Unit I: Simple Stresses and Strains.

1. Properties and Classification of Materials

This section covers the fundamental behaviors of materials under external forces and the
standard tests used to determine these properties.

1.1 Classification of Materials

Materials are classified based on their response to external forces, particularly their ability to
deform and return to their original state after the load is removed.

 Elastic Materials: These materials can return completely to their original shape and size
after the removal of an external force. This property is known as elasticity. Most
structural materials like steel are considered perfectly elastic within a certain stress limit.
 Plastic Materials: These materials do not return to their original shape upon the removal
of forces and undergo permanent deformation. Plasticity is a crucial property for
processes like molding materials into specific shapes.
 Ductile Materials: These materials can undergo significant plastic deformation before
rupturing, which allows them to be drawn into thin wires. Mild steel and copper are
examples of ductile materials.
 Brittle Materials: These materials fail by rupturing with minimal plastic deformation.
Glass, cast iron, and concrete are examples of brittle materials.

1.2 Introduction to Mechanical Tests on Metals

To understand the mechanical properties of materials, several standardized tests are performed.

 Tensile Test: This is the most common test to investigate mechanical properties. A
standard specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing tensile force until it fractures.
The test provides crucial information like the proportional limit, elastic limit, yield
point, and ultimate strength.
 Compressive Test: Primarily used for brittle materials like concrete, stone, and cast iron,
which are stronger in compression than in tension. The test involves applying a pushing
force that tends to shorten the material.
 Impact Test: This test evaluates a material's toughness, which is its ability to absorb
energy under shock loading. The Izod and Charpy tests are common methods for
determining a material's energy absorption capacity during failure from sudden loads.
 Fatigue Test: This test analyzes a material's response to repeated or cyclic loading. It
determines the endurance limit, which is the maximum stress a material can withstand
for a very large number of cycles without failing. Failure under such conditions is known
as fatigue fracture.
 Torsion Test: Used to determine properties in shear, such as the modulus of rigidity
(G). In this test, a circular tube or shaft is twisted, and the relationship between the
applied torque and the angle of twist is measured.
2. Fundamental Concepts of Stress and Strain

2.1 Concept of Stress (Normal and Shear)

When a body is subjected to external forces, it deforms and develops internal resisting forces to
maintain equilibrium.

 Stress (σ or τ) is defined as this internal resistance per unit area. It is expressed as σ =

P/A, where P is the force and A is the cross-sectional area.
 Normal Stress (σ): This stress acts perpendicular to the cross-section.
o Tensile Stress: Occurs when forces tend to elongate a member. It is considered
positive.
o Compressive Stress: Occurs when forces tend to shorten a member. It is
considered negative.
 Shear Stress (τ): This stress acts parallel or tangential to the cross-section. It arises from
forces causing one part of the material to slide relative to an adjacent part.
o Complementary Shear Stress: A shear stress on one plane is always
accompanied by an equal shear stress on a perpendicular plane to ensure
equilibrium.

2.2 Concept of Strain and Deformation

Deformation is the change in the shape or size of a body due to applied forces. Strain (ε) is the
measure of this deformation per unit length and is a dimensionless quantity.

 Longitudinal (Linear) Strain: This is the change in length per unit of the original length
in the direction of the applied force. For a bar of length L that changes by ΔL, the strain is
ε = ΔL / L.
 Transverse (Lateral) Strain: When a bar is stretched or compressed axially, it also
contracts or expands in the transverse directions. This deformation per unit of the original
lateral dimension is the lateral strain.
 Poisson's Ratio (ν or μ): Within the elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal
strain is a constant for a given material. Poisson's Ratio (ν) = Lateral Strain /
Longitudinal Strain For most metals, its value is between 0.25 and 0.33; for steel, it's
about 0.3.
 Volumetric Strain (εv): This is the change in volume per unit of original volume. For a
rectangular body, it is the sum of the strains in the three mutually perpendicular
directions: εv = εx + εy + εz. For an element under a single axial stress σx, the volumetric
strain is εv = εx (1 - 2ν).
 Shear Strain (γ): This is the angular distortion that occurs in a body subjected to shear
stress.

2.3 Hooke's Law and Elastic Constants

 Hooke's Law: This fundamental law states that within the elastic limit, stress is directly
proportional to strain.
 o For normal stress: σ = Eε, where E is the Modulus of Elasticity or Young's
Modulus.
o For shear stress: τ = Gγ, where G is the Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus.
 Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K): This is the ratio of direct stress to the corresponding
volumetric strain when a body is subjected to equal stresses in three mutually
perpendicular directions (hydrostatic pressure). K = σ / εv
 Relationship between Elastic Constants: The three elastic constants are related by the
following equations:
o E = 2G (1 + ν)
o E = 3K (1 - 2ν)
o E = 9KG / (3K + G)

3. Stresses and Strains in Bars

3.1 Bars Subjected to Tension and Compression

For a uniform bar of length L and cross-sectional area A subjected to an axial force P, the
following apply within the elastic limit:

 Stress: σ = P / A
 Strain: ε = σ / E = P / (AE)
 Elongation/Shortening: ΔL = εL = PL / (AE)

3.2 Extension of a Uniform Bar under its Own Weight

A vertical bar hanging under its own weight experiences varying stress and elongation.

 The maximum stress occurs at the top (built-in end) and is σ_max = γL, where γ is the
weight per unit volume.
 The total elongation of the bar is half of that produced by a load equal to the bar's total
weight applied at its end. ΔL = (γL²) / (2E) = WL / (2AE), where W is the total weight
of the bar.

3.3 Stress in Compound and Tapering Bars

 Compound (Composite) Bars: These are bars made of two or more materials rigidly
joined together. When subjected to a load, the strain is the same for all components, but
the stress varies depending on their respective moduli of elasticity (σ₁/E₁ = σ₂/E₂). The
total load is the sum of the loads carried by each material (P = P₁ + P₂). Such problems
are statically indeterminate.
 Bars with Varying Cross-Sections (Tapering Bars): For bars with gradually varying
cross-sections, stress is not uniform. The total elongation is found by integrating the
elongation of an elemental length dx over the entire length of the bar.
o For a uniformly tapering circular bar of diameters d₁ and d₂: ΔL = 4PL /
(πEd₁d₂)
 o For a uniformly tapering rectangular bar of constant thickness t and varying
width w₁ to w₂: ΔL = [PL / (Et(w₂ - w₁))] * logₑ(w₂/w₁)

4. Stress-Strain Diagram, Mechanical Properties, and Safety

4.1 Stress-Strain Diagram for Mild Steel

A typical stress-strain diagram for mild steel shows several key points:

1. Limit of Proportionality (A): The point up to which stress is directly proportional to

strain (Hooke's Law applies).
2. Elastic Limit: The maximum stress a material can withstand without permanent
deformation after the load is removed. For steel, it is very close to the proportional limit.
3. Yield Point (B): The stress at which the material begins to deform plastically without an
appreciable increase in load. Structural steel often shows an upper and lower yield
point.
4. Ultimate Strength (C): The maximum stress the material can sustain, calculated based
on the original cross-sectional area.
5. Fracture Point (D): The point where the specimen breaks.

The sources do not explicitly show a diagram for HYSD (High Yield Strength Deformed) steel,
but it is known from outside sources that HYSD steel does not exhibit a well-defined yield point
and has a higher ultimate strength and lower ductility compared to mild steel.

4.2 Proof Stress

For materials without a clear yield point (like HYSD steel or aluminum), a proof stress is
determined. This is the stress required to produce a specified, small amount of permanent strain,
commonly 0.2% (0.002). This is determined using the offset method on the stress-strain
diagram.

4.3 Mechanical Properties and Factor of Safety

 Mechanical Properties: These are determined from tests and include values like yield
strength, ultimate strength, ductility (measured by percentage elongation and reduction in
area), and toughness.
 Factor of Safety (n): In design, the working stress (σw) is kept well below the material's
failure stress. The factor of safety is the ratio of the ultimate stress or yield point stress to
the working stress. n = Yield Point Stress / Working Stress (for ductile materials) n =
Ultimate Stress / Working Stress (for brittle materials) The value of 'n' depends on
factors like the accuracy of load calculations, material homogeneity, and the type of
loading (static vs. dynamic).

5. Temperature Stresses and Strains

When a material's natural expansion or contraction due to a temperature change is prevented,
internal stresses called thermal stresses are induced.

 If a bar of length L with a coefficient of thermal expansion α undergoes a temperature

change Δt, its free change in length would be ΔL = αLΔt.
 If this change in length is fully prevented by rigid supports, the resulting thermal stress is
σ = EαΔt. This stress is compressive if the temperature rises and tensile if it falls.
 If the supports yield by an amount a, the prevented deformation is (αLΔt - a), and the
stress is σ = E(αLΔt - a) / L.
 In composite bars, different thermal expansions of the constituent materials induce
stresses even without external constraints. The material with the higher coefficient of
expansion will be in compression, and the one with the lower coefficient will be in
tension upon a temperature rise.
Unit II: Moment of Inertia.
1. Concept of Moment of Inertia, Second Moment of Area, and Radius of
Gyration

1.1 Concept of Moment of Inertia and Second Moment of Area

The term "moment of inertia" is often encountered in the study of mechanics. In the context of
rigid body dynamics, it refers to a body's resistance to changes in its rotational motion about an
axis and is a measure of the distribution of its mass. It is calculated as the integral ∫r²dm, where
dm is a mass element and r is its perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation. The units are
typically mass × length², such as kg·m².

However, in the context of the strength of materials, particularly when analyzing the bending of
beams, a similar mathematical expression, ∫y²dA, is frequently used. Here, dA is an element of a
plane area, and y is its distance from a given axis in the plane of that area.

 Second Moment of Area: This is the correct term for the quantity ∫y²dA. It is a purely
geometric property of a cross-section that describes its ability to resist bending and
deflection. Its units are length to the fourth power (e.g., mm⁴, m⁴).
 Common Usage: Despite the formal distinction, it is a very common and long-standing
practice in strength of materials to refer to the "second moment of area" simply as the
"moment of inertia". The sources use these terms interchangeably when discussing the
properties of plane areas. This property is crucial for analyzing stresses and deflections in
beams.

1.2 Radius of Gyration

The radius of gyration (k or r) is a length that represents how the area of a cross-section is
distributed with respect to a specific axis. It is defined as the distance from the axis at which the
entire area could be concentrated to produce the same moment of inertia.

 It is calculated by the formula: k = √(I/A), where I is the moment of inertia and A is the
cross-sectional area.
 Subscripts are used to denote the axis, for example, kₓ = √(Iₓ/A).
 The concept is particularly important in the design and analysis of columns, where the
slenderness ratio (length/radius of gyration) is a key parameter for determining buckling
strength.

1.3 Polar Moment of Inertia

The polar moment of inertia (J or Iₚ) of a plane area is its moment of inertia with respect to an
axis perpendicular to the plane of the area. It is defined by the integral J = ∫r²dA, where r is the
distance of the area element dA from the point where the perpendicular axis intersects the plane.

 The polar moment of inertia is a measure of a shaft's resistance to torsion or twisting.

2. Theorems of Parallel and Perpendicular Axes

2.1 Parallel Axis Theorem

This theorem provides a method to calculate the moment of inertia of an area about any axis,
provided the moment of inertia about a parallel axis passing through the area's centroid is known.

 The theorem states: Iₐₐ = Iɢɢ + Ad².

 Where:
o Iₐₐ is the moment of inertia about any axis AA.
o Iɢɢ is the moment of inertia about a parallel axis GG that passes through the
centroid of the area.
o A is the total area of the section.
o d is the perpendicular distance between the two parallel axes.
 This theorem is extremely useful for calculating the moment of inertia of composite
areas, which are made up of several simple geometric shapes. The moment of inertia of
the composite area is the sum of the moments of inertia of its component parts, each
transferred to the common axis using this theorem.

2.2 Perpendicular Axis Theorem

This theorem relates the polar moment of inertia to the moments of inertia about two mutually
perpendicular axes in the plane of the area that intersect at the pole (the point where the
perpendicular axis pierces the plane).

 The theorem states: J = Iₓₓ + Iᵧᵧ.

 Where:
o J (or Izz) is the polar moment of inertia about an axis (Z) perpendicular to the
plane of the area.
o Iₓₓ and Iᵧᵧ are the moments of inertia about two perpendicular axes (X and Y) that
lie in the plane of the area and intersect the Z-axis at the same point.

3. Second Moment of Area of Common Sections

The sources provide the following formulas for the second moment of area (moment of inertia)
of common geometrical sections about their centroidal axes (axes passing through the centroid).
The derivations are not included, as specified in your query.

 Rectangle (width b, depth h):

o About the horizontal centroidal axis: Iₓₓ = bh³/12.
o About the vertical centroidal axis: Iᵧᵧ = hb³/12.
o About the base: I_base = bh³/3.
 Triangle (base b, height h):
o About the base: I_base = bh³/12.
o About the centroidal axis parallel to the base: Iₓₓ = bh³/36.
 Circle (diameter d, radius r):
 o About a diameter: Iₓₓ = πd⁴/64 = πr⁴/4.
o Polar moment of inertia about the center: J = πd⁴/32 = πr⁴/2.

4. Second Moment of Area for L, T, and I Sections

The moment of inertia for composite shapes like L, T, and I sections is calculated by dividing the
section into simpler rectangular components. The total moment of inertia about a centroidal axis
of the composite shape is found by summing the moments of inertia of each component part
about that same axis. This is done using the parallel axis theorem to transfer the moment of
inertia of each component from its own centroidal axis to the centroidal axis of the entire section.

The general procedure is:

1. Divide the composite section (L, T, or I) into simple rectangular areas.

2. Locate the centroid of the entire composite section. This determines the position of the
neutral axis for bending.
3. Calculate the moment of inertia of each rectangular component about its own
centroidal axis (using I = bh³/12).
4. Use the parallel axis theorem (I = Iɢɢ + Ad²) to transfer the moment of inertia of each
component to the centroidal axis of the entire section.
5. Sum the results to get the total moment of inertia for the composite section.

5. Section Modulus

The section modulus (Z or S) is a geometric property of a cross-section that indicates its

efficiency in resisting bending moment. It is a key parameter in the design of beams for strength.

 It is defined as the ratio of the moment of inertia (I) about the neutral axis to the distance
(y_max) from the neutral axis to the most remote fiber of the section.
o Z = I / y_max.
 The bending stress (σ) in a beam is given by σ = M/Z, where M is the bending moment.
For a given bending moment, a larger section modulus results in a lower maximum
bending stress.
 Unsymmetrical Sections: For sections that are not symmetrical about the neutral axis
(like a T-section), there are two values for y_max: one for the top fiber (yₜ) and one for
the bottom fiber (yᵦ). This results in two section moduli: Zₜ = I/yₜ and Zᵦ = I/yᵦ. The
design must consider the lower of the two values to ensure the permissible stress is not
exceeded in either tension or compression.
Unit-III: Shear Force and Bending Moment
Concept of a Beam and Supports

A beam is a common structural element used to span distances and carries loads predominantly
transverse to its longitudinal axis. The primary effect of these loads is to bend the beam.

Support Type Structural Characteristics Reactive Components

Allows rotation but prevents translation Two reactive forces (horizontal and
Hinged/Pinned
(horizontal and vertical). vertical).

Allows rotation and translation parallel to the

One reactive force, perpendicular to
Roller surface; prevents movement normal to the
the surface.
surface.

Three components: vertical force,

Fixed/Built-in Prevents rotation and translation. horizontal force, and a restraining
moment.

Types of Beams (Concept Only)

Beam Type Description Determinacy

Simply Supported by a hinge at one end and a roller

Statically determinate.
Supported (SS) at the other.

Fixed support at one end and entirely free at

Cantilever Statically determinate.
the other.

One or both supports are shifted inward,

Overhanging resulting in segments extending beyond the Statically determinate.
supports.

A beam (or cantilever) supported at an Statically indeterminate (e.g., beam

Propped intermediate point, typically to limit built-in at one end and supported at the
excessive deflection. other).

Anchored at both ends, preventing both

Fixed/Built-in Statically indeterminate.
rotation and translation.
Continuous Supported at more than two points. Statically indeterminate.

Types of Loads and Loading

Loads on structures can be classified based on their nature:

 Dead Loads: Include the self-weight of the structure and other fixed loads.
 Live Loads: Loads that do not have a fixed position.
 Other specific loads include wind loads, snow loads, and seismic loads.

Loads can also be classified based on their distribution (types of loading):

 Point Load (or Concentrated Load): A large load acting over a small area, considered to act at a
point. Causes an immediate, vertical jump in the shear force diagram.
 Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL): The load is uniformly spread over a length. Produces a linear
change in shear force and a parabolic change in bending moment.
 Uniformly Varying Load (UVL): The load intensity is not uniform but varies along the length
(e.g., triangular load).

Concept of Bending Moment and Shear Force

When using the section method to analyze a beam, the internal forces developed at the section
are collectively known as internal stress resultants.

 Shear Force (SF): The internal force (or algebraic sum of external forces) perpendicular to the
beam axis. It represents the action of forces that try to shear off the section.
 Bending Moment (BM): The internal moment (or algebraic sum of the moments of external
forces) about the centroid of the section. It represents the action of forces that try to bend the
section.

Sign Conventions

Quantity Positive Convention Resulting Deformation (Visual)

Left side forces act upwards OR Right side forces Left segment tends to slide up relative
Shear Force
act downwards. to the right segment.

Bending Left side moments are clockwise OR Right side

Sagging (Concave upwards).
Moment moments are anticlockwise.

Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagrams

Diagrams visually represent the variation of SF and BM along the length of the beam, which is
crucial for identifying maximum values for design.
Beam & Loading SFD Profile BMD Profile Salient Points

Cantilever, Concentrated Load Linear, zero at Max BM: M = -PL at

Constant.
(P) at Free End free end. fixed end.

Linear, zero at free end, Parabolic, zero at Max BM: M = -(wl2)/2

Cantilever, UDL (w)
maximum at fixed end. free end. at fixed end.

Simply Supported (SS), Constant, changes abruptly Linear, triangular Max BM: M = (Wl)/4 at
Central Point Load (W) at load. shape. midpoint.

Simply Supported (SS), UDL Parabolic, zero at Max BM: M = (wl2)/8 at

Linear, zero at midpoint.
(w) supports. midpoint.

SS, UVL (Zero at one end, max SF zero point gives

Parabolic curve. Cubic curve.
at other) maximum moment.

Relationship between Load, Shear Force, and Bending Moment

The mathematical relationships are derived from considering the equilibrium of an elemental
length dx:

1. Rate of Change of BM is SF: The slope of the bending moment diagram at any point is equal to
the shearing force at that point dx/dM=V.
2. Rate of Change of SF is Load Intensity: The slope of the shearing force diagram is equal to the
intensity of the load (with negative sign if q acts downward) (dx/dV=-q)
3. Degree of Curves: The shear force curve is one degree higher than the load curve, and the
bending moment curve is one degree higher than the shear force curve.

 Point of Maximum Bending Moment: The bending moment is maximum (or minimum) at the
section where the shear force is zero (i.e., where the SF changes sign).
 Point of Contraflexure: This is the point along the length of the beam where the bending
moment changes sign (i.e., where M=0). These points are typically found in overhanging or
continuous beams.

Fixed and Continuous Beams - Simple Numerical Problems

These types of beams are statically indeterminate.

 Fixed Beams: The fixing moments at the ends counterbalance the bending moments induced by
the applied loads. For a fixed beam of span l carrying a Uniformly Distributed Load w over the
whole span, the fixing moments at both ends are: MA=MB=-(wl2)/12.
The maximum positive BM at the center is reduced compared to a simply supported beam.
 Continuous Beams: Analyzed often using Clapeyron’s theorem of three moments, which
provides a method to determine the bending moments at the supports.
Unit-IV: Bending and Shear Stresses in Beams
Bending Stresses in Beams

Concept of Pure/Simple Bending

Pure bending (or simple bending) occurs when a segment of a beam is subjected only to a
constant bending moment, and the shear force is zero. The absence of shear force ensures the
validity of the assumptions made in the simple bending theory.

Assumptions Made in the Theory of Simple Bending

The derivation of the bending equation relies on several key assumptions:

1. The material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic.

2. The beam is straight and of uniform cross-section.
3. The elastic limit of the material is not exceeded.
4. Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending. This implies a linear strain
distribution across the depth of the beam.
5. Young’s modulus (E) is the same in tension and compression.
6. The applied external loads are responsible only for bending, implying negligible shear stresses.

Derivation and Application of Bending Equation

The fundamental relationship derived from the assumption of linear strain variation is the
Bending Equation (or flexure formula):

M/I = y/σ = R/E

Where:

 M is the Bending Moment (or Moment of Resistance).

 I is the Moment of Inertia (Second Moment of Area) about the Neutral Axis (NA).
 σ is the bending stress at distance y from the NA.
 E is Young's modulus.
 R is the radius of curvature.

The Neutral Axis (NA) is the layer in the beam section where the longitudinal stress and strain
are zero. In simple bending, the NA passes through the centroid of the cross-section.

Moment of Resistance and Calculation of Bending Stresses

  Moment of Resistance: The internal resisting couple formed by the compressive and tensile
stresses developed in the section. For equilibrium, this must equal the external bending
moment M.
 Section Modulus (Z): Defined as Z=I/ymax. The maximum moment capacity (M) of a section is
given by M= σmax.Z.
 Calculation of Bending Stresses: The maximum tensile and compressive stresses occur at the
outermost fibers y=ymax.

Application to Circular, I, T, and L Cross-sections

 Circular Cross-section: For a circular section of diameter d, the moment of inertia is I=(πd4)/64
and the section modulus is Z=(πd3)/32.
 I, T, & L Sections: These sections (I-section, T-section, L-section) are often unsymmetrical with
respect to the horizontal axis. Calculating bending stresses involves finding the centroid to
locate the NA, determining the Moment of Inertia (I) about the NA, and finding the extreme
fiber distances (ymax) in tension and compression to calculate:

σmax=(M ymax)/I
These shapes are efficient because they concentrate material away from the NA.

Shear Stresses in Beams

Concept of Shear Stresses in Beams

When transverse loads act on a beam, shearing stresses (τ) are developed across the cross-
section to resist the external shear force (V). The resultant force produced by the distribution of
these tangential stresses must equal the shearing force V.

The magnitude of the shear stress (τ) at any location is derived from the following relationship is:
τ = FQ/Ib

where F is the Shear Force (V), Q is the first moment of area of the section above the plane
where (τ) is calculated, I is the moment of inertia, and b is the width of the beam at that point.

Shear Stress Distribution

Shear stress (τ) is zero at the extreme outer fibers (where Q=0) and generally reaches its
maximum value at the Neutral Axis.

 Rectangular Section: The shear stress distribution is parabolic. The maximum shear stress
occurs at the Neutral Axis. For a rectangular section, the maximum shear stress (τmax) is 3/2
times the average shear stress (τavg=V/A).
 Circular Section: The shear stress distribution is parabolic.
 I, T, & L Sections: In built-up sections like the I-section, the web carries the majority of the shear
force. The distribution typically shows a large concentration of shear stress around the Neutral
Axis.
Unit-V: Columns
Theory of Columns

 Column/Strut: A strut is a structural member subjected to axial compressive forces; a vertical

strut is specifically called a column.
 Failure Mechanism:
o Short Columns: Fail primarily due to crushing (material yielding).
o Long Columns: Fail primarily due to buckling (lateral deflection or instability).
 Slenderness Ratio: Defined as the ratio of the effective length (l) of the column to the minimum
radius of gyration (r) of the cross-section (l/r). A high slenderness ratio indicates a long column.
When calculating the buckling load, the minimum radius of gyration must be used.

Problem Solving Using Euler’s and Rankine Formula

Euler's Formula

Euler's column theory is used for the analysis of long columns. It determines the theoretical
critical load (Pcr) at which a column will buckle. The formula for a column with hinged ends is:

Pcr= (π2EI)/l2

Where, I is the minimum moment of inertia.

Euler’s formula is only applicable when the resulting critical stress does not exceed the
proportional limit of the material.

Rankine Formula (Rankine-Gordon Empirical Formula)

The Rankine-Gordon formula is an empirical approach developed to cover the entire range of
compression members (short, intermediate, and long columns). It accounts for failure by the
combined effect of crushing and buckling. The formula, used to calculate the load carrying
capacity (P), is generally expressed in a form that incorporates the yield stress (σy) and an
empirical constant (a).