Power System Protection

Keywords Study Guide — Dr. Saadi Part 1

1. Protection System — Introduction

Protection System = Science of applying relays/fuses with max sensitivity to faults
Protective Relay = Detect → Discriminate → Isolate faults ASAP

Why Protection is Needed (7 Reasons):

1. No fault-free system 2. Equipment very expensive 3. Reduce equipment damage
4. Improve safety 5. High SC burns conductors / welds transformer cores
6. Improve power quality 7. Reduce interruptions → reliable operation

Abnormal Conditions (not just SC): Over speed, Over/Under voltage, Over/Under frequency, Over excitation, Stator/Rotor overheating

Basic Requirements of Protection (5):

1. Detect, discriminate, isolate fault ASAP 2. Reduce fault damage at fault point
3. Minimize effect on rest of power system 4. Minimize danger to life
5. Minimize outage duration

Main Performance Criteria (7):

1. Discriminate load vs fault 2. Not confused by transients 3. Selective/coordinative
4. Fast enough but not too fast 5. No blind spots 6. Handle max fault current
7. High reliability & availability

2. Effects of Faults & Detection Methods

Main Effects of Faults (6):
1. Very large currents (10ms-3sec) → equipment damage 2. Arcing → sparking → heating
3. Very large mechanical forces → break equipment 4. Current through unsafe path → hazard
5. Reduce stability margin 6. Power interruption → financial loss

Method Protection Type

Magnitude of Current OC Protection
Mag of earth/neutral current Earth Fault
Mag + phase angle Directional OC
Mag + phase of earth Directional Earth Fault
Mag + phase of impedance (V) Impedance / Distance
Difference of two currents Differential
Diff of phase angle of 2 currents Phase Comparison
Mag of negative sequence Neg Seq / Unbalanced
Mag of voltage Over/Under Voltage
Mag of frequency Over/Under Frequency
Temperature Thermal Protection
Special (gas) Buchholz (Transformer)

3. Main Components of Protection System

Component Function
CT, VT (Transducers) Step down to safe values
Relay Senses abnormal, detects/locates fault → trip signal
Circuit Breaker Auto switch, receives trip signal, disconnects faulty part
DC Battery Uninterrupted power to relay/CB
Communication Link Send/receive trip signals between substations

Relay Circuit (3 Parts): 1. Primary winding of CT → series with CB/line 2. Secondary of CT → relay operating coil 3. Tripping circuit (DC/AC) → trip
coil of CB
 Data for Protection Design (7):
1. SLD with impedance & ratings 2. Max & min SC 3. Max load current
4. Motor starting/locked current & times 5. Transformer inrush, thermal damage limit
6. Generator fault current decay curve 7. Performance curve of CTs and relays

4. Protection Zones
Rules: System divided into zones, each with CB + relay. Relay closest to fault operates FIRST → trip CB of faulty zone.

Zone Rules (8):

1. Each zone bounded by CTs, CB 2. Zones may be closed (unit) or open (wide area)
3. Neighbouring zones overlap → full coverage 4. Overlapping around CB
5. Fault in zone → all CB in that zone trip 6. Fault in overlap → may trip >1 zone
7. Without overlap → unprotected parts 8. Without overlap around CB → faults at CB not isolated

5. Primary & Backup Protection

Primary Protection: Backup Protection Types:
• Main protection for zone Local: Same substation, time delay, different principles, reliable but
• Operates fast, disconnects min equipment expensive
• First line of defense
Remote: Neighbouring substation, simple, economical, widely used for
Duplicated Primary (EHV): TL, may disconnect large part
• Two independent systems
• Same time, different manufacturers Breaker Backup: Operates when CB fails, timer starts when trip coil
• Separate CTs, VTs energized, all CB on busbar trip

6. Essential Quantities of Protection

Reliability = Nc / (Nc + Nu + Nf) Dependability = Nc / No x 100% Security = Nc / (Nc + Nu) x 100%

Quantity Definition Improved By

Reliability Operate correctly during service Redundancy (more cost)
Dependability Trips ONLY when expected Increasing sensitivity
Security Does NOT trip when not expected Better selectivity
Sensitivity Detect smallest faults Zero seq current, lower VA
Speed Disconnect ASAP Speed & Accuracy inverse
Selectivity Isolate only faulty part Proper coordination
Discrimination Normal vs abnormal, in/out zone Relay settings

Relay Speed: Instantaneous (no delay) | Time Delay (intentional) | High Speed (<50ms, 3 cycles) | Ultra Speed (~4ms)
Relay: ~1 cycle | CB: ~2 cycles | Total clearing: ~3 cycles

Examples:
Ex1) No=14, Nc=12, Nf=3 → NIC=2, Reliability=70.59%, Dependability=80%, Security=85.71%
Ex2) No=15, Nc=12, Nf=2 → Dependability=85.71%, Security=80%, Reliability=70.85%
 7. Types of Relays — Classification
Type Mechanism Key Features
Electromechanical Mechanical movement by EM/thermal force Reliable, still used, high burden, moving parts
Static Semiconductors (thyristor, diodes, transistors) Fast, low burden, needs aux DC, sensitive to temp
Numerical (Digital) Processor, binary logic, software Multiple settings, self-monitoring, communication, low
burden

8. Attracted Armature Relay

Principle: EM force attracts plunger/hinged arm. Spring provides restraining force. Contact closes when EM force > restraining force. EM Force
proportional to I2.
AC: Force pulsating at 2x freq → solved by splitting pole. DC: Force constant.
Characteristics: Fast (10-50ms), low power (0.05-0.2W), small moving part → fast reset.
Types (6): Hinged Arm, Plunger, Balanced Beam, Moving Coil, Polarized Moving Iron, Reed type

9. Induction Relay
Induction Disk (Non-directional): Induction Cup:
• Aluminum disk, C-shaped EM with shaded ring • Hollow cylindrical rotor, 4-8 poles
• Below pickup: stationary; Above: rotates → close contact • Faster than disk
• Robust, reliable, used for OC protection • High sensitivity & speed (<0.1s)
• Inverse time-current relation • Torque/VA about 3x disk
• Slower than cup & attracted armature • Smooth, non-vibrating torque
• Settings: Current setting (coil tapping) + Time setting (backstop) • Application: Directional control

10. Thermal Relay

Operates by: Electro-thermal effect. Protects small motors against overloading/unbalanced current.
Construction: Bimetallic strip (2 metals, different thermal expansion), spiral shape → higher sensitivity.
3-phase motor: 3 strips (1/phase). If I unbalanced >= 12:1 → contact operates.
Large generators: Thermal sensor in stator → bridge circuit → unbalanced at high temp → relay operates.
Types: Bimetallic, Thermocouple, RTD

11. Static Relay

Advantages: Disadvantages:
• No moving parts • Sensitive to temp & voltage transients
• Lower CT/VT burden • Needs auxiliary DC supply
• Fast response, long life • Complex design
• Low maintenance, compact
• High sensitivity

Block Diagram: CT/VT → Rectifier → Measuring Circuit → Amplifier → O/P Device → Trip
Comparator Types: Simple Level Detector | Amplitude Comparator | Phase Comparator | Hybrid
Classification: Static OC, Static Directional, Static Differential, Static Distance

12. Digital (Numerical) Relay

Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Multiple setting groups • Short life cycle
• Self-monitoring & self-testing • Software updates required
• Communication capable • Sensitive to EMI/RFI
• Lower cost per function • Redesign needed
• Low burden on CT/VT

Block Diagram: Power Sys → CT/VT → Isolating Transformer & Surge Protection → AAF → Multiplexer → S/H → ADC → CPU (EPROM, RAM, Event
Storage)

13. OC Relay Settings & Calculations

Key Definitions:
Pickup Level: Min current/voltage at which relay starts operation
Operating Time: Time from exceeding pickup to contact close
Current Setting = (Pickup Current / Rated Secondary CT) x 100%
PSM = Fault Current in relay coil (sec) / Pickup Current
Formulas:
Pickup Value = (Current Setting x Rated Sec CT) / 100
Fault Current (sec) = If(primary) x (CT sec / CT prim)
PSM = If(sec) / Pickup

Examples:
Ex3) CT 200/1A, CS=150%, Ip=1000A → Pickup=1.5A, If_sec=5A, PSM=3.333
Ex4) CS=150%, CT 100/5A, If=1500A → Pickup=7.5A, If_sec=75A, PSM=10
Ex6) PSM, TMS, Ttrip=2.4s, CT 100/5A, If=1000A, CS=100% → PSM=10, at TMS=1 t=3s → TMS=0.8
 14. Over Current Relay Types (50/51)
Type Description Application
Definite Time Fixed time after I > pickup Simple time delay required
n
Inverse Time Time decreases as I increases: t = K/I Backup coordination
IDMT Inverse at low I, definite at high I. Most widely used Distribution systems
Very Inverse Better selectivity, I decreases with distance Motor protection, ground faults
Extremely Inverse Good for thermal protection Transformer, gen, cable
Instantaneous (50) No delay (~0.1s), near source High SC near source

OC Relay Principle: Operates on current only. Normal: mag force < restraining → no trip. Fault: mag force > restraining → operate → contact close →
CB trip.
Application: Distribution & subtransmission, LV-MV up to HV. Protects against overload & SC.
Limitation: Can't detect fault direction → use directional OCR.

15. Coordination Methods

Method How It Works Adv / Dis

Time Graded Different time delays, increases toward source. Margin ~0.5s. Used + Simple, reliable
when Zs >> Z1 - Long clearing near source

Current Graded Different pickups, increases toward source. Operating time constant. + Faster near source
Used when Zs << Z1 - Poor discrimination, 80% coverage

Combination (IDMT) Both current + time setting. Most widely used. Graded toward + High selectivity, fast for high I
source. Margin ~0.5s + Best speed & accuracy

16. Application of OC Protection

Equipment Protection Method
Transformer < 500kVA Fuses
Transformer up to 5MVA OC Relay
Transformer > 5MVA Differential + OC (backup)
Small Motor Thermal relay (OL) + HRC fuses (SC)
Medium Motor OC relay on stator
Large Motor (>1200 HP) Inverse time + instantaneous OC, phase/earth fault

17. Directional Over Current Protection

Why Needed? Multi-source systems (ring, parallel feeders). Normal OC can't detect direction.
Working: Two inputs: Operating (Current from CT) + Polarizing (Voltage as reference).
Relay compares phase angle. Forward fault → operate. Reverse fault → block.
Two Methods: Directional Control (checks direction first) | Directional OC (series contact)
Polarizing: Use healthy phase voltage (Vbc for phase A fault) because faulted phase collapses.

Protected Phase Operating Polarizing

A Ia Vbc
B Ib Vca
C Ic Vab

18. Negative Sequence & Earth Fault Relays

Negative Sequence Relay: Protects gen/motors against unbalanced current. Causes: line faults, open phase. Danger: extra rotor heating, reduced
efficiency.

Unrestricted Earth Fault: Restricted Earth Fault (REF):

• Operates on vector sum IA+IB+IC • Protects star winding ONLY
• Normal: sum = 0 → no trip • Compares residual vs neutral current
• Earth fault: sum != 0 → trip • Internal fault: trip; External: no trip
 19. Differential Relay
Principle (KCL): Compare Iin vs Iout. Normal: Iin=Iout → Idiff=0 → no trip. Fault: Iin != Iout → Idiff != 0 → trip. Protects specific zone between CTs (unit
protection).
Features: Simple, very fast, very defined clearing area, expensive, distance limitation.

Type How It Works Notes

Voltage Balance External: |Vs1|=|Vs2| → no trip. Internal: Vs1!=Vs2 → trip Compares voltages

Unbiased (Current Balance) External: Is1=Is2 → no trip. Internal: Is1+Is2!=0 → trip Inter-turn fault: NOT detected!

Percentage (Biased) Operating + Restraining coils. Trip if Id > K x Ir (K=slope) Overcomes CT errors & tap changer effects

Unbiased Differential Disadvantages: CT secondary mismatch, error during SC, tap changer → false operation, pilot cable impedance, CT saturation,
line charging current.

20. Distance (Impedance) Relay

Principle: Measures Z = V/I from relay location. Z proportional to line length. Normal: Z high → no operation. Fault: V down, I up → Z low → operate
when Zm < Zset.
Zm = Zp x (CT ratio / VT ratio). If Zm < Zs → fault inside → operate.

Features: High accuracy (uses V,I), Directional (phase angle V,I), Fast, Provides backup, Wide application (TL main, transformer/gen backup, loss of
field).

Plain Impedance Relay: Zm = sqrt(R2+X2), operates in all 4 quadrants. Non-directional → disadvantage.

Disadvantages: Arc Resistance Effect:

• Non-directional (plain) • Relay measures Zp + Rarc → higher Z
• Affected by arc resistance → under-reach • Fails to operate for internal fault
• Affected by power swing → Solution: reduce setting to 80%
→ Solution: Mho Relay Power Swing: V,I oscillate → false trip
→ Solution: power swing blocking

21. Distance Relay Zones

Zone Coverage Time Notes

Zone 1 (Primary) 80-85% of line Instantaneous Not 100% to avoid over-reach

Zone 2 (Backup) 120-150% ~0.5s delay Covers remaining 20% + part of next line

Zone 3 (Remote) 120-180% More delay Remote backup

Coordination time between zones = 0.3s

Advantages: Fast, high accuracy, primary + backup, suitable for HV/EHV
Disadvantages: Needs VTs, affected by arc resistance & power swing
Additional features: Power swing blocking, directional earth fault, fault locator, event recorder

Zone Setting Examples:

Ex4) Line 80km, CT 2000:5, VT 200kV/69V → Z1=0.85x80=68 ohm, Relay=9.384 ohm; Z2=1.4x80=112 ohm, Relay=15.456 ohm
Ex5) 230kV, L1: 2+j20, L2: 2.5+j25 → Z1=0.8x(2+j20), Z2=1.4x(ZL1+ZL2), Z3=1.2x(ZL1+ZL2)

22. Instrument Transformers (CT & VT)

Tasks: 1. Step down current (1 or 5A) / voltage (69 or 120V) 2. Insulation → protect relays from HV 3. Standardization

Voltage Transformer (VT): Current Transformer (CT):

• Shunt connected (parallel) • Step down to 1 or 5A
Types: Types:
• Electromagnetic VT: 2-winding, oil filled, LV-MV (33-50kV) • M-type: accurate to 125% Ir, saturates early
• Capacitor VT (CVT): cap divider + EM, HV (132-400kV), economical for • P-type: accurate to 20xIr, avoids saturation
EHV Vk (Knee): 10% V increase → 50% Im increase
Residual V: Open delta → Vres=Va+Vb+Vc Protection CT: ~500V; Metering: <100V
Normal: 0; Earth fault: !=0 → operate NEVER open secondary! → dangerous HV
Ratio Error = (Kn x Vs - Vp)/Vp x 100

CT Saturation Factors: High DC offset, high fault current, low CT ratio, high burden, low accuracy class.
Avoid Saturation: Higher CT ratio, separate protection CTs, reduce burden.
CT Construction: Bar type, Window type, Wound type. Ratio Factor = 1/(1-epsilon)
 23. Transmission Line Protection
Challenges: Wide range of fault current levels, load current effect, fault direction, system config.
Devices: Fuses → Sectionalizer → Recloser → Inst OC → Inverse Time OC → Directional OC → Distance → Pilot
Requirements: 1. Selectivity (nearest CB first) 2. Backup 3. High speed 4. Reliability

Pilot Protection: Non-Pilot Protection:

• Communication between both ends • Uses only local measurements (one end)
• Faster, more sensitive • Relay decides on local I & V
• Channels: PLC, Fiber optic, Microwave • No communication → simple, cheaper
• Clears 100% of line instantaneously • Less accurate

Device Function
Fuse Simplest, melts when current exceeds limit
Recloser Auto CB: trips during fault, recloses after preset time
Sectionalizer Can't interrupt fault by itself, works with recloser, counts trips, opens after preset count

24. OC Setting Rules & TL Settings

OC Setting Rules:
1. Load current → 50-200% safety margin 2. Min fault current (Ph-Ph, Ph-E) 3. Backup for failure
4. Max fault current < thermal limit 5. Time coordination

Phase OC: 1/3 x If_min >= Ipu >= 2 x Iload_max

Ground Relay: Ipu_G = 0.15 x Iload_max
Coordination margin = 0.3-0.5s
Instantaneous (50): Iinst = (1.25-1.35) x I_max_downstream_fault

25. Classification of Protective Schemes — Summary

Scheme Application Key Feature

Over Current Distribution, motors, bulk equipment I > pickup → trip

Distance TL (33, 66, 132 kV) Measures Z, types: Impedance, Reactance, Mho

Carrier Current EHV/UHV (>132 kV) HF signals (50-500 kHz), both ends communicate

Differential Gen, transformer, motor, busbar Compare Iin vs Iout, internal fault → trip

26. Directional Ground Fault OC Relay

Used in: Bi-directional systems, isolated/Petersen grounded.
Principle: Operating qty = Ires = 3I0, Polarizing qty = Vres = 3V0.
Forward fault → trip; Reverse fault → block.

27. Pilot & PLC Protection

Non-Pilot Distance: Zm <= Zset → fault inside → operate.
Zone 1: 85-90% (instant) | Zone 2: 120-150% (delay) | Zone 3: 120-180% (remote backup)
Pilot Protection: Communication between ends → clears 100% instantaneously.
Channels: PLC (Power Line Carrier), Fiber optic, Microwave, Pilot wire
PLC System: Wave trap → coupling capacitor → transmitter/receiver → RF choke