AVIATION METEOROLOGY

ATMOSPHERE
• It is the envelope of homogenous mixture of gases called Air
• It is attached to the Earth due to gravitation
• It has no upper limit but it is believed that it extends upto 800 km
[Link]:
• It has weight and hence exerts pressure
• It is compressible and expandable
• It occupies space
• It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity
[Link]:
• Nitrogen – 78.09%
• Oxygen –20.95%
• Argon – 0.93%
• Carbon dioxide – 0.035%
• Traces of Neon, Xenon, Krypton, Helium, Methane, Hydrogen, Ozone, Nitrous Oxide,
Ammonia, Sulphur Dioxide
• In addition, Air contains water vapour and solid particles

3. Nitrogen and Oxygen constitute 99% of the atmosphere

• Nitrogen : Oxygen :: 4:1 (by volume)
• Nitrogen : Oxygen :: 3:1 (by weight)
4. Supplementary Oxygen is required once above 10,000ft.
5. The atmosphere has similar composition upto 80km known as Homosphere and above it
Heterosphere.
6. Layers of atmosphere
• Troposphere
• Stratosphere
• Mesosphere
• Thermosphere
• Ionosphere
• Exosphere
BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE,
DENSITY AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP

1. The atmospheric pressure at any level is the weight of the column of air of unit cross
section extending vertically to the top of the atmosphere.
2. ICAO has adopted hPa as a unit to measure atmospheric pressure.
3. ICAO MSL pressure
1013.25 Pa = 760 mm Hg = 29.92 in
4. Pressure decreases with height.
5. Cold air is denser than warm air so, pressure will fall at a faster pace over a cold
column of air than over a warm column of air.
6. Isobars are lines joining places of equal pressure.
7. Diurnal variation of pressure is large at above 3-5 hPa at equator due solar variation
and very less over poles.
 8. Pressure is measured by mercury barometer, where pressure is balanced by height of
mercury column, but more preference is given to aneroid barometer, though not as
accurate as mercury barometer, because of its ease of handling and use.
9. Altimeter is an aneroid barometer.
10. The lines joining places of equal height is called Contour.

PRESSURE SETTINGS
1. QFE:
It is pressure at aerodrome reference point or highest point on the runway. The
altimeter reads zero or height of the altimeter from ARP, when subscale is set to QFE.
It is also called Zero Setting.

2. QFF:
It is the barometric pressure reduced to MSL, assuming the temperature of the place
to be the temperature of the column of air extending up to MSL.
Used for plotting on Synoptic charts and drawing isobars.

3. QNH:
It is the station level pressure reduced to MSL assuming ISA conditions.
When QNH is set on subscale, the altimeter indicates station elevation. This setting is
useful for vertical separation of aircraft and from terrain.
QNH should be updated from time to time as it changes with time and place due
change in temperature and pressure. It is also called Absolute Altitude.

4. Regional QNH:
This the forecast value of the lowest pressure expected in an altimeter setting region.
It is issued every hour and valid for one hour. Correct use of it ensures adequate
terrain separation.
5. QNE:
It is the altitude indicated on altimeter and when subscale is set to 1013.25hPa
.Normally QNE is used for high altitude airfields.

Altimeter over reads when flying from a region of high pressure to low pressure. It also over
reads when flying from region of high temperature to low temperature.
Altimeter under reads when flying from a region of low pressure to high pressure. It also
under reads when flying from region of low temperature to high temperature.

TEMPERATURE:
1. Temperature is the measure of intensity of heat, measured using thermometer using
Celsius and Fahrenheit scale.
2. Absolute Zero 1K= -273.16
3.
4.
5.
6. Surface temperature:
The temperature measured at the height of 4ft (1.25m) above ground in shade (inside
Stevenson’s Screen)
7. Heat:
Sum total of the kinetic energy of all molecules and atoms of a substance.
8. Temperature is the average KE of all molecules and atoms of a substance.

AIR DENSITY:
1. Density is defined as the mass of air contained in unit volume.
2. It’s unit is kg/m
3

3. As pressure increases, density increases, density altitude decreases.

4.
5. As humidity increases, density decreases, density altitude increases
Factors affecting density:
• As altitude increases – air is less dense
• As temperature increases - air is less dense
• As humidity increases - air is less dense

ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE OF TERMS

Visibility:
The greatest distance at which a black object of suitable dimensions situated near the
ground can be seen and recognised when observed against a bright background.
OR
The distance up to which prominent objects can be seen by naked eye and recognised
as such under natural light.

1. Haze:
Haze is suspension of very fine particles of small dust, water etc.
Visibility in haze is 5000m or less. It gives a milky appearance to the atmosphere.

• Dust haze:
Dust kicked by strong winds in desert areas and semi arid areas is suspended
in air called dust haze. It is thicker during day than at night because winds
weaken at night. It is a summer hazard.
Dust haze may extend from Rajasthan to Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar and
adjoining states.
Vertically it may extend to 6-8km.

• Smoke haze:
Smoke from industrial areas or domestic sources spread as a haze layer
especially when the wind is calm or very light and there is strong ground
inversion.

2. Mist:
Mist is the suspension of water droplets in the atmosphere. In mist visibility is atleast
1000m but not more than 5000m. In mist relative humidity is almost 100%

3. Fog:
It is the suspension of water droplets or ice crystals. In fog visibility is less than
1000m and relative humidity is nearly 100%
Fog is divided into 3 categories – thick, moderate, light. It is cloud sitting on ground.
Fog occurs due to condensation of water vapour present in the layers of air close to
the ground. The condensation can occur either by cooling of air to dew point or by
feeding moisture into the air to saturate it.

4. Smog:
Smog is smoke and fog. It severely limits visibility and is a health hazard.

CLOUDS
• Cloud is an aggregate of visible water droplets or ice particles.
• Clouds form due to adiabatic lifting and cooling of air until water vapour
condenses as water drops or deposits as ice particles. The height at which this
occurs is called Lifting Condensation Levels.
[Link]:
There are ten genera of clouds based on form and height.
By form: Cumuliform, Stratiform and Cirriform
By height: High, Medium, and Low
A) High clouds:
These clouds form at a height of 6-18km at tropics. They contain ice crystals and
 some of them may cause precipitation which remains confined to high/medium levels
only.

b) Medium clouds:
In tropics, they occur about 2-8km and contain water droplets and ice crystals. They
cause snow and rain.

c) Low clouds:
These clouds occur below 2km.

2. Types of clouds:
High cloud:
a) Cirrus [CI] – No precipitation
b) Cirrostratus [CS] – Snow at high to medium levels
c) Cirrocumulus [CC] – No precipitation
Medium cloud:
a) Altocumulus [AC] – No precipitation
b) Altostratus [AS] – Ice accretion ( Rain and snow )
Low cloud:
a) Stratus [ST] – Drizzle
b) Stratocumulus [SC]
c) Nimbostratus [NS] – Ice accretion, continuous precipitation

Clouds with vertical development:

a) Cumulus [CU] – Rain
b) Cumulonimbus [CB] – Showers, hail

3. Cloud ceiling:
The height above the ground or water surface of the lowest layer of the cloud below
6000m (20000ft) covering more than half of the sky (5/8 or more).
4. Flying conditions in clouds:
• Stratiform Clouds
Flying in Stratiform Clouds (CS and AS) is generally smooth even during
monsoon months when cloud layers of AS and NS are thick.
In NS visibility is reduced due to continuous precipitation and in the presence
of Stratus, reduced slant visibility causes difficulty locating the runway during
the landing. Ice accretion occurs in NS and AS clouds above freezing level.

• Cumuliform Clouds
CC and AC may cause some amount of turbulence. Fair weather CU and SC
may cause bumpiness while flying through. Well developed CU, TCU and CB
cause serious aviation hazards like severe turbulence, hail, strong up and
downdraughts, gusts, ice accretion, lightning etc.
Flying through CB is strictly prohibited. Even areas 10 to 20 KM around an
active CB cloud are prone to turbulence.
Squalls associated with CB adversely affect landing and take-off hence, such
operations should be avoided during TS.

METAR
Aviation routine weather report issued every half an hour or at hourly intervals
SPECI- Aviation Selected Special Weather report. Issued at any time.
 AIR REGULATIONS
1. Aerodrome (AD): A defined area on land or water (including any buildings, installations and
Aerodrome equipment intended to be used either wholly or in part for arrival, departure and
surface movement of aircraft.
2. Balloon: means a non-power driven lighter than air aircraft
3. Co-pilot: A licensed pilot serving in any piloting capacity other than as pilot-in-command but
excluding a pilot who is on board the aircraft for the sole purpose of receiving flight instruction.
4. Director General: means director general of civil aviation
5. Flight time: The total time from the moment an aircraft first moves for the purpose of taking off
until the moment it finally comes to rest at the end of the flight.
6. Solo Time: Flight time during which a pilot is the sole occupant of an aircraft.
7. Dual Time: Flight time during which a person is receiving flight instruction from a pilot
on board the aircraft.
8. Flight Crew Member. A licensed crew member charged with duties essential to the operation of
an aircraft during flight time.
9. Helicopter: means a heavier than air aircraft supported in flight by the reactions of the air on one
or more power driven rotors on substantially vertical axis
10. Prohibited Area. Airspace of defined dimensions above the land areas or territorial waters of a
State within which flight of aircraft is prohibited.
11. Take off: It is the phase of the flight in which an aircraft goes from the ground to flying in the
air
12. Landing: It is the last part of a flight where an aircraft returns to the ground.
13. Mayday: Mayday is an emergency procedure word used internationally as a distress signal in
voice procedure radio communication.
14. PAN: Three calls of Pan-Pan are used in radiotelephone communications to signify that there is
an urgency onboard ship, aircraft or other vehicle for the time being there is no immediate danger
to anyone’s life or to the vessel itself.
15. Aeroplane: A power driven heavier than air aircraft, deriving its lift in flight chiefly from
aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which remain fixed under given conditions of flight.
16. Aircraft: Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air
other than the reactions of the air against the earth’s surface and includes balloons whether fixed
or free, airships, kites, gliders and flying machines.
17. Log Book: It is a record of a pilot’s flying hours. It contains every flight a pilot has flown,
including flight time, number of landings and number of instrument approaches.

DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF PILOT’S LICENSES

1. Student Pilot’s License (for aeroplanes, helicopters, gliders, balloons and micro light
aircraft)
2. Private Pilot’s License (for aeroplanes and helicopters)
3. Commercial Pilot’s License (for aeroplanes and helicopters)
4. Airline Transport Pilot’s License (for aeroplanes and helicopters)
5. Instrument Rating (for aeroplanes and helicopters
6. Assistant Flight Instructor’s Rating (for aeroplanes and helicopters)
7. Flight Instructor’s Rating (for aeroplanes, helicopters, gliders and balloons)
8. Pilot’s License (gliders, balloons and micro light aircraft)
9. Student Flight Navigator’s License
 10. Flight Navigator’s License
11. Student Flight Engineer’s License
12. Flight Engineer’s License
13. Flight Radio Telephone Operator’s License
14. Flight Radio Telephone Operator’s License (Restricted)

STUDENT PILOT LICENSE

REQUIREMENTS
• Age- Applicant shall not be less than 16 years of age on
the date of application
• Educational Qualification- Shall have passed class 10 th

• Medical Fitness- Class II medical certificate

• Knowledge- He shall pass oral examination in Air
Regulations, Aviation Meteorology, Air Navigation and
Aircraft and Engines as per the syllabus prescribed by
the director general unless he previously held a pilot’s
license of a higher category, or is able to produce
evidence in a manner prescribed by the Director General
that is well versed with the aforesaid subjects.
VALIDITY
• 5 years
PRIVELEGES
• Holder of SPL is entitled to fly within Indian Territory
only as PIC in any aeroplane entered in the aircraft rating
of his license
• He shall fly at all times under the authority and
supervision of a flight instructor or an approved
examiner
• He shall only fly under Visual Flight Rules only
• He shall not carry passengers, animals and goods for hire,
reward or remuneration of any kind
• He shall not undertake cross-country flights unless he has
a minimum of 10hrs or solo flight time and has passed
the examination in Air Navigation and Aviation
Meteorology.
Student Pilot’s License shall be issued by a flying club/ Government Flying Training
School specifically authorised in this regard and subject to conditions as laid down by the
Director General.
LIGHT AND PYROTECHNIC SIGNALS
 VISUAL GROUND SIGNALS

• Prohibition of landing

A horizontal red square panel with yellow

diagonals when displayed in a signal area
indicates that landings are prohibited and that the
prohibition is liable to be prolonged.

• Need for special precautions while approaching or landing

A horizontal red square panel with one yellow diagonal

when displayed in a signal area indicates that owing to
the bad state of the maneuvering area, or for any other
reason, special precautions must be observed in
approaching to land or in landing.

• Use of runways and taxiways

A horizontal white dumb-bell when displayed in a signal

area indicates that aircraft are required to land, take off
and taxi on runways and taxiways only.

• Maneuvers not confined to runways and taxiways

A white dumb-bell with black stripes signifies that take-offs

and landing are to be on a runway, but movement on the
ground is not confined to pavements

• Closed runways or taxiways

Crosses of a single contrasting color, yellow or white

played horizontally on runways and taxiways or parts
 thereof indicate an area unfit for movement of
aircraft.

• Glider flights in operation

A double white cross displayed horizontally in the

signal area indicates that the aerodrome is being used
by gliders and that glider flights are being performed.

• Air Traffic Services Reporting Office

The letter C displayed vertically in black against a

yellow background indicates the location of the air
traffic services reporting office.

• Direction for landing or take off

A white “T” signifies that take-offs and landing shall be

in the direction of the shaft of the “T” (as indicated by the
arrow).

• Right Hand Traffic

A red and yellow striped arrow signifies that a right-

hand circuit is in force.
.

• QDM Boards

A yellow board with two black numbers on is situated on the tower,

and indicates the runway direction in use.

• Signals Mast
The following signals are flown from the signals mast:
 RUNWAY DETAILS

VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR)

VFR is only permitted in VMC
VMC Criteria Classes A, B, C, D and E
Airspace.
• At and above 10 000 ft (FL100) the flight visibility
requirement is 8 km with 300 m (1000 ft)
vertically, and 1500 m horizontally from cloud.

• Below 10 000 ft (FL100) the flight visibility

requirement is reduced to 5 km.

VMC Criteria Classes F and G Airspace

• At and above 10 000 ft (FL100) the flight visibility requirement is 8 km with 300 m (1000 ft)
vertically, and 1500 m horizontally from cloud.
• Below 10 000 ft (FL100) but above 3000 ft, the
flight visibility requirement is reduced to 5 km.
• Below 3000 ft AMSL and within 1000 ft of the
surface (where surface elevation is above 3000
ft) the flight visibility remains 5 km but VMC
would exist if the aircraft was clear of cloud and
within sight of the surface.

When clearance is obtained from Air Traffic

Control VFR flights shall not take off or land at
an aerodrome within a control zone or enter the aerodrome traffic zone or traffic pattern-
a. When ceiling is less than 450m, or
b. When ground visibility is less than 5 km.
VFR flights shall not be operated-
a. Above FL150
b. At transonic and subsonic speeds
c. More than 100NM seaward from the shoreline within controlled airspace.
To operate VFR above FL290 a vertical separation of 300m (1000ft) is maintained
VFR flights shall not be flown –
a. Over congested areas, towns, settlements, assembly of people at a height less than
300m above the highest obstacle within a radius of 600m from the aircraft.
b. Shall not be flown at a height less than 150m above water or ground.
 AIR NAVIGATION
➢ General Navigation
• Earth’s shape is commonly described as an oblate spheroid, that is, a
sphere which is slightlyflattened at its poles.
• The flattening is called compression and in the case of the Earth is
approximately0.3% (1/300th).
• ICAO has adopted WGS 84 as the world standard.
• Great Circle: A circle on the surface of the Earth whose centre and radius
are those of theEarth itself is called a Great Circle. It is called ‘great’
because a disc cut through the Earth inthe plane of the Great Circle
would have the largest area that can be achieved.

• The shortest distance between two

points on the Earth’s surface is the
shorter arc of theGreat Circle
joining the two points.
• Given two points on the Earth’s
surface, there will be only one Great
Circle joining them(unless the
points are diametrically opposed).
• The Great Circle whose plane is at
90° to the axis of rotation of the Earth (the polar axis) is called the
[Link] lies in an East-West direction and divides the Earth equally
into two hemispheres. For the definition of position on the Earth, the
Equator is the datum for defining Latitude.
• Meridians are semi-Great Circles joining the North and South poles. All
meridians indicate True North-South direction. Every Great Circle
passing through the poles forms a meridianand its Anti-meridian. The
meridians cross the Equator at 90°.
• A circle on the surface of the Earth whose centre and radius are not those
of the Earth is called a Small Circle. The main small circles of relevance
to position are the Parallels of Latitude.
• The latitude of any point is the arc (angular distance) measured along the
meridian through the point from the Equator to the point.
• The longitude of any point is the shorter distance in the arc along the
Equator between the Prime Meridian and the meridian through the point.
 • A Rhumb Line is a regularly curved line on the surface of the Earth
which cuts all meridiansat the same angle - a line of constant direction.
Examples of common Rhumb Lines are:
• Parallels of Latitude (because they cut all meridians at 90°).
• Equator (a special case because the Equator is also a Great Circle).
• Meridians (are also Great Circles and the cut angle involved is 0°).

IMPORTANT CONVERSIONS
1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (cm) = 1000 millimeters (mm)
1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters (mm)
1 meter (m) = 3.28 feet (ft)
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches ( ‘in’ or “ )
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimeters (cm)
1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft)
• The Kilometer (km). The definition of the kilometer is 1/10 000th of the average
distanceon the Earth between the Equator and either Pole.

1 kilometer (km) = 3280 feet (ft)

• The Statute Mile (stat.m). Although the statute mile (5280 feet) is widely used
on the groundit is hardly ever used in aviation nowadays. Older airspeed
indicators used to be calibrated inmph, and still are for some American light
aircraft, but this is now rare.
• The Nautical Mile (NM). The nautical mile is the most important large measure
of distanceused in aviation because it can be related directly to the angular
measurements of the Latitude/Longitude graticule of the Earth.
• The ICAO definition of the nautical mile is that it is a measure of distance of
1852 meters.
• The Standard Nautical Mile is defined as a length of 6080 feet.
• One minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile (NM) One degree of latitude = 60
minutes = 60 NM.
• One minute of longitude = 1 NM AT THE EQUATOR ONLY.
• The full definition of the length of a nautical mile is that length of arc of a Great
Circle whichsubtends an angle of one minute at the centre of curvature of the
Earth’s surface.
• There are 3 general types of projection surfaces:
• Azimuthal/Plane
• Cylindrical
• Conical
WE USE LAMBERT’S CONFORMAL CHARTS

MAGNETIC COMPASS
• Magnetic North is the horizontal direction indicated by a freely suspended
magnet influenced only by the Earth’s magnetic field.
• Variation is the angle between True and Magnetic North and is measured in
degrees Eastor West from True North.
• A line on the surface of the Earth joining points of equal magnetic variation is
called anIsogonal.
• The line connecting points of zero variation is called the Agonic Line.
• The maximum possible value of variation is 180° and this occurs at both the
Northand the South Poles.
• Deviation is defined as the angle measured at a point between the direction
indicated by acompass needle and the direction of Magnetic North.
• Isoclinals are lines on a map or chart joining places of equal magnetic dip.
• Aclinic Lines is the name given to isoclinals joining places of zero dip.
• Compass Swing :
The basic method of determining deviation is to compare the aircraft’s heading
compassreading with magnetic heading as defined by a high quality ‘land or
datum’ compass. Thiscomparison of aircraft compass and magnetic datum
readings is carried out in an area selected
specifically for this purpose.
Therefore the aims of a compass swing are as follows:
• To observe / determine the deviations / differences between magnetic north
(observed on
a landing compass) and compass north (observed in the aircraft) on a series of
headings
• To correct / remove as much deviation as possible
• To record the residual deviation which is left after the compass has been
adjusted.
Occasions for Swinging the Compass :-
• When compass components are installed or replaced.
• Whenever the accuracy of the compass is in doubt.
• After a maintenance inspection if required by the schedule.
• After a significant aircraft modification, repair or replacement involving
magnetic material.
• When carrying unusual ferromagnetic payloads.
• When the compass has been subjected to significant shock.
• If the aircraft has been struck by lightning.
• After significant modification to aircraft radio/electrical systems.
• After the aircraft has been given a new theatre of operations if the move
involves a largechange of magnetic latitude.
• If the aircraft has been in long term storage standing on one heading.
• Hard Iron Magnetism :The total force at the compass positionproduced by
permanent hard iron magnetismcan be resolved into three components.
Thesecomponents will be fixed for a given aircraftand will not change with
change of heading.

• Soft Iron Magnetism :If the

deviations caused by the blue pole in
thenose are plotted against compass
heading,a positive sine curve is
obtained. Had theblue pole been aft
of the compass a negativesine curve
would have been obtained. This
would mean that on a heading of
090° thedeviation would reach a
maximum westerlyvalue instead of a
maximum easterly [Link] changes
in directive force would also
berevised, the maximum occurring on
180° andthe minimum on 360°.
• Correction of Coefficients :-
Coefficient A - a mechanical problem
of a displaced lubber line.
Coefficient B - correction required because of magnetic deviating forces acting
upon the DRMC
or the detector unit and giving errors known as deviation. Done on an easterly
or westerly heading.
Coefficient C - correction required because of magnetic deviating forces acting
upon the DRMCor the detector unit and giving errors known as deviation.
 Done on a northerly or southerly heading.

➢ Instrument Navigation

Airspeed Indicator

Principle of Operation
An aircraft on the ground in still air is subject only to atmospheric (static)
pressure (S). However,in flight, the leading edges of an aircraft are subject to
an additional (dynamic) pressure. This results in a total (pitot) pressure (P) on
the leading edges of dynamic pressure plus staticpressure.
Pitot = Dynamic + Static
The pitot head senses pitot pressure and the static/vent senses static pressure.
These twopressures are fed to the airspeed indicator, a differential pressure
gauge, which measures theirdifference (the dynamic pressure). Dynamic
pressure is related to airspeed, because:-
Dynamic Pressure = ½ ρV²
where V is true airspeed (TAS) and ρ is the density of the surrounding air
The ASI measures airspeed by measuring dynamic pressure.
Construction

ASI Errors
• Instrument
Error.
Manufacturing
imperfections
and usage
result in small
errors which
aredetermined
on the ground
under
laboratory conditions by reference to a datum instrument.A
correction card can be produced for the speed range of the
instrument.
• Position Error. Alternatively known as ‘pressure’ error, this arises
mainly from the sensing ofincorrect static pressure, and is
described more fully in the section entitled Pressure
[Link] errors throughout the speed range are determined
by the aircraft manufacturer during the test flying programme for
a particular aircraft [Link] is not unusual to compile a joint
correction card for position and instrument errors and placeit in
the aircraft near the ASI concerned.
• Maneuver-induced Errors. These are associated chiefly with
maneuvers involving change inangle of attack, giving transient
errors and a lag in the indication of changes in airspeed.

IAS is Indicated Airspeed

CAS is IAS corrected for Instrument and Position (Pressure) Error.
Equivalent Airspeed is CAS corrected for Compressibility Error only.
EAS + Density Error = TAS
ASI Color Coding
The White Arc denotes the flap
operating
range, from stall at maximum AUW in
the
landing configuration (full flap, landing
gear down, wings level, power-off) up
to VFE(maximum flaps extended
speed).
The Green Arc denotes the normal
operatingspeed range, from stall speed
at maximumall-up weight (flaps up,
wings level) up to VN(‘normal
operating limit speed’ or
‘maximumstructural cruising speed’)
which should not
be exceeded except in smooth air. Operationsat IASs in the green arc should be
safe in allconditions, including turbulence.
The Yellow Arc denotes the caution range,which extends from VNO (normal
operating limit speed) up to VNE (the never exceed speed).The aircraft should
be operated at IASs in the caution range only in smooth air.
A Red Radial Line denotes VNE, the never exceed speed.
A blue radial line denotes the best rate of climb speed for one engine out,
maximum weight,at mean sea level (VYSE).
With a blocked static source, the ASI over-reads in a descent.
‘Pitot Blocked: – Under-reads in Descent Static Blocked: – Over-reads in
Descent’
Pressure Altimeter
Principle of Operation
The pressure altimeter is a simple, reliable, pressure gauge calibrated to
indicate height. The pressure at a point depends on the weight of the column of
air which extends vertically upwardsfrom the point to the outer limit of the
atmosphere.
The higher an aircraft is flying, the shorter is the column of air above it and
consequently thelower is the atmospheric pressure at the aircraft.
In other words, the greater the height, the lower the pressure, and by measuring
the pressurethe altimeter measures height.
Unfortunately, the relationship between pressure and height is not a linear one,
so thatcalibration of the altimeter scale is not a simple matter.

Static
pressure is
fed into the
case of the
instrument from the static source. As heightincreases, static pressure decreases
and the capsule expands under the control of a leaf spring.
A mechanical linkage magnifies the capsule expansion and converts it to a
rotational movementof a single pointer over the height scale.
Altimeter Errors
The errors which affect altimeters are many and the extent of some of them
varies withaltimeter type. Much effort is expended on improving instrument
accuracy, and the permissibletolerances of modern altimeters are smaller than
with earlier types.
There are other errors caused by deviation of the actual atmosphere from
standard conditions,
and also the difficulty in sensing correctly the outside air pressure. A list of the
main errorsfollows.
Position (or Pressure) Error
 This is largely due to the inability to sense the true static pressure outside the
aircraft, asdescribed in the chapter on Pressure Heads. The error is usually
small but increases at high Machnumbers (and, consequently, at high altitudes
usually associated with high Mach numbers).
Instrument Error
Manufacturing imperfections, including friction in the linkage, cause errors
throughout theoperating range. The errors are kept as small as possible by
adjustments within the instrument,and the calibration procedure ensures that
they are within permitted tolerances. Residualerrors may be listed on a
correction card.
Maneuver-induced Error
This is caused by transient fluctuations of pressure at the static vent during
change of, mainly,pitch attitude and delays in the transmission of pressure
changes due to viscous and acousticeffects in the static pipeline.
Barometric Error
Providing the altimeter has a pressure subscale, and the local pressure is set on
it, the altimeterwill indicate height AMSL (though still subject to the other
errors). If the local surface pressurehas changed since the pressure value was
set, a ‘barometric’ error of roughly 30 feet perhectopascal will result. If
pressure has fallen, the altimeter over-reads.
Blockages and Leaks
If the static source becomes blocked, thealtimeter will not register any change
in height- the height at which the blockage occurredwill still be indicated
regardless of any climbor descent. On many aircraft, an alternativesource of
static pressure will be available.
Should the static line fracture in a pressurizedaircraft, the altimeter will show
the (lower)cabin altitude rather than aircraft altitude
A fracture in the static line within anunpressurized aircraft will normally result
inthe altimeter over-reading, due to the pressurein the cabin being lower than
ambient dueto aerodynamic suction.
If the aircraft is CLIMBING then the altimeterwill UNDER-READ.
If the aircraft is DESCENDING then the altimeter will OVER-READ.
The amount of the error will increase as the aircraft moves away from the
height at which theblockage occurred.

➢ Radio Navigation

VHF Direction Finder

(VDF)

o The VHF Direction Finder

(VDF) is a means of providing
a pilot with the direction to fly
towards a ground station - a
bearing.

o Available on 118.0 - 137

MHz (Emission Code A3E).

o VHF International Distress Frequency – 121.5 MHz.

 A VDF station will provide the following as requested:
• QDR Aircraft’s Magnetic Bearing from the station (Radial); used for en
route navigation
• QDM Aircraft’s Magnetic Heading to steer (assuming no wind) to reach
the VDF station;
used mainly for station homing and let-downs using published procedures
• QTE Aircraft’s True Bearing from the station; used for en route navigation
• QUJ Aircraft’s True Track to the station; not generally used

The accuracy of the observation is classified as follows:

• Class A – Accurate within ± 2°
• Class B – Accurate within ± 5°
• Class C – Accurate within ± 10°
• Class D – Accuracy less than Class C

Principle of Operation
A VHF voice communications radio produces a vertically polarized signal;
therefore, the groundantenna is vertically polarized and has an array of
vertical elements arranged in a circle

Range of VDF
• As VDF utilizes the VHF Band (or UHF as required) the range will obey
the line of sight
formula: the higher the transmitters the greater the reception range
Line of sight Range (MTR) =
Affected by :
Power of Transmitters
Intervening High Ground
Atmospheric Conditions (Ducting)

Accuracy:
Propagation Error
Site Error
Aircraft Attitude
Overhead
Fading Due to Multi-path Signals

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) equipment in the aircraft is used in

conjunction with a simplelow and medium frequency non-directional beacon
(NDB) on the ground to provide an aid fornavigation and for non-precision
approaches to airfields.
The ADF measures the bearing of an NDB relative to the fore/aft axis of
theaircraft.
The Non-directional Beacon (NDB) is a ground based transmitter which
transmits verticallypolarized radio signals, in all directions (hence the name),
in the Low Frequency (LF) andMedium Frequency (MF) bands.
Frequencies: 190 - 1750 kHz
There are two types of NDB in current use:
• Locator (L)- These are low powered NDBs used for airfield or runway
approach procedures or are co-located with, and supplement, the outer
and middle markers of an ILS system. They normally have ranges of 10
to 25 NM and may only be available during an aerodrome’s published
hours of operation.
• En route NDBs- These have a range of 50 NM or more, and where
serving oceanic areas may have ranges of several hundred miles. They
are used for homing, holding, en route and airways navigation.
The aircraft equipment comprises:
• A loop aerial
• A sense aerial
• A control unit
• A receiver
• A display
Uses of NDB
Homing, Holding, Approach, En route nav-aid
Errors
• Static interference (precipitation and thunderstorms)
• Station interference
• Night effect
• Mountain effect
• Coastal refraction
• Quadrantal error
• Bank angle (dip)
• Lack of failure warning

VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR)

The VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) was adopted as the standard

short range navigationaid in 1960 by ICAO. It produces bearing
information usually aligned with magnetic north atthe VOR location. It
is practically free from static interference and is not affected by sky
waves,which enables it to be used day and night.

When the VOR frequency is paired with a co-locatedDistance

Measuring Equipment (DME) an instantaneous range and bearing
(Rho-Theta) fix isobtained.

Principle of Operation
Phase comparison of two 30 Hz signals, one is frequency modulated
and the other is amplitude modulated.

• The reference signal is FM.

• The variable phase directional signal is AM.
Vice-versa for a Doppler VOR.

Uses:
Airways
Airfield let-downs
Holding points
En route navigation

Transmission Details:
VOR beacons operate within the
VHF band (30-300 MHz) between 108.0 - 117.95 MHz asfollows:
• 40 channels, 108-112 MHz:
This is primarily an ILS band but ICAO has allowed it to be shared
with short range VORsand Terminal VORs (TVOR): 108.0, 108.05,
108.20, 108.25, 108.40, 108.45 ….. 111.85 MHz(even decimals and
even decimals plus 0.05 MHz)
• 120 channels, 112 - 117.95 MHz (a channel every 0.05 MHz):
The emission characteristics are A9W:
A = main carrier amplitude modulated double side-band.
9 = composite system.
W = combination of telemetry, (telephony) and telegraphy.

Types of VOR:
CVOR-Conventional VOR is used to define airways and for en-route
navigation.
BVOR-A broadcast VOR which gives weather and airfield information
between beaconidentification.
DVOR-A Doppler VOR - this overcomes siting errors.
TVOR-Terminal VOR which has only low power; and is used at major
airfields.
VOT-This is found at certain airfields and broadcasts a fixed omni-
directional signalfor a 360° test radial. This is not for navigation use
but is used to test an aircraft’sequipment accuracy before IFR flight.
More than +/-4° indicates that equipmentneeds servicing.
VORTAC-Co-located VOR and TACAN (DME) beacons.
DBVORTAC-Combination.

Accuracy affected by:

Site error (less with DVOR)
Propagation error
Scalloping (bending due to reflections from terrain)
Airborne equipment error (+/- 3°)

Airborne equip:
Aerial, Receiver, Display (CDI/RMI)
CDI: 2° per dot; max 10°; relationship between indication and
aircraft position.
RMI: arrowhead gives QDM; tail gives QDR; Use magnetic
variation at station.

Instrument Landing System (ILS)

The Instrument Landing System (ILS) has been in existence for over
40 years and is still the most accurate approach and landing aid in
current use. The system provides pilots with an accurate means of
carrying out an instrument approach to a runway, giving guidance both
in the horizontal and the vertical planes.
ILS Frequencies
Localizer
The Localizer operates in the VHF band between 108 and 111.975
MHz to provide 40 channels,e.g. 108.1 108.15; 108.3 108.35; 108.5
108.55 -111.95 MHz. This part of the frequency band isshared with
VOR: the frequencies allocated are odd decimals and odd decimals +
0.05 MHz.
Glide Path
The glide path operates in the UHF band between 329.15 and 335 MHz
to provide 40complementary channels. e.g. 329.15, 329.3, 329.45,
329.6 - 335 MHz.
Markers
All markers transmit at 75 MHz. There is no interference problem as
the radiation pattern is anarrow fan-shaped vertical beam.
The localizer (LLZ) transmits in the VHF band and is located about
300 m from the up-wind endof the runway.
The glide path (GP) transmitter operates in the UHF band, and is
frequency paired with thelocalizer. It is located 300 m in from the
threshold and about 200 m from the runway edgeabeam the touchdown
point.
Marker beacons transmit at 75 MHz in the VHF band. These include
the outer marker (OM),the middle marker (MM) and possibly an inner
marker (IM).
ILS Principle of Operation
Uses difference in depth of modulation between 2 overlapping lobes.
Localizer -
Right hand lobe – 150 Hz
modulation
Left hand lobe – 90 Hz
modulation
Glide Slope –
Upward lobe – 90 Hz
modulation
Downward lobe – 150 Hz
modulation
ILS Coverage
Localizer
The localizer coverage
sector extends from the
transmitter to distances of:
• 25 NM (46.3 km) within
plus or minus 10° from the
centre line.
• 17 NM (31.5 km) between
10° and 35° from the centre line.
• 10 NM (18.5 km) outside ± 35° if coverage is provided.
These limits may be reduced to 18 NM within 10° sector and 10 NM
within the remainder ofthe coverage when alternative navigational
facilities provide satisfactory coverage within theintermediate approach
area.
Glide Path
The glide path coverage extends from the transmitter to a distance of at
least:
10 NM (18.5 km) in sectors of 8° in azimuth on each side of the centre
line.
The vertical coverage is provided from 0.45θ up to 1.75θ above the
horizontal where θ is thepromulgated glide path angle. The lower limit
may be reduced to 0.3θ if required to safeguardthe promulgated glide
path intercept procedure.
ILS Categories (ICAO)
Category I
A category I ILS is one which provides guidance information from the
coverage limit of the ILSto the point at which the localizer course line
intersects the ILS glide path at a height of 200 ft(60 m) or less above
the horizontal plane containing the threshold.
Category II
An ILS which provides guidance information from the coverage limit
of the ILS to the point atwhich the localizer course line intersects the
ILS glide path at a height of 50 ft (15 m) or lessabove the horizontal
plane containing the threshold.
Category III
An ILS, which with the aid of ancillary equipment where necessary,
provides guidanceinformation from coverage limit of the facility to,
 and along, the runway surface.

TECHNICAL GENERAL
• Density- Density is defined as mass per unit volume. The unit for density
3 3 3
is kg/m or g/m . Sea level density- 1225 g/m . Density varies with static
pressure, temperature and humidity.

• Pressure- Static pressure is the weight of the atmosphere pressing down

2
on the air beneath. The unit for static pressure is N/m or hpa. Sea level
pressure- 1013.25 hpa.

• Temperature-It is the measure/intensity of heat. It is degrees Celsius (or

centigrade) when measured relative to the freezing point of water, or
Kelvin when measured relative to absolute zero.

• Humidity-The amount of water vapour contained in a given amount of

air.

Relationship between the above defined terms is as follows:

Density ∝ Pressure ∝ 1/ Temperature ∝ 1/Humidity

• Thrust- Thrust is the force needed to overcome the resistance of air

(drag) to the passage of an aircraft. Thrust is generated by the engines.
To maintain level flight at
 constant speed, constant
thrust is required; to climb
or descend the aircraft
whilst maintaining constant
speed, the thrust must be
increased or decreased; to
increase or reduce the
speed of the aircraft whilst
maintaining level flight, the
thrust must be increased or
decreased.

• Drag- Drag is the force which resists the forward motion of the aircraft.
Drag acts parallel to and in the same direction as the relative airflow (in
the opposite direction to the flight path).

• Lift-
Lift is defined as the net force generated normal (at 90°) to the
relative airflow or flight path of the aircraft. The aerodynamic force of lift
results from the pressure differential between the top and bottom
surfaces of the wing.

• Weight- Weight is the force generated by the gravitational attraction of

the earth on the airplane.

• Aerofoil- A shape capable of producing lift with relatively high efficiency.

• Angle of attack- The angle between the chord line and the Relative
Airflow.

• Centre of lift- It is the point where the sum total of all lift generated by
parts- principally by wings, control surfaces and aerodynamic fuselage
parts balances out and the aggregate direction their force will act on an
aircraft while in atmosphere.

• Stall-
Stall is defined as a sudden reduction in the lift generated by an
aerofoil when the critical angle of attack is reached or exceeded.

• Range- The maximum total distance an aircraft can fly between take-
off and landing as limited by fuel capacity in powered aircraft or cross-
country speed and environmental conditions in unpowered flight.

• Endurance- Endurance is the maximum length of time an aircraft can

spend in cruising flight. It is different from range which is a measure of
distance flown.

The forces acting on an aerofoil in level flight are-

1. Lift
 2. Drag
3. Thrust
4. Weight

Bernoulli’s Theorem
In the steady flow of an ideal fluid the sum of the pressure energy and the
kinetic energy remains constant. An ideal fluid is both incompressible and has
no viscosity. This statement can be expressed as:

Pressure + Kinetic energy = Constant or:

p + 1/2 ρ V2 = Constant

Bernoulli’s theorem is used to explain the flight of an aircraft. The airflow

velocity over the top surface of a lifting aerofoil will be greater than that
beneath, so the pressure differential that results will produce a force per unit
area acting upwards. The larger the surface area, the bigger the force that can
be generated.

Primary controls of an aircraft

1. Rudder for control in yaw about the normal axis (directional control).
2. Elevator for control in pitch about the lateral axis (longitudinal
control).
3. Ailerons for control in roll about the longitudinal axis (lateral control).

Trimming
➢ An airplane is trimmed when it will maintain its attitude and speed
without the pilot having to apply any load to the cockpit controls. The
aircraft may need to be trimmed in pitch as a result of:

• changes of speed
• changes of power
• varying CG positions
• changes of configuration

➢ Trimming in yaw will be

needed:
• on a multi-engine aircraft if there
is asymmetric power.
• as a result of changes in propeller torque.

➢ Methods of Trimming
Various methods of trimming are in use. The main ones are:
• the trimming tab.
• variable incidence (trimming) tailplane.
• spring bias
• CG adjustment.
• adjustment of the artificial feel unit.

➢ Use of a trim tab

A trim tab is a small adjustable surface set into the trailing edge of a
main control surface. Its deflection is controlled by a trim wheel or
electrical switch in the [Link] maintain the primary control surface in
its required position, the tab is moved in the opposite direction to the
control surface until the tab moment balances the control surface hinge
moment.

➢ Variable Incidence (Trimming) Tailplane

This system of trimming may be used on manually operated and power
operated controls. To trim, the tailplane incidence is adjusted by the trim
wheel until the tailplane load is equal to the previous elevator balancing
load required.
The main advantages of a variable incidence (trimming) tailplane are:
• The drag is less in the trimmed state as the aerofoil is more
streamlined.
• Trimming does not reduce the effective range of pitch control as the
elevator remains approximately neutral when the aircraft is trimmed.
• It is very powerful and gives an increased ability to trim for larger CG
and speed range. The disadvantage of a variable incidence (trimming)
tailplane is that it is more complex and is heavier than a conventional
trim tab system.

➢ Spring Bias
In the spring bias trim system, an adjustable spring force is used to
decrease the stick force. No tab is required for this system

➢ CG Adjustment
If the flying controls are used for trimming, this results in an increase of
drag due to the deflected surfaces. The out of balance pitching moment
can be reduced by moving the CG, thus reducing the balancing load
required and therefore the drag associated with it.

➢ Artificial Feel Trim

If the flying controls are power operated, there is no feedback of the
load on the control surface to the cockpit control. The feel on the
 controls has to be created artificially. When a control surface is moved,
the artificial feel unit provides a force to resist the movement of the
cockpit control. To remove this force (i.e. to trim) the datum of the feel
unit can be adjusted so that it no longer gives any load on the flight
deck controls.

.
Flaps
A flap is a hinged portion of the trailing
or leading edge which can be deflected
downwards and so produce an increase
of camber.
They are primarily used to reduce the
take-off and landing distances. This
permits operation at greater weights
from given runway lengths and enables
greater payloads to be carried
For low speed aerofoils the flaps will be
on the trailing edge only, but on high
speed aerofoils where the leading edge
may be symmetrical or have a negative
camber, there will usually be flaps on both the leading edge and the trailing
edge. Different type of flaps are-
o Plain flap
o Slotted flap
o Fowler flap
o Slotted flap
o Krueger flap
o Variable camber flaps

Landing gears
Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft which may be used for take-off
and landing. The functions of the landing gear are:

1. To provide a means of manoeuvring the aircraft on the ground.

2. To support the aircraft at a convenient height to give clearance for
propellers and flaps, etc. and to facilitate loading.
3. To absorb the kinetic energy of landing and provide a means of
controlling deceleration.

Operation of a piston engine

An aircraft piston engine, also commonly referred to as a reciprocating
engine is an internal combustion engine that uses one or more reciprocating
pistons to convert pressure into a rotational motion. It works on the principle of
conversion of mechanical energy into heat energy. Otto cycle (an idealized
thermodynamic cycle) describes the functioning of a typical spark ignition
piston engine.
Different types of arrangement of cylinders in a piston engine are-

1. V engine
2. Radial engine
3. In-line engine
4. Horizontally opposed engine

A Stroke is defined as the linear distance that the piston moves in the cylinder.
When the piston is at the top of the stroke it is said to be at Top Dead Centre
(TDC), and when at the bottom of the stroke Bottom Dead Centre (BDC). The
internal diameter of the cylinder is called the Bore.

The four strokes of an Otto cycle are:

a) Induction
b) Compression
c) Power
d) Exhaust

➢ Induction stroke

The momentum of the mixture increases as the induction stroke proceeds,

and towards the end of the stroke, it is such that the gases will continue to
flow into the cylinder even though the piston has passed BDC and is moving
upwards slightly.

➢ Compression stroke
As the piston moves upwards, the inlet valve closes and the gas is
compressed. By squeezing the gas into a smaller space the pressure that it
will exert when burnt is proportionally increased.

➢ Power stroke
Before the piston reaches TDC on the compression stroke the gas is
ignited by a spark, the momentum of the moving parts carrying the piston
past the TDC whilst the flame is spreading.

➢ Exhaust stroke
Finally the piston moves upward forcing the remaining gases out of the
cylinder. The exhaust valve is left open after TDC to permit the gases to
scavenge the cylinder as completely as possible by their momentum.

Fixed Pitch Propeller

➢ A propeller converts shaft

power from the engine into
thrust. It does this by
accelerating a mass of air
rearwards. Thrust from the
propeller is equal to the
mass of air accelerated
rearwards multiplied by the
acceleration given to it. A mass is accelerated rearwards and the equal
and opposite reaction drives the aircraft forwards.
➢ Fixed pitch propellers have their pitch or blade angle fixed. The blade
angle or pitch can’t be changed during the course of flight.

➢ At a constant RPM, increasing TAS decreases the angle of attack of a

fixed propeller.

➢ At a constant TAS, Increasing RPM increases the angle of attack of the

propeller.

➢ Aerodynamic forces acting on the propeller-

• Thrust- A component of
force at right angles to the
plane of rotation. The
thrust force will vary along
the length of each blade,
reducing at the tip where
the pressures equalize and
towards the root where the
rotational velocity is low.
Thrust will cause a bending moment on each blade, tending to
bend the tip forward. (Equal and opposite reaction to “throwing”
air backwards).

• Torque- Torque is the equal and opposite reaction to the propeller

being rotated, which generates a turning moment about the
aircraft longitudinal axis. Propeller torque also gives a bending
moment to the blades, but in the opposite direction to the plane of
rotation.

• Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM) - Components ‘A’ and ‘B’, of

 the centrifugal force acting on the blade, produce a moment
around the pitch change axis which tends to ‘fine’ the blade off.

• Aerodynamic Twisting Moment (ATM) - Because the blade CP

is in front of the pitch change axis, aerodynamic force generates
a moment around the pitch change axis acting in the direction of
coarse pitch.

The ATM partially offsets the CTM during normal engine operations, but
the CTM is dominant. However, when the propeller is windmilling, the
ATM acts in the same direction as the CTM and will reinforce it.

➢ Disadvantages of Fixed pitch propeller

With a fixed pitch propeller being driven by a piston engine, the rpm is
dependent on the power setting (throttle position) selected by the pilot and the
TAS of the aircraft. It would be possible to overspeed the engine in a dive if
the throttle were not backed off (closed).
Conversely, with the aircraft stationary on the ground it may not be possible to
achieve rated rpm with the throttle fully open.