NOT mean a and b are those exact values
Speed = distance/time, NOT time/distance

Practice Problems
Problem 24

A car travels 120 miles in 2 hours, then 90 miles in 3 hours. What is the average speed
for the whole trip?
A) 42 mph
B) 45 mph
C) 48 mph
D) 52.5 mph
Answer: A)
Total distance = 210 miles. Total time = 5 hours. Average speed = 210/5 = 42 mph. TRAP: (60+30)/2
= 45 is WRONG. Never average speeds.

Problem 25

A field is 3 acres. If 1 acre = 43,560 square feet and 1 yard = 3 feet, what is the field's
area in square yards?
A) 14,520
B) 43,560
C) 58,080
D) 130,680
Answer: A)
3 * 43,560 = 130,680 sq ft. Convert: 1 yd^2 = 9 ft^2. So 130,680/9 = 14,520 sq yd. TRAP: Divide by 9,
not 3 (must square the conversion).

Problem 26

In a class, the ratio of boys to girls is 3:4. If there are 21 boys, how many students are
there total?
A) 28
B) 35
C) 42
D) 49
Answer: D)
3 parts = 21 boys -> 1 part = 7. Total parts = 3+4 = 7. Total students = 7*7 = 49.
Chapter 11: Word Problems

Theory
Translation Guide — English to Algebra
English Phrase Algebraic Meaning
is / are / equals / gives =
sum of x and y x+y
difference of x and y x-y
product of x and y x*y
quotient of x and y x/y
3 more than x x+3
3 less than x x - 3 (NOT 3 - x)
x times as much as y x*y
of (with percent or fraction) multiply
at least / no less than >= (greater than or equal)
at most / no more than <= (less than or equal)

Classic Word Problem Types

• MIXTURE: (amount1)(concentration1) + (amount2)(concentration2) = (total)(total conc)
• DISTANCE: distance = rate * time — set up a table: Rate | Time | Distance
• WORK: 1/A + 1/B = 1/T (A and B are times to finish alone, T = time together)
• AGE: define current age as variable, use +/- for past/future
• CONSECUTIVE INTEGERS: n, n+1, n+2 (even/odd: n, n+2, n+4)

5-Step Strategy
15. Read the WHOLE problem before writing anything
16. Identify exactly what the variable represents (be specific)
17. Write the equation
18. Solve
19. Check: does the answer make sense? Did you answer what was ASKED?

SAT TRAPS
'3 less than x' = x-3, NOT 3-x (one of the most common algebra translation errors)
 The SAT often asks for a SPECIFIC value — make sure you solved for THAT, not a side variable
Mixture problems: track the pure SUBSTANCE amount, not just the volume
Work problems: combine RATES (1/time), not times themselves
Average problems: use Sum = Mean * Count, then solve

Practice Problems
Problem 27

The sum of three consecutive even integers is 78. What is the largest of the three?
A) 24
B) 26
C) 28
D) 30
Answer: C)
Let integers be n, n+2, n+4. Sum: 3n+6=78 -> n=24. Largest = n+4 = 28. TRAP: Many stop at n=24
instead of finding n+4.

Problem 28

Tank A has 30% salt solution and Tank B has 10% salt solution. How many liters of A
must be mixed with 60 liters of B to get a 20% solution?
A) 30
B) 40
C) 60
D) 80
Answer: C)
0.30x + 0.10(60) = 0.20(x+60) -> 0.30x+6 = 0.20x+12 -> 0.10x = 6 -> x = 60.

Problem 29

Worker A can finish a job in 4 hours. Worker B can finish the same job in 6 hours.
How long does it take them working together?
A) 2 hrs
B) 2.4 hrs
C) 3 hrs
D) 5 hrs
Answer: B)
1/4 + 1/6 = 1/T -> 3/12 + 2/12 = 5/12 = 1/T -> T = 12/5 = 2.4 hours. TRAP: Do NOT add the times
(4+6=10 is wrong).
Chapter 12: Quadratic Equations

Theory
Three Methods to Solve ax^2 + bx + c = 0
• FACTORING: (x-r)(x-s) = 0 -> x = r or x = s (fastest when it works)
• QUADRATIC FORMULA: x = [-b +/- sqrt(b^2-4ac)] / (2a) (always works)
• COMPLETING THE SQUARE: x^2+6x = (x+3)^2 - 9 (needed for vertex form)

The Discriminant — b^2 - 4ac

Discriminant Value Number of Real Solutions
b^2 - 4ac > 0 Two distinct real solutions
b^2 - 4ac = 0 One real solution (repeated/double root)
b^2 - 4ac < 0 No real solutions (parabola doesn't cross x-
axis)

Sum and Product of Roots

For ax^2 + bx + c = 0 with roots r and s:
• Sum of roots: r + s = -b/a
• Product of roots: r * s = c/a
SAT uses this to ask for r+s or r*s WITHOUT requiring you to solve the equation.

Completing the Square

To convert x^2 + 6x + 5 = 0 to vertex form:
20. Move constant: x^2 + 6x = -5
21. Add (b/2)^2 = 9 to both sides: x^2+6x+9 = 4
22. Factor left side: (x+3)^2 = 4
23. Solve: x+3 = +/-2 -> x = -1 or x = -5

SAT TRAPS
In vertex form y=a(x-h)^2+k, vertex is at (h,k) where h has OPPOSITE sign
(x-3)^2 has vertex at x = +3, NOT x = -3
Sum of roots = -b/a (note the NEGATIVE before b)
Discriminant < 0 means no REAL solutions (the equation has complex solutions, SAT ignores
these)
 The quadratic formula gives BOTH solutions using + and -

Practice Problems
Problem 30

If r and s are solutions to x^2 - 7x + 12 = 0, what is r^2 + s^2?

A) 13
B) 25
C) 37
D) 49
Answer: B)
Sum r+s=7, Product rs=12. Use identity: r^2+s^2 = (r+s)^2 - 2rs = 49-24 = 25. Never needed to find r
and s individually.

Problem 31

A ball's height (feet) after t seconds: h = -16t^2 + 48t + 5. What is the maximum
height?
A) 36 ft
B) 41 ft
C) 53 ft
D) 64 ft
Answer: B)
Max at vertex: t = -48/(2*-16) = 1.5. h = -16(2.25)+48(1.5)+5 = -36+72+5 = 41 ft.

Problem 32

For what values of k does x^2 + 4x + k = 0 have no real solutions?

A) k < 4
B) k > 4
C) k = 4
D) k < -4
Answer: B)
Discriminant < 0: 16 - 4k < 0 -> 4k > 16 -> k > 4.
Chapter 13: Systems of Equations

Theory
Substitution Method
Best when one variable is already isolated:
24. Solve one equation for one variable
25. Substitute that expression into the other equation
26. Solve for the remaining variable
27. Substitute back to find the first variable

Elimination Method
Best when coefficients can be matched:
28. Multiply one or both equations to match a coefficient
29. Add or subtract equations to eliminate that variable
30. Solve for the remaining variable

Number of Solutions
Graph Algebra Condition
Two lines intersect at one point One solution — different slopes
Two parallel lines (no intersection) No solution — same slope, different intercept
Two identical lines Infinitely many — equations are multiples of
each other

Non-Linear Systems (Line + Parabola)

Substitute the linear equation into the quadratic, then use the discriminant:
• b^2-4ac > 0: two intersection points
• b^2-4ac = 0: one intersection (tangent)
• b^2-4ac < 0: no intersection

SAT TRAPS
In elimination: multiply the ENTIRE equation, including the constant on the right side
After finding x, always substitute back to find y
SAT often asks for x+y or 2x-y rather than x and y separately — try manipulating equations
directly
 For infinite solutions: ALL coefficient ratios must match (x, y, and constant)
When adding/subtracting equations, align like terms carefully

Practice Problems
Problem 33

If 2x + y = 10 and x - y = 2, what is the value of x + y?

A) 6
B) 8
C) 10
D) 12
Answer: A)
Add equations: 3x=12 -> x=4. Then y=10-8=2. x+y=6. TRICK: You could also find x+y directly without
solving both variables separately.

Problem 34

Two friends together earn $840/week. One earns $120 more than the other. How much
does the higher earner make?
A) $360
B) $420
C) $480
D) $540
Answer: C)
x+y=840 and x=y+120. Substitute: y+120+y=840 -> 2y=720 -> y=360. Higher earner:
x=360+120=$480.

Problem 35

The line y=3 intersects the parabola y=x^2-1 at how many points?
A) 0
B) 1
C) 2
D) Cannot be determined
Answer: C)
Set equal: x^2-1=3 -> x^2=4 -> x=+/-2. Two intersection points: (2,3) and (-2,3).
Chapter 14: Inequalities

Theory
Solving Inequalities
Same rules as equations EXCEPT: multiply or divide by a NEGATIVE number -> FLIP the
inequality sign.
• -2x > 8 -> x < -4 (divided by -2, sign flipped)
• Adding or subtracting: sign does NOT flip
• Multiplying/dividing by positive: sign does NOT flip

Compound Inequalities
• AND: both conditions must be true -> intersection -> a < x < b
• OR: at least one condition true -> union -> x < a OR x > b
To solve 1 < 2x - 3 < 9: add 3 to all parts: 4 < 2x < 12 -> 2 < x < 6

Graphs of Inequalities
• y > mx+b: dashed line, shade ABOVE
• y >= mx+b: solid line, shade ABOVE
• y < mx+b: dashed line, shade BELOW
• System of inequalities: solution region is the OVERLAP of both shaded areas

Minimum and Maximum Word Problems

Phrase Inequality
at least / no less than / minimum >=
at most / no more than / maximum <=
more than / exceeds >
less than / fewer than <
between a and b (inclusive) a <= x <= b

SAT TRAPS
Multiplying or dividing by a NEGATIVE number FLIPS the inequality sign
'Between a and b' sometimes means strictly between (endpoints not included) — read carefully
In a system of inequalities, the solution is the OVERLAP (intersection) of shaded regions
 If flipping the whole compound inequality: if a < x, then -a > -x
Maximum VALUE satisfying x <= 6 is 6, not 5 or 7

Practice Problems
Problem 36

If -3x + 4 > 13, which must be true?

A) x > -3
B) x < -3
C) x > 3
D) x < 3
Answer: B)
-3x > 9 -> x < -3. Divided by -3, so sign FLIPS.

Problem 37

A student needs to earn at least 360 points total across 4 tests. She scored 85, 88, and
91 on the first three. What is the minimum score she needs on the fourth test?
A) 93
B) 96
C) 99
D) 101
Answer: B)
85+88+91 = 264. She needs 360-264 = 96 on the fourth test. 'At least' means >=.

Problem 38

Which of the following is in the solution set of the system: y > 2x-1 and y <= -x+5?
A) (3, 2)
B) (0, 0)
C) (1, 3)
D) (4, 1)
Answer: C)
Test (1,3): y>2(1)-1 -> 3>1 (YES). y<=-1+5 -> 3<=4 (YES). Both satisfied. This is the solution.
Chapter 15: Function Transformations

Theory
Transformation Rules — Starting from y = f(x)
Transformation Effect on Graph
y = f(x) + k Shift UP by k units
y = f(x) - k Shift DOWN by k units
y = f(x - h) Shift RIGHT by h units (COUNTER-
INTUITIVE)
y = f(x + h) Shift LEFT by h units (COUNTER-INTUITIVE)
y = -f(x) Reflect over the x-axis
y = f(-x) Reflect over the y-axis
y = k*f(x) (k>1) Vertical STRETCH by factor k
y = f(kx) (k>1) Horizontal COMPRESSION by factor k

The Most Important Rule

f(x - h) shifts the graph to the RIGHT (not left). This is the single most tested transformation trap.
Memory trick: the sign INSIDE the parentheses is the OPPOSITE of the direction of shift.
Why? f(x-3) = 0 when x-3 = 0, meaning when x = +3 (to the right of origin).

How Transformations Affect Points

If (a, b) is on y = f(x), then:
• y = f(x-2)+5 passes through (a+2, b+5) — x shifts right 2, y shifts up 5
• y = -f(x)+3 passes through (a, -b+3) — y reflects then shifts up 3

SAT TRAPS
f(x-h) shifts RIGHT by h — the sign inside is OPPOSITE of the direction (most tested trap)
f(x)+k shifts UP, but f(x+k) shifts LEFT — inside vs. outside matters
-f(x) reflects over x-axis. f(-x) reflects over y-axis. These are different.
Vertical stretch multiplies OUTPUTS. Horizontal compression multiplies INPUTS.
Combined transformations: do horizontal first, then vertical when applying to a point
Practice Problems
Problem 39

The graph of y=f(x) passes through (3,7). The graph of y=f(x-2)+5 passes through
which point?
A) (1, 2)
B) (1, 12)
C) (5, 2)
D) (5, 12)
Answer: D)
f(x-2) shifts right 2: x becomes 3+2=5. +5 shifts up: y becomes 7+5=12. New point: (5, 12).

Problem 40

If f(x) = x^2, which function has its vertex at (3, -4)?

A) f(x) = (x+3)^2-4
B) f(x) = (x-3)^2-4
C) f(x) = (x-3)^2+4
D) f(x) = -(x-3)^2-4
Answer: B)
Vertex at (h,k)=(3,-4): y=(x-3)^2-4. TRAP: (x-3) means shifted RIGHT to x=3, not left.

Problem 41

The function g(x) = f(2x) - 3. If f(4) = 10, what is g(2)?

A) 7
B) 10
C) 17
D) 20
Answer: A)
g(2) = f(2*2) - 3 = f(4) - 3 = 10 - 3 = 7.
Chapter 16: Quadratic Functions

Theory
Three Forms of a Quadratic Function
Form What It Reveals Directly
Standard: y = ax^2 + bx + c y-intercept = c Vertex x = -b/(2a)
Vertex: y = a(x-h)^2 + k Vertex = (h, k) Axis of symmetry: x = h
Factored: y = a(x-r)(x-s) x-intercepts (roots) = r and s

Properties of Parabolas
• If a > 0: parabola opens UP (minimum at vertex)
• If a < 0: parabola opens DOWN (maximum at vertex)
• Axis of symmetry: x = -b/(2a) or x = (r+s)/2 (midpoint of roots)
• The vertex x-coordinate is ALWAYS the axis of symmetry

The Discriminant for Quadratic Functions

b^2 - 4ac tells you how many times the parabola crosses the x-axis:
• > 0: crosses twice (two x-intercepts)
• = 0: touches once (vertex on x-axis)
• < 0: never crosses (entirely above or below x-axis)

SAT TRAPS
In vertex form y=a(x-h)^2+k, vertex is (h,k) where h is OPPOSITE sign to what appears
Axis of symmetry is x = -b/(2a), NOT x = b/(2a)
The vertex y-coordinate requires substituting back into the equation
Factored form y=a(x-r)(x-s): the 'a' changes width/direction but roots stay at r and s
D < 0 means no REAL roots, not that the function has no values

Practice Problems
Problem 42

The parabola y = x^2 - 6x + k has its vertex on the x-axis. What is k?

A) 3
B) 6
C) 9
D) 12
Answer: C)
Vertex on x-axis means discriminant = 0. 36 - 4k = 0 -> k = 9. Or: vertex x = 3, y = 9-18+k = 0 -> k = 9.

Problem 43

A quadratic function has x-intercepts at x=-2 and x=6. What is the x-coordinate of the
vertex?
A) 2
B) 3
C) 4
D) 8
Answer: A)
Vertex x = midpoint of roots = (-2+6)/2 = 4/2 = 2.

Problem 44

Which of the following quadratic functions has no real zeros?

A) y = x^2 - 5x + 6
B) y = x^2 + 2x + 1
C) y = x^2 - 3x + 5
D) y = x^2 - 4
Answer: C)
Check discriminants. C: b^2-4ac = 9-20 = -11 < 0. No real zeros.
Chapter 17: Angles

Theory
Basic Angle Relationships
Relationship Rule
Vertical angles Equal (formed by two intersecting lines)
Supplementary angles Sum = 180 degrees (on a straight line)
Complementary angles Sum = 90 degrees
Linear pair Supplementary (adjacent on a straight line)
Exterior angle of triangle = Sum of the two non-adjacent interior angles

Parallel Lines Cut by a Transversal

• Corresponding angles: EQUAL (same position on each parallel line)
• Alternate interior angles: EQUAL (inside, opposite sides of transversal)
• Alternate exterior angles: EQUAL (outside, opposite sides)
• Co-interior (same-side interior) angles: SUPPLEMENTARY (sum = 180 degrees)
TRICK: When parallel lines are cut by a transversal, any two angles formed are either EQUAL
or SUPPLEMENTARY.

Polygons
• Sum of interior angles of n-sided polygon = (n-2) * 180 degrees
• Triangle: 180 deg | Quadrilateral: 360 deg | Pentagon: 540 deg | Hexagon: 720
deg
• Each interior angle of a REGULAR polygon = (n-2)*180/n
• Sum of EXTERIOR angles of ANY convex polygon = 360 degrees (always)

SAT TRAPS
Exterior angle of a triangle equals SUM of the two non-adjacent interior angles (not 180 minus
one angle)
Co-interior angles are SUPPLEMENTARY (add to 180), NOT equal
Sum of exterior angles = 360 degrees for ANY polygon, regardless of number of sides
Do not confuse interior and exterior angles of a regular polygon
Vertical angles are equal, but adjacent angles (forming a line) are supplementary
Practice Problems
Problem 45

In a triangle, one angle is 50 degrees and an exterior angle at the third vertex is 110
degrees. What is the second interior angle?
A) 40 degrees
B) 50 degrees
C) 60 degrees
D) 70 degrees
Answer: C)
Exterior angle = sum of non-adjacent interior angles: 110 = 50 + x -> x = 60 degrees.

Problem 46

Two parallel lines are cut by a transversal. One angle is (3x+15) degrees and its co-
interior angle is (x+25) degrees. What is x?
A) 30
B) 35
C) 40
D) 45
Answer: B)
Co-interior angles are supplementary: (3x+15)+(x+25)=180 -> 4x+40=180 -> x=35.

Problem 47

A regular hexagon has how many degrees in each interior angle?

A) 108 degrees
B) 120 degrees
C) 135 degrees
D) 150 degrees
Answer: B)
Hexagon: (6-2)*180 = 720 degrees total. Each interior angle = 720/6 = 120 degrees.
Chapter 18: Triangles

Theory
Triangle Basics
• Area = (1/2) * base * height (height must be PERPENDICULAR to the base)
• Triangle inequality: sum of ANY two sides must be GREATER than the third side
• Isosceles: two equal sides -> two equal BASE angles
• Equilateral: all sides equal -> all angles = 60 degrees

Special Right Triangles

Triangle Side Ratios
30-60-90 short leg : long leg : hypotenuse = x : x*sqrt(3)
: 2x
45-45-90 leg : leg : hypotenuse = x : x : x*sqrt(2)

Pythagorean Triples — Memorize

Triple Common Multiples
3-4-5 6-8-10, 9-12-15, 12-16-20
5 - 12 - 13 10-24-26
8 - 15 - 17
7 - 24 - 25

Similar Triangles
• AA (Angle-Angle): two pairs of equal angles -> triangles are similar
• SAS Similarity: two sides proportional and included angle equal
• SSS Similarity: all three sides proportional
• If similarity ratio = k: sides scale by k, perimeter scales by k, area scales by k^2

SAT TRAPS
Height must be PERPENDICULAR to base — slant height gives wrong area
In 30-60-90: short leg is opposite 30 degrees, hypotenuse is 2x (opposite 90)
Similar triangles have PROPORTIONAL sides (not equal) and EQUAL angles
Area ratio = (similarity ratio)^2 — always square the linear ratio
 Triangle inequality: a+b > c for ALL combinations of sides, not just one

Practice Problems
Problem 48

Triangle ABC is similar to triangle DEF. AC=6, DF=9, and area of ABC is 24. What is
the area of DEF?
A) 36
B) 48
C) 54
D) 72
Answer: C)
Similarity ratio = 9/6 = 3/2. Area ratio = (3/2)^2 = 9/4. Area of DEF = 24 * 9/4 = 54.

Problem 49

In a 30-60-90 triangle, the hypotenuse is 10. What is the area?

A) 5*sqrt(3)
B) 10*sqrt(3)
C) 12.5*sqrt(3)
D) 25
Answer: C)
Hypotenuse = 2x = 10 -> x=5. Short leg=5, long leg=5*sqrt(3). Area=(1/2)(5)(5*sqrt(3))=12.5*sqrt(3).

Problem 50

A 15-foot ladder leans against a wall, reaching 12 feet high. How far is the base of the
ladder from the wall?
A) 7 ft
B) 8 ft
C) 9 ft
D) 10 ft
Answer: C)
a^2+12^2=15^2 -> a^2=225-144=81 -> a=9. This is the 9-12-15 triple (multiple of 3-4-5).
Chapter 19: Circles

Theory
Core Circle Formulas
Formula Notes
Circumference = 2*pi*r Also = pi*d where d is diameter
Area = pi*r^2
Arc length = (theta/360) * 2*pi*r theta = central angle in degrees
Sector area = (theta/360) * pi*r^2
Arc length (radians) = r*theta theta must be in radians
Sector area (radians) = (1/2)*r^2*theta theta must be in radians

Angle Rules in Circles

• Central angle = arc it intercepts (same measure in degrees)
• Inscribed angle = HALF the arc it intercepts
• Inscribed angle in a SEMICIRCLE = 90 degrees (always, regardless of where on
semicircle)
• Two inscribed angles intercepting the SAME arc are EQUAL
• Tangent line is PERPENDICULAR to the radius at the point of tangency

Equation of a Circle and Completing the Square

Standard form: (x-h)^2 + (y-k)^2 = r^2 Center: (h,k) Radius: r
If given general form x^2+y^2+Ax+By+C=0, complete the square:
31. Group x terms and y terms
32. Add (A/2)^2 to both sides for x terms
33. Add (B/2)^2 to both sides for y terms
34. Factor each group as a perfect square

SAT TRAPS
Inscribed angle = HALF the arc (NOT equal to the central angle for the same arc)
Area uses r^2 but circumference uses r — do not mix these up
In equation (x-h)^2+(y-k)^2=r^2, center has OPPOSITE signs from what you read
(x-3)^2+(y+2)^2=25 has center (3,-2) and radius 5 (not 25 — take the square root)
 When completing the square, add the same amount to BOTH sides

Practice Problems
Problem 51

An inscribed angle in a circle measures 35 degrees. What is the arc it intercepts?

A) 17.5 degrees
B) 35 degrees
C) 70 degrees
D) 140 degrees
Answer: C)
Arc = 2 * inscribed angle = 2 * 35 = 70 degrees.

Problem 52

What is the center of the circle x^2 + y^2 - 4x + 6y = 12?

A) (-2, 3)
B) (2, -3)
C) (4, -6)
D) (-4, 6)
Answer: B)
Complete the square: (x-2)^2-4+(y+3)^2-9=12 -> (x-2)^2+(y+3)^2=25. Center: (2,-3), radius=5.

Problem 53

A pizza has diameter 16 inches. A slice has a central angle of 45 degrees. What is the
slice's area?
A) 4*pi
B) 8*pi
C) 16*pi
D) 32*pi
Answer: B)
r=8. Sector area = (45/360)*pi*(8^2) = (1/8)*64*pi = 8*pi.
Chapter 20: Trigonometry

Theory
SOH-CAH-TOA
In a RIGHT triangle, for angle theta:
• sin(theta) = Opposite / Hypotenuse
• cos(theta) = Adjacent / Hypotenuse
• tan(theta) = Opposite / Adjacent
Memory: SOH-CAH-TOA

Special Angle Values

Angle sin / cos / tan
30 degrees sin=1/2, cos=sqrt(3)/2, tan=1/sqrt(3)
45 degrees sin=sqrt(2)/2, cos=sqrt(2)/2, tan=1
60 degrees sin=sqrt(3)/2, cos=1/2, tan=sqrt(3)

Complementary Angle Identity

The two acute angles in a right triangle sum to 90 degrees. Therefore:
• sin(theta) = cos(90 - theta)
• cos(theta) = sin(90 - theta)
Example: sin(30) = cos(60) = 1/2
SAT uses this constantly: if sin(A) = 0.6 and A+B=90, then cos(B) = 0.6.

Trig in Word Problems

• Angle of elevation: measured FROM the horizontal UP to an object
• Angle of depression: measured FROM the horizontal DOWN to an object
• Draw a diagram and label opposite, adjacent, hypotenuse relative to the angle

SAT TRAPS
sin(A+B) is NOT sin(A)+sin(B) — trig does not distribute over addition
Adjacent and opposite sides depend on WHICH angle you are referencing
sin(theta) = cos(90-theta), NOT cos(-theta)
sin(30)=1/2 and cos(30)=sqrt(3)/2 — these are swapped by many students
tan = sin/cos = opposite/adjacent (not hypotenuse)
Practice Problems
Problem 54

In right triangle ABC with right angle at C, sin(A) = 3/5. What is cos(B)?
A) 3/5
B) 4/5
C) 5/3
D) 5/4
Answer: A)
A and B are complementary (sum to 90). sin(A) = cos(90-A) = cos(B) = 3/5.

Problem 55

A ladder 10 feet long leans against a wall making a 60 degree angle with the ground.
How high up the wall does it reach?
A) 5 feet
B) 5*sqrt(2) feet
C) 5*sqrt(3) feet
D) 10 feet
Answer: C)
sin(60) = height/10 -> height = 10 * sqrt(3)/2 = 5*sqrt(3) feet.

Problem 56

If cos(x) = 0.4 and x + y = 90, what is sin(y)?

A) 0.4
B) 0.6
C) 0.8
D) 0.9
Answer: A)
Since x+y=90, y=90-x. sin(y) = sin(90-x) = cos(x) = 0.4.
Chapter 21: Radians

Theory
Degree-Radian Conversions
360 degrees = 2*pi radians -> 180 degrees = pi radians
• To convert degrees to radians: multiply by pi/180
• To convert radians to degrees: multiply by 180/pi

Common Conversions — Memorize

Degrees Radians
30 degrees pi/6
45 degrees pi/4
60 degrees pi/3
90 degrees pi/2
120 degrees 2*pi/3
180 degrees pi
270 degrees 3*pi/2
360 degrees 2*pi

Radian Formulas (Simpler Than Degree Formulas)

• Arc length = r * theta (theta in radians)
• Sector area = (1/2) * r^2 * theta (theta in radians)
These are simpler because you do not need to divide by 360. But theta MUST be in radians.

SAT TRAPS
Use r*theta for arc length ONLY when theta is in RADIANS (convert if given degrees)
pi is a NUMBER (approximately 3.14), not a variable
90 degrees = pi/2, NOT pi (a very common error)
One full revolution = 2*pi radians = 360 degrees
Radians have no 'unit' label — pi/3 means radians, not degrees
Practice Problems
Problem 57

Convert 240 degrees to radians.

A) pi/3
B) 2*pi/3
C) 4*pi/3
D) 3*pi/2
Answer: C)
240 * pi/180 = 240*pi/180 = 4*pi/3.

Problem 58

A sector has radius 6 and central angle pi/3 radians. What is the arc length?
A) pi
B) 2*pi
C) 3*pi
D) 6*pi
Answer: B)
Arc length = r*theta = 6 * pi/3 = 2*pi.

Problem 59

A wheel of radius 5 cm rotates through an angle of 3*pi/2 radians. How far does a
point on the rim travel?
A) 5*pi/2
B) 15*pi/2
C) 10*pi
D) 15*pi
Answer: B)
Arc length = r*theta = 5 * 3*pi/2 = 15*pi/2 cm.
Chapter 22: Area, Perimeter & Volume

Theory
2D Area Formulas
Shape Area Formula
Rectangle A = length * width
Parallelogram A = base * height (perpendicular height)
Triangle A = (1/2) * base * height
Trapezoid A = (1/2) * (b1 + b2) * height
Circle A = pi * r^2

3D Volume Formulas
Shape Volume Formula
Rectangular prism V=l*w*h
Cylinder V = pi * r^2 * h
Cone V = (1/3) * pi * r^2 * h
Sphere V = (4/3) * pi * r^3
Pyramid V = (1/3) * base area * height

Scaling Effects
When all lengths are multiplied by a factor k:
• Perimeter / circumference: multiplied by k
• Area / surface area: multiplied by k^2
• Volume: multiplied by k^3
Example: Doubling the radius of a sphere multiplies its volume by 2^3 = 8.

Density
Density = mass / volume -> mass = density * volume
Also applies to population density: people per square mile, etc.

SAT TRAPS
Parallelogram area uses PERPENDICULAR height, not the slant side
 Scaling area by k requires squaring the length factor (k^2), not multiplying by k
Scaling volume by k requires cubing the length factor (k^3)
Cone and pyramid volumes have a 1/3 factor — do not forget it
Surface area requires ALL faces — top, bottom, and sides

Practice Problems
Problem 60

A cylinder has radius 3 and height 8. If the radius doubles, what is the ratio of new
volume to old volume?
A) 2:1
B) 4:1
C) 8:1
D) 16:1
Answer: B)
Old V = pi(9)(8)=72*pi. New V = pi(36)(8)=288*pi. Ratio = 4:1. Only radius doubled, so volume scales
by 2^2=4, not 2^3.

Problem 61

A gold bar measures 10cm x 4cm x 2cm. Gold density = 19.3 g/cm^3. What is its
mass?
A) 154.4 g
B) 772 g
C) 1544 g
D) 3088 g
Answer: C)
Volume = 10*4*2 = 80 cm^3. Mass = 19.3 * 80 = 1544 g.

Problem 62

A cone and a cylinder have the same radius and height. What is the ratio of the cone's
volume to the cylinder's volume?
A) 1:4
B) 1:3
C) 1:2
D) 2:3
Answer: B)
Cone = (1/3)*pi*r^2*h. Cylinder = pi*r^2*h. Ratio = 1/3 : 1 = 1:3.
Chapter 23: Reading Data

Theory
Two-Way Tables
A two-way table shows counts for two categorical variables simultaneously.
• Row totals and column totals must add up correctly — always verify
• P(A|B) = conditional probability = (A and B) / B
CRITICAL DIFFERENCE:
• 'Fraction of FEMALES who prefer math' = (females who prefer math) / (total females)
• 'Fraction of math-preferrers who are FEMALE' = (females who prefer math) / (total
preferring math)
These are completely different calculations using the same numbers.

Scatterplots
• Positive correlation: as x increases, y increases
• Negative correlation: as x increases, y decreases
• Line of best fit: minimizes total distance from data points
• Residual = actual value - predicted value by line of best fit
• Positive residual: actual point is ABOVE the line
• Negative residual: actual point is BELOW the line

Reading Charts Carefully

• Check: axis labels, units, scale, and title BEFORE answering
• Non-zero origin: a bar that looks twice as tall may not be twice the value
• Line graph: calculate slope between two points for rate of change

SAT TRAPS
Conditional probability: clearly identify what is GIVEN (that becomes the denominator)
Non-zero y-axis origin: the graph is misleading — check where the axis starts
Correlation does NOT imply causation (the SAT tests this explicitly)
Two-way table: 'given A, prob of B' is DIFFERENT from 'given B, prob of A'
Residual = actual MINUS predicted, not the other way around
Practice Problems
Problem 63

A two-way table: 40 boys (30 play sports, 10 don't) and 60 girls (20 play sports, 40
don't). What fraction of students who DON'T play sports are girls?
A) 2/5
B) 4/5
C) 2/3
D) 1/2
Answer: B)
Don't play: 10+40=50 students. Girls who don't play: 40. Fraction = 40/50 = 4/5.

Problem 64

A scatterplot shows a line of best fit predicting y=2x+3. A data point at x=5 has actual
y=14. What is the residual?
A) -1
B) 0
C) 1
D) 3
Answer: C)
Predicted y = 2(5)+3 = 13. Residual = actual - predicted = 14-13 = 1 (positive: point is above the line).
Chapter 24: Probability

Theory
Basic Probability Rules
• P(event) = favorable outcomes / total outcomes
• 0 <= P(event) <= 1 always
• P(not A) = 1 - P(A) (complement rule)
• P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B) (general addition rule)
• P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) (if A and B are mutually exclusive / cannot both happen)

Independent vs. Dependent Events

• Independent: P(A and B) = P(A) * P(B) (one event doesn't affect the other)
• Dependent: P(A and B) = P(A) * P(B|A) (probability of B changes given A happened)
• Coin flips are INDEPENDENT. Cards drawn WITHOUT replacement are DEPENDENT.

At Least One — Use the Complement

P(at least one) = 1 - P(none)
This is almost always easier than calculating P(exactly one) + P(exactly two) + ...

Expected Value
E = sum of (value * probability) for all outcomes
E = v1*P1 + v2*P2 + v3*P3 + ...
Positive expected value = profitable in the long run.

SAT TRAPS
P(A or B) must SUBTRACT P(A and B) to avoid counting the overlap twice
Without replacement: the denominator changes for the second draw
'At least one' — use complement: 1 - P(none) is much easier
Expected value can be negative — it is a long-run average, not a guarantee
Mutually exclusive means P(A and B) = 0 — they CANNOT both happen

Practice Problems
Problem 65
A bag has 4 red and 6 blue marbles. Two drawn without replacement. What is the
probability both are red?
A) 2/15
B) 4/25
C) 1/5
D) 2/5
Answer: A)
P(1st red) = 4/10. P(2nd red | 1st red) = 3/9. P(both red) = (4/10)*(3/9) = 12/90 = 2/15.

Problem 66

A game costs $2 to play. You win $10 with probability 1/6, else win nothing. What is
the expected NET gain per play?
A) Gain $0.67
B) Loss $0.33
C) Gain $1.67
D) Loss $1.33
Answer: B)
Expected winnings = 10*(1/6) + 0*(5/6) = $1.67. Net gain = $1.67 - $2 = -$0.33 (loss of 33 cents).

Problem 67

A fair coin is flipped three times. What is the probability of getting at least one head?
A) 1/2
B) 3/4
C) 7/8
D) 1
Answer: C)
P(no heads) = (1/2)^3 = 1/8. P(at least one head) = 1 - 1/8 = 7/8.
Chapter 25: Statistics I

Theory
Mean, Median, Mode
• Mean = sum of all values / count of values
• Median = middle value after sorting (average of two middle values if even count)
• Mode = most frequently occurring value

Effect of Outliers on Mean vs. Median

Data Shape Effect
Symmetric distribution Mean is approximately equal to median
Skewed right (high outlier) Mean is GREATER than median
Skewed left (low outlier) Mean is LESS than median
Adding a high outlier Mean increases more than median does

Range and Standard Deviation

• Range = maximum value - minimum value
• Standard deviation measures SPREAD around the mean
• Low SD: data clustered near the mean
• High SD: data spread far from the mean
• SAT never asks you to calculate SD — only to COMPARE or INTERPRET it

Effects of Transformations on Statistics

Transformation Effect on Mean / Median / SD / Range
Add constant k to all values Mean and median increase by k. SD and
range UNCHANGED.
Multiply all values by k Mean, median, SD, and range all multiply by k
Remove an outlier Mean changes more than median does

Average Word Problems — Key Formula

Sum = Mean * Count
This formula unlocks almost every average word problem on the SAT.
• If average of 5 tests is 82, then sum of scores = 82*5 = 410
• For combined groups: combine sums then divide by total count
 SAT TRAPS
NEVER average averages of groups with different sizes — use total sum / total count
Median: you MUST sort the data before finding the middle value
Adding a constant to all values changes mean and median, but NOT range or SD
Mode is most frequent — NOT the middle or highest value
Combined average: (sum1 + sum2) / (count1 + count2) — not (mean1+mean2)/2

Practice Problems
Problem 68

The average of 4 numbers is 15. A fifth number is added and the new average is 17.
What is the fifth number?
A) 20
B) 23
C) 25
D) 27
Answer: C)
Original sum = 4*15 = 60. New sum = 5*17 = 85. Fifth number = 85-60 = 25.

Problem 69

Class A has 10 students with a mean score of 70. Class B has 20 students with a
mean score of 80. What is the combined mean?
A) 73.3
B) 75.0
C) 76.7
D) 77.5
Answer: C)
Sum A = 700. Sum B = 1600. Total = 2300. Mean = 2300/30 = 76.7. TRAP: (70+80)/2 = 75 is
WRONG.

Problem 70

Dataset A: {5,5,5,5,5}. Dataset B: {1,3,5,7,9}. Which is true?

A) Same mean and same SD
B) Same mean, B has higher SD
C) Different means, different SDs
D) B has higher mean
Answer: B)
Both have mean=5. Dataset A has SD=0 (no spread). Dataset B has values spread around 5, so
higher SD.
Chapter 26: Statistics II — Sampling, Inference &
Experimental Design

Theory
Sampling and Generalizability
• A RANDOM sample can be used to generalize to the entire population it came from
• A sample from one group CANNOT generalize to a different group
• Example: A sample of high school students in Lahore cannot generalize to all Pakistani
students
• Larger sample = smaller margin of error, but only if the sample is RANDOM
• A large biased sample is WORSE than a small random sample

Margin of Error
If a poll reports '60% +/- 3%', the true value is likely between 57% and 63%.
• Larger sample size -> smaller margin of error
• The margin of error does NOT say the result is exactly correct

Association vs. Causation

• Correlation (association): two variables tend to move together
• Causation: one variable CAUSES the other
• Correlation does NOT imply causation
Classic example: Ice cream sales and drowning rates are correlated. Both are caused by hot
weather — neither causes the other.

Experimental Design
Study Type What You Can Conclude
Observational study Association only — cannot conclude causation
Controlled experiment with random assignment Causation can be concluded
Survey / questionnaire Association only for the sampled population

Key Vocabulary
• Control group: does not receive the treatment
• Experimental group: receives the treatment
• Random assignment: reduces confounding variables
• Double-blind: neither participants nor researchers know who is in which group
 • Confounding variable: a third variable that affects both the independent and dependent
variables

SAT TRAPS
Survey results can only generalize to the population the sample came from
Observational study: conclude ASSOCIATION only, never causation
Controlled experiment with random assignment: can conclude causation
Larger sample reduces margin of error, but a BIASED large sample is still flawed
The most common wrong SAT answer is 'X causes Y' when the study only shows association

Practice Problems
Problem 71

A study finds people who eat breakfast score higher on tests. Which conclusion is
BEST supported?
A) Eating breakfast causes higher test scores
B) There is an association between eating breakfast and test scores
C) All students should eat breakfast to improve scores
D) Test scores cause students to eat breakfast
Answer: B)
This is an observational study — it shows association only. Without random assignment, we CANNOT
conclude causation.

Problem 72

A researcher surveys 200 students at one university about study habits. He concludes
that all university students in the country study 4 hours per day. What is wrong with
this conclusion?
A) The sample size is too small
B) The sample is not representative of all university students nationwide
C) The study should have been double-blind
D) The survey should have used random sampling within the university
Answer: B)
Results from one university cannot be generalized to all universities in the country. The sample only
represents that university.

Problem 73
A poll shows 55% of voters support a candidate, with a margin of error of 4%. Which
statement is accurate?
A) Exactly 55% of all voters support the candidate
B) The true support is likely between 51% and 59%
C) The candidate will definitely win
D) 50% of voters support the candidate
Answer: B)
Margin of error 4% means the true value is likely within 55% +/- 4%, so between 51% and 59%.
Master Trap Reference Sheet
Every major SAT Math trap in one place. Review this before test day.

ALGEBRA & EXPRESSIONS

sqrt(a^2 + b^2) is NOT a+b — NEVER split a square root over addition
(a+b)^2 = a^2+2ab+b^2, NOT a^2+b^2 — always expand with the middle term
c/(a+b) is NOT c/a + c/b — you can NEVER split the denominator of a fraction
-(x-3) = -x+3, NOT -x-3 — distribute the negative to EVERY term
x^(-2) = 1/x^2, NOT negative x squared
(-2)^4 = 16, but -2^4 = -16 — order of operations matters

EQUATIONS & INEQUALITIES

Absolute value is ALWAYS >= 0. If |x| = -3: NO SOLUTION. Never miss this.
Squaring both sides can create extraneous solutions — always verify in original
Dividing both sides by a variable can eliminate solutions where that variable = 0
Multiplying or dividing an inequality by a NEGATIVE number FLIPS the inequality sign
For infinite solutions: BOTH the coefficient AND the constant must match
For |x| < a: the answer is AND (between, -a < x < a)
For |x| > a: the answer is OR (outside, x < -a OR x > a)

FUNCTIONS & TRANSFORMATIONS

f(x+1) is NOT f(x)+1 — substitute the entire (x+1) for every x
f(g(x)) is NOT f(x) times g(x) — composition is NOT multiplication
f(x-h) shifts the graph RIGHT by h — the sign INSIDE is opposite the direction
-f(x) reflects over x-axis. f(-x) reflects over y-axis. These are different.
Zero of f means f(x) = 0, not x = 0

QUADRATICS & PARABOLAS

In vertex form y=a(x-h)^2+k: vertex at (h,k) where h is OPPOSITE sign from what appears
Sum of roots = -b/a (NOTE the negative sign — many students forget it)
Discriminant < 0 means no REAL solutions (not that the equation is wrong)
Axis of symmetry: x = -b/(2a), NOT x = b/(2a)

GEOMETRY
Triangle height must be PERPENDICULAR to the base — slant side gives wrong area
30-60-90: short leg opposite 30, long leg = short*sqrt(3), hypotenuse = 2*short
Inscribed angle = HALF the arc (not equal to central angle)
Circle equation (x-h)^2+(y-k)^2=r^2: center has OPPOSITE signs from what you read
Area scales by k^2 and volume by k^3 when linear dimensions scale by k
Sum of exterior angles of ANY polygon = 360 degrees
Exterior angle of triangle = sum of TWO non-adjacent interior angles

PERCENTAGES, RATIOS & RATES

Increasing 20% then decreasing 20% = net 4% LOSS, NOT back to original
Percent change: use ORIGINAL as denominator, NOT the new value
Average speed = total distance / total time — NEVER average the speeds
Area unit conversion: SQUARE the length conversion factor (1 ft^2 = 144 in^2, not 12)
FIXED amount per period = LINEAR. FIXED percentage per period = EXPONENTIAL.

WORD PROBLEMS & STATISTICS

'3 less than x' = x-3, NOT 3-x — translate word order carefully
NEVER average averages of groups with different sizes — use total sum / total count
Observational study -> association only. Controlled experiment -> can conclude causation.
Sample results generalize ONLY to the population the sample came from
Residual = actual - predicted (positive = above line, negative = below line)
Correlation does NOT imply causation — the most common wrong answer on data questions
Complete Formula Reference

Algebra
Formula Notes
Slope: m = (y2-y1)/(x2-x1) Rise over run
Slope-intercept: y = mx + b b = y-intercept
Point-slope: y-y1 = m(x-x1) Use when slope + one point are known
Quadratic formula: x = [-b +/- sqrt(b^2-4ac)] / For ax^2+bx+c=0
2a
Sum of roots: r+s = -b/a For ax^2+bx+c=0
Product of roots: rs = c/a For ax^2+bx+c=0
Exponential growth: y = a(1+r)^t a=initial, r=rate, t=time
Compound interest: A = P(1+r/n)^(nt) n = compounds per year
Percent change: (New-Old)/Old * 100% Old = original value

Geometry
Shape / Formula Value
Triangle area (1/2) * base * height
Circle area pi * r^2
Circle circumference 2 * pi * r
Arc length (degrees) (theta/360) * 2*pi*r
Sector area (degrees) (theta/360) * pi*r^2
Arc length (radians) r * theta
Sector area (radians) (1/2) * r^2 * theta
30-60-90 sides x : x*sqrt(3) : 2x
45-45-90 sides x : x : x*sqrt(2)
Cylinder volume pi * r^2 * h
Cone volume (1/3) * pi * r^2 * h
Sphere volume (4/3) * pi * r^3
Sphere surface area 4 * pi * r^2
 Sum of interior angles (n-gon) (n-2) * 180 degrees

Trigonometry
Identity / Rule Value
sin(theta) Opposite / Hypotenuse
cos(theta) Adjacent / Hypotenuse
tan(theta) Opposite / Adjacent
sin(theta) = cos(90-theta) Complementary angle identity
sin(30) = cos(60) = 1/2
sin(60) = cos(30) = sqrt(3)/2
sin(45) = cos(45) = sqrt(2)/2

Statistics & Probability

Concept Formula
Mean Sum of values / Count
Median Middle value after sorting
Percent change (New - Old) / Old * 100%
P(event) Favorable outcomes / Total outcomes
P(not A) 1 - P(A)
P(A and B) — independent P(A) * P(B)
P(A or B) P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)
P(at least one) 1 - P(none)
Expected value Sum of [value * probability]
Conditional P(A|B) P(A and B) / P(B)