Construction Material

Unit– I: Overview of Construction Materials

Scope of Construction Materials in Civil Engineering

Building materials play an important role in this modern age of technology, and no field of
engineering is conceivable without their use.

Engineering Field Applications of Construction Materials

Cement mortar and concrete are routinely used in building applications.
Concrete is used for the construction of buildings (single storey to
multistorey). Stone is used in foundations, walls, columns, and roofs of
Building
buildings. Wood is used extensively for walls, floors, doors, windows,
Construction
frames, partitions, roof trusses, ceilings, and formwork. Ferrocement is
suitable for low-cost roofing, precast units, domes, vaults, and corrugated
sheets.
Bituminous materials (bitumen and tar) are principally used as binders
for road aggregates. Crushed stone and sand are used for preparing
Transportation road-beds and drainage constructions. Paving blocks and curb stones are
Engineering used for pavements/roadways. Granite, basalt, and trap are suitable as
road metal or railway ballast. Aggregates are used as underlying material
for foundations and pavements.
Geosynthetics are utilized in environment protection works. Concrete is
Environmental used in water treatment and distribution systems, and waste water
Engineering removal and processing. Asphalt/Bitumen is used for waterproofing
pools and baths.
Concrete is used in the construction of dams and weirs. Ferrocement is
Irrigation
used for canal lining. Cement is extensively used in structures exposed to
Engineering
the action of water, such as reservoirs and dams.
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) is used in massive structures like
Structural/General dams, bridges, piers, and retaining walls. Geosynthetics are used for
reinforcement, drainage, filtration, and foundation stability.

Selection of Materials for Different Civil Engineering Structures

The selection of material is governed by several factors, including the climatic background, the
economic aspect, and the requirements placed upon the material for varied service conditions.

1. Strength and Mechanical Properties

Strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist failure under the action of stresses caused
by loads, such as compression, tension, bending, and impact.

 The mechanical properties considered important include compressive strength, tensile

strength, hardness, plasticity, elasticity, and abrasion resistance.
 Materials like stone and concrete have high compressive strength but low tensile,
bending, and impact strengths (ranging from 1/5 to 1/50 of compressive strength).
 For pavements and areas subject to movement, hardness (resistance to
scratching/denting) and abrasion resistance are important properties.

2. Durability

Durability is the ability of a material to resist the combined effects of atmospheric and other
factors.

 In structural design, the material must comply with the durability requirements to resist
the environment in which the structure will serve its functional life.
 Factors affecting the durability of concrete include the quality of materials used,
proportioning, and methods adopted for mixing, placing, compacting, and curing.
 Corrosion resistance is critical for metals, and methods for protection must be
considered over the life of the structure.

3. Eco-friendly and Sustainability

Sustainable design is a philosophy recognizing that designs should be sensitive to the ability of
future generations to meet their needs.

 Sustainability rating systems, such as LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental

Design), are used to assess projects.
 Selecting regional materials can increase the LEED rating.
 Use of recycled materials (e.g., recycled concrete aggregate, steel reinforcing bars
manufactured from recycled steel) is encouraged.
 Wood is considered a renewable resource when forests are managed correctly.
 Using Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs), like fly ash or slag cement, is a
sustainability advantage because it offsets the use of cement and utilizes secondary
products.

4. Economy

Economic factors are crucial in material selection.

 Cost is heavily influenced by transportation charges, difficulties in quarrying and

cutting, ornamental features, and the stone's durability.
 The selection process must consider the life cycle cost in addition to the initial costs,
because materials deteriorate over time, affecting maintenance.
  Concrete mix design aims to produce the required properties at the lowest possible cost,
emphasizing the minimum use of cement to remain economical.

Broad Classification of Materials

Materials can be classified based on their origin, processing, and intended function:

Classification Description and Examples

Substances derived directly from the earth without significant chemical
alteration. Examples include Stones/Rocks (granite, sandstone),
Natural Materials
Wood/Timber, Natural Aggregates (sand, gravel), Gypsum, Natural
Asphalt, and Lime (derived from limestone).
Man-made or highly manufactured materials. Examples include
Artificial/Processed
Portland Cement Concrete, Bricks (burnt clay, sand-lime), Portland
Materials
Cement, Mortar, and Artificial Aggregate (broken brick, slag).
Materials with enhanced or unique properties achieved through specific
manufacturing or composition. This includes High-Performance
Special Materials Materials, Composites (e.g., carbon fiber reinforced plastic, cement
concrete itself), Geotextiles, Ferrocement, Light Weight Concrete, and
Polymer Concrete.
Materials applied to surfaces primarily for aesthetic, protective, or
functional overlay purposes. Examples include Paints, Varnishes,
Finishing Materials
Plaster (Stucco), Tiles (clay, marble), and polished Marble or Granite
slabs.
Materials reprocessed from waste streams for reuse in construction.
Examples include using Fly Ash and Slag Cement as supplementary
Recycled Materials
cementitious materials in concrete, using Recycled Concrete as
aggregate, and recycling Steel.
Unit– II: Natural Construction Materials
Requirements of Good Building Stone

A good building stone should possess several qualities to ensure satisfactory performance and
durability.

Requirement Key Characteristics

For face work, it should have a fine, compact texture. Light-coloured stone is
Appearance
often preferred.
Must be strong and durable enough to withstand weather conditions.
Durability & Compressive strength ranges generally between 60 and 200 N/mm². A
Strength minimum crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm² is recommended for any building
block.
Important for materials used in floors, pavements, and aprons of bridges.
Hardness
Hardness is determined by the Mohs scale.
The measure of impact a stone can withstand; necessary where vibratory or
Toughness moving loads are anticipated. Stones with a toughness index exceeding 19 are
preferred for road works.
Porosity & Should be low. High absorption indicates the stone is porous and prone to
Absorption weathering. Absorption should not exceed 5% for a good stone.
Workability &
Should be workable so that cutting, dressing, and shaping are economical.
Dressing
Should be well seasoned to remove quarry sap (natural moisture) before use.
Seasoning
This improves hardness and compactness.
Should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron, and minerals with
Fire Resistance different coefficients of thermal expansion. Sandstones generally resist fire
better than granites.

General Characteristics of Stone

Rocks are aggregations of minerals, and their properties depend upon these constituents,
identifiable by physical properties such as hardness, cleavage, streak, colour, lustre, specific
gravity, and shape of crystals.

 Texture: Stones with a crystalline or homogeneous texture are close-grained and

compact, offering better weather resistance. Crystalline and compact varieties indicate
an even, broken surface. Sandstones and limestones typically have a granular
crystalline texture.
 Natural Bed: It is the original plane or position occupied by a stone during its formation
(especially in sedimentary rock). Stones should be set so the load line is at right angles
to the natural bed to ensure maximum resistance.
 Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of most stones lies between 2.3 to 2.5, with good
building stone ranging between 2.4 and 2.8.
  Fracture: Denotes the appearance of the surface when broken outside the plane of
cleavage. A bright, clean, and sharp fracture with well-cemented grains is desirable.

Quarrying and Dressing Methods and Tools for Stone

Quarrying

Quarrying is the process of taking stones out from their natural rock beds (quarries) for building
work.

Method Suitability and Description

Suitable for stones buried in earth or under loose overburden. Uses pick axes, crow
Excavating
bars, and chisels.
Suitable for costly, soft, and stratified rocks (e.g., sandstone, marble, slate). Steel
pins and wedges (or plugs and feathers) are inserted into drilled holes and struck
Wedging
simultaneously. Splitting can also be achieved by hammering dry wooden pegs into
holes and soaking them with water.
Suitable for quarrying small, thin, and regular blocks of hard rocks, such as granite
Heating and gneiss. Fuel is burned on the rock surface, causing separation due to uneven
expansion.
Used for highly compact and solid metamorphic rocks. Explosives like blasting
Blasting powder or dynamite are used. The operation involves boring, charging, tamping, and
firing.

Tools

Common tools used for quarrying include the wedge, pin, hammer, dipper/scraping spoon,
tamping bar, priming needle, jumper, borer, claying iron, and crow bar.

Dressing

Dressing is the preparation of the stone surface to obtain plain edges or stones of the required
shape and size. Dressing is typically done immediately after quarrying and before seasoning.

Variety of Dressing Description

Hammer Faced / Sharp, irregular corners are knocked off using a hammer; generally used
Pitch-face for random rubble masonry.
Margins (30–50 mm wide) are worked around the stone face, leaving the
Chisel-drafted
central portion rough or punched.
Boasted Finish done with a mason's boaster, leaving fairly even tool marks.
Obtained by means of a rotating steel disc using water and sand or
Rubbed
carborundum.
Fine Tooled / Used for further finish, removing tiny projections, essential for
Polished ornamental work (e.g., granite, marble).
Classification of Rocks

Rocks yielding stones are primarily classified based on their mode of origin, physical structure,
and chemical composition.

1. Geological Classification (Mode of Origin)

1. Igneous Rocks: Formed by the cooling and solidifying of molten material (magma).
They are generally strong and durable. Examples include Granite and Basalt/Trap.
Granite is plutonic (deep seated, slow cooling, large crystals) while Basalt/Trap are
effusive (sudden cooling, non-crystalline/amorphous texture).
2. Sedimentary Rocks (Aqueous/Stratified): Formed by the gradual deposition and
cementation of disintegrated materials or sediments under water. Examples include
Limestone and Sandstone.
3. Metamorphic Rocks: Formed from existing igneous or sedimentary rocks due to intense
heat and/or pressure, causing structural changes. Examples include Marble (from
limestone), Slate (from shale/mudstone), and Quartzite (from sandstone).

2. Physical Classification (Physical Properties/Structure)

1. Stratified Rocks: Show distinct layers along which they can be split. Examples are
sandstone, limestone, and slate.
2. Unstratified Rocks: Do not show stratification and cannot be easily split into layers.
Examples are granite, basalt, and trap. Marble is also unstratified.
3. Foliated Rocks: Have a tendency to split up only in a definite direction. Most
metamorphic rocks possess a foliated structure, such as schist and slate.

3. Chemical Classification (Chemical Composition)

1. Siliceous Rocks: Main constituent is Silica (SiO₂) (sand). These rocks are very hard,
durable, and unaffected by weathering agencies. Examples include granite, basalt, trap,
and quartzite.
2. Argillaceous Rocks: Main constituent is Clay (Al₂O₃). They are hard and durable but
brittle. Examples are slate and laterite.
3. Calcareous Rocks: Main constituent is Lime (calcium carbonate). They are acted upon
by dilute hydrochloric acid. Examples include limestone, marble, and dolomite.

Structure of Timber, General Properties and Uses of Good Timber

Structure of Timber

Wood is a hard and fibrous substance that forms a major part of the trunk and branches of a
tree. In exogenous trees (those used for engineering purposes), growth occurs outward by adding
concentric layers (annual rings).
  Heartwood: The inner core of the tree, which is generally darker, stronger, and more
durable.
 Sapwood: The outer layer that carries the sap, typically lighter in colour, less durable,
and more liable to decay.

General Properties and Uses

Timber is preferred due to its easy availability, ease of transport and handling, high thermal
insulation, sound absorption, and electrical resistance compared to steel and concrete. It is
also a good absorber of shocks, making it suitable for construction in hilly areas prone to
earthquakes.

Timber is extensively used in buildings for doors, windows, frames, temporary partition walls,
roof trusses, and ceilings.

Different Methods of Seasoning for Preservation of Timber

Seasoning is the process of removing the moisture (quarry sap) from the pores of the
stone/timber, which improves its strength.

 Natural Seasoning: Includes Air Seasoning (exposing timber to the atmosphere) and
Water Seasoning (immersing timber in running water, which removes sap and reduces
the possibility of warping).
 Artificial Seasoning: Includes Kiln Seasoning (using hot air in a chamber to dry the
wood, which is faster and allows better control), Chemical Seasoning, and Electric
Seasoning.

Preservation involves treating timber to prevent its decay and degradation. Chemical
preservatives (e.g., creosote oil) may be applied via brushing, dipping, spraying, or pressure
processes.

Defects in Timber

Defects can be due to natural causes (abnormal growth) or manufacturing flaws.

 Examples of defects include Knots (the remnants of branches, reducing strength),

Shakes (cracks separating the wood fibers), Rindgall, and Upsets.
 Decay is primarily caused by fungal attack, attack by insects, or attack by marine
borers.

Use of Bamboo in Construction

The provided sources mention bamboo as a timber product and describe its species, defects, and
treatment, but they do not explicitly detail its construction uses in the provided excerpts.

Asphalt, Bitumen, and Tar Used in Construction (Properties and Uses)

Bitumen (also known as asphalt) is a substance produced through the distillation of crude oil,
known primarily for its waterproofing and adhesive properties. Tar is a residue obtained from
the direct distillation of crude tar.

Uses/Applications (Situations Where

Material Key Properties/Characteristics
Used)
Principally used as binders for road
Known for waterproofing and
aggregates (Hot-mix and Warm-mix
adhesive properties; natural asphalt is
Bitumen/Asphalt asphalt). Used for water-proofing
a thermoplastic. Generally black to
basements, floors, and roofs. Used for
dark brown.
painting timber and steel elements.
Similar in appearance to bitumen Primarily used as binders in road
Tar
(black to dark brown). works.

Types of Lime, Properties of Lime and Uses:

Slaking of Lime

Types and Classification of Lime

Lime is derived from high quality natural deposits of limestone (calcium carbonate, CaCO3).
The Bureau of Indian Standards (IS 712—1984) classifies lime into six categories:

1. Class A (Eminently Hydraulic Lime): Used for structural purposes. Sets readily under
water.
2. Class B (Semi-Hydraulic Lime): Used for masonry mortars, lime concrete, and plaster
undercoat.
3. Class C (Fat Lime/Non-hydraulic Lime): Used for finishing coat in plastering, white
washing, and composite mortars.
4. Class D (Magnesium/Dolomitic Lime): Used for finishing coat in plastering and white
washing.
5. Class E (Kankar Lime): Used for masonry mortars.
6. Class F (Siliceous Dolomitic Lime): Used for undercoat and finishing coat of plaster.

Properties and Uses

Lime possesses unique properties such as better workability and plasticity, early stiffening,
low shrinkage on drying, good durability, excellent adherence to masonry units, and
continuous improvement in strength. Lime is unique because it exhibits self-healing properties,
where moisture can make free lime active to precipitate and heal micro-cracks.

Lime is used as a basic building material, mainly as lime mortar in construction. It is also used
in agricultural practices, chemical processes, and to stabilize soils, increasing productivity.

Slaking of Lime
Slaking is the process by which quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO) reacts with water to form
hydrated lime or slaked lime (Ca(OH)2).

Properties of Sand and Uses

Sand (fine aggregate) results from the natural disintegration of rocks or is produced by crushing
hard stones. Fine aggregates pass through a 4.75 mm sieve.

Properties of Good Sand

A good natural sand should be clean and sharp. It must be well graded to ensure minimum
voids, which yields a dense mortar or concrete mixture. It should consist of hard and durable
silica grains, feel gritty to the touch, and be free from flaky particles (like mica), salts, and
organic matter.

Uses of Sand

1. Fine Aggregate: Sand serves as the fine aggregate in mortar and concrete.
2. Workability and Uniformity: It assists in producing workability and uniformity in the
mix.
3. Matrix Filler: Sand helps the cement paste hold the coarse aggregate particles in
suspension, promoting plasticity and preventing segregation.
4. Strength and Shrinkage Control: Although considered an adulterant in mortar, sand
increases the crushing strength and reduces shrinkage.

Classification of Aggregate According to Size

Aggregates are filler materials used with binding material in mortar and concrete, occupying 70–
80 per cent of the volume.

Aggregates are broadly classified into two types according to size:

1. Fine Aggregate (Sand): Defined as aggregate that passes through the 4.75 mm IS sieve.
The smallest size of fine aggregate is 0.06 mm. Natural sand, crushed stone sand, silt, and
clay fall into this category.
2. Coarse Aggregate (Grit): Defined as aggregate that is retained on the 4.75 mm IS sieve.
Coarse aggregate forms the main matrix of the concrete. Examples include gravel,
shingle stone, and crushed stone aggregates.
Unit– III: Artificial Construction Materials
Constituents of Brick Earth

Brick earth primarily consists of silica and alumina. Clay is the most important raw material.

Constituent Proportion/Quantity Function/Effect

Imparts durability and preserves the form of the
brick at high temperature. It prevents shrinkage
Silica (SiO2) 50–60%
and warping. If excess, it makes the brick brittle
and weak upon burning.
Absorbs water and makes the clay plastic. It is
Alumina
20–30% necessary for moulding. Excess alumina produces
(Al2O3)
cracks in the brick on drying.
Reduces shrinkage on drying. It causes silica in
clay to melt on burning, acting as a flux to help
bind it. Excess lime causes the brick to melt and
Lime (CaCO) Less than 10%
lose its shape. If present in lumps, it swells upon
absorbing moisture and causes disintegration of
the bricks.
Imparts strength and hardness. It tends to lower
Not explicitly quantified in
Ferric Oxide the fusion point of the clay, particularly if present
percentage ranges, but noted
(Fe2O3) as ferrous oxide. Ferric oxide improves
as an impurity
impermeability and durability.
Magnesia Not explicitly quantified in Affects the color, making the brick yellow, and
(MgO) percentage ranges helps reduce warping.
Alkalis
Less than 10% Act as fluxes.
(Soda/Potash)

Conventional / Traditional Bricks, Modular and Standard Bricks, Special Bricks

Conventional / Traditional Bricks

These are general multi-purpose units manufactured economically without special reference to
appearance. They are used for filling, backing, and in walls where appearance is not critical.

Modular and Standard Bricks

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) specified standard brick sizes include 19 * 9* 9 cm and
19* 9*4 cm.

Special Bricks

Type Description and Uses

 Made primarily for good appearance (color or texture or both). They are
Facing Bricks durable under severe exposure and used in the fronts of building walls.
Types include FBS, FBX, and FBA.
Contain fly ash (pulverized fuel ash) as a major component. They are
machine finished, leading to uniformity in size and shape. Uses include:
Fly Ash Bricks Load bearing members (immensely strong). Consuming 20–25 percent less
cement mortar. Outside wall plastering is not essential due to smooth
surface and low water absorption. Used in buildings.
Made from a dry mixture of sand and 5 to 10 percent of hydrated lime.
Sand-Lime They are molded under high pressure (105 N/mm2). They offer a smoother
Bricks finish and uniform appearance than clay bricks. Used as a substitute for
common building bricks.
Used for lining blast furnaces, ovens, kilns, boilers and chimneys.
Refractory Manufactured from fire clays or refractory clays to withstand very high
Bricks temperature. Classes include Acid, Basic, and Neutral Bricks. Acid bricks
(Firebricks) (Silica bricks) consist of 95–97% silica and 1–2% lime and are used in lining
furnaces with acidic slag. They possess low thermal conductivity.
Hollow / Aerated Cellular or foam concrete. They have a porous or cellular structure. They
Concrete Blocks provide good thermal and heat insulating material and sound insulating
(AAC) material.
Used for roads, sidewalks, patios, driveways, and interior floors. They are
Paving Bricks generally smooth and dense, with high resistance to abrasion. They should
have crushing strength greater than 40 N/mm2
Over-burnt and badly distorted in shape and size. They are often known as
vitrified bricks. The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation and floors
Jhama Bricks
in lime concrete and road metal. Selected Jhama bricks may be allowed for
(Over-Burnt)
use in foundations of temporary buildings or soling coat of unimportant
roads.
Pilla Bricks Soft and light-coloured, producing a dull sound when struck. Used for
(Under-Burnt) building temporary structures.

Characteristics of Good Brick

Characteristic Requirement / Acceptable Limit Source

Crushing Should not be less than 10N/mm2. First class bricks (Grade A) have a
Strength minimum compressive strength of 35 N/mm2
Should not be more than 10 percent after 24 hours immersion in water
Water
for Class 400 bricks (subclass A). 12–15% maximum for first class
Absorption
bricks.
Soundness Should emit a metallic or ringing sound when struck together.
Should be hard enough to resist any fingernail impression on the
Hardness
surface.
Efflorescence Should be nil. If the efflorescence is not appreciable, it is acceptable
 for Second Class bricks.
Texture Should be homogeneous.

Field Tests on Bricks

Field tests assess basic properties like shape, sound, hardness, and absorption.

1. Shape and Size: Check for regular shape and standard size.
2. Sound Test: Strike two bricks together to check for a metallic ringing sound.
3. Hardness Test: Scratch the brick surface with a thumbnail; no impression should be left
on a good quality brick.
4. Lump Test (for homogeneity): The brick when broken should have a homogeneous
texture. The two halves should have the same appearance and structure.
5. Water Absorption (Field Check): A small test can be performed by dipping the brick
into water to see if it absorbs too quickly, though exact measurement requires laboratory
testing.

Classification of Burnt Clay Bricks and their Suitability

The IS classification of bricks is based on compressive strength.

Water
Classification Compressive
Absorption Suitability/Uses (Situations Where Used)
(IS/Grade) Strength (N/mm2)
(%)
Recommended for pointing, exposed face
First Class work, flooring, and reinforced brick work.
10.0 12-15%
(Grade A) Used in buildings of long durability (say
100 years).
Recommended for all important or
unimportant hidden masonry works. Used
Second Class 7.0 (Min 7.5 for centering of reinforced brick and RCC
16-20%
(Grade AA) N/mm2) structures. Used for construction of one-
storied buildings or temporary sheds where
durability is $\le 15$ years.
Not less than 3.5
Used for building temporary structures.
N/mm2 (Mean
Third Class approx. 25% They are underburnt, soft, and light-
140kg/cm2, min
coloured.
105kg/cm2)
Strength is higher High
Jhama/Over- Used as ballast for foundation and floors in
or equivalent to absorption
Burnt Bricks lime concrete and road metal.
first class bricks. capacity

Manufacturing Process of Burnt Clay Brick, Fly Ash Bricks, Aerated Concrete
Blocks (AAC)
Manufacturing Process of Burnt Clay Brick

1. Preparation of Soil: Involves unsoiling, digging, weathering, blending, and tempering

(kneading). Tempering is essential for manufacturing good brick.
2. Moulding: Giving the required shape, often done using hand moulding (ground or table
moulding) or machine moulding (stiff-mud or dry-press process).
3. Drying: Green bricks are dried (naturally or artificially) to reduce moisture content and
prevent shrinkage before burning.
4. Burning: Bricks are burnt in clamps or kilns to impart hardness and strength.
5. Cooling: Slow cooling is essential to avoid cracking.

Manufacturing Process of Fly Ash Bricks

1. Raw Materials: Utilize fly ash (80-82%), lime (9-10%), and sand (9-10%). Lime
content ranges from 20 to 30%.
2. Mixing and Pressing: Raw materials are mixed and molded under pressure. High
calcium lime is generally used as it reacts with silica and alumina in fly ash to form the
binder under hydrothermal conditions.
3. Curing/Bonding: During wet mixing, a chemical reaction takes place to bond the
mixtures.

Aerated Concrete Blocks (AAC)

These are light, structural foam concrete blocks which can be sawn, screwed, or nailed. They
are manufactured either by mixing cement paste/mortar with stabilized foam (foam concrete) or
by gas-forming substances (gas concrete). They offer good thermal and acoustic insulation.

Flooring Tiles – Types, Uses

Tiles are thin slabs of low melting clays.

Type Suitability/Uses
Made from high melting clays. Should be durable, impervious to water,
Floor Tiles resistant to abrasion, and wash easily. Paving bricks are also used for interior
floors.
Terracing Tiles Used for terracing. They are specified as Hand moulded (H) or Machine
(Flat) moulded (M).
Ridge and Classified as Class AA and Class A, based on water absorption and breaking
Ceiling Tiles strength.

Manufacturing process of Cement - dry and wet (only flow chart), types of
cement and its uses. Field tests on cement.

Manufacturing Process of Cement (Steps/Flow)

Cement is manufactured from calcareous materials (limestone, chalk) and argillaceous
materials (clay, shale). The process involves:

1. Preparation/Mixing of Raw Materials: Raw materials are crushed and ground. In the
wet process, they form a slurry (35-50% water). In the dry process, they are ground fine
and mixed dry, followed by blending and storage.
2. Burning (Calcination): Materials are charged into a rotary kiln. Limestone is burned to
remove carbon, producing lime. The temperature range in a cement kiln is typically
1300 to $1500^\circ\text{C}$. Clinkering occurs, forming nodules.
3. Grinding: The clinker is cooled and then ground in tube mills. 2%-3% gypsum is
added during grinding to retard the setting time.

Types of Cement and its Uses

Type of Cement Uses / Suitability (Situations Where Used)

Ordinary Portland Used in structures where high strength is required, such as bridge piers,
Cement (OPC) dams, and reservoirs. Grades 33, 43, and 53 are available.
Used for masonry mortars to avoid the laborious process of mixing
Masonry Cements lime, cement, and sand. Not intended for use in structural concrete,
flooring, or reinforced concrete.
Rapid Hardening Used when concrete is required to gain strength quickly (e.g., in cold
Cement weather or for repair of bridges).
Quick Setting
Used when concrete is placed under water or in grouting.
Cement
Used for massive structures such as large dams to control the heat of
Low Heat Cement
hydration.
High Alumina
Used for refractory concrete in industries.
Cement
Sulphate Resisting Used in places exposed to severe sulphate attack, such as foundations in
Cement soils containing sulphates or marine works.
Portland Pozzolana Resistance to chemical attack increases. Grade I fly ash is recommended
Cement (PPC) for its manufacture.
Used for making terrazzo flooring, face plaster of walls (stucco),
White Cement
ornamental works, and casting stones.
Air Entraining
Used to increase resistance against freezing and scaling action of salts.
Cement
Hydrophobic
Used for water proof concrete.
Cement
Used for securing oil-well pipe casing with surrounding earth/rocks.
Oil Well Cement Different classes (A to J) are used depending on depth, temperature, and
pressure.
Designed to offset drying shrinkage. Used to make concrete for floor
Expansive Cements
slabs (up to 60 m square) without contraction joints.
Field Tests on Cement

1. Colour: Should be uniform, typically grey.

2. Lumps/Physical Condition: Should be a fine powder; no lumps should be present when
rubbed between fingers.
3. Temperature: Cement should feel cool when a hand is thrust into the bag.
4. Setting Test: A small quantity of cement thrown into water should sink immediately.

Pre-cast Concrete Blocks - hollow, solid, pavement blocks, and their uses.

Type Description and Uses

Hollow These masonry units have a net cross-sectional area typically less than 75% of the
Blocks gross area.
Solid
Their net cross-sectional area is 75% or more of the gross area. They are also
Concrete
called concrete bricks.
Units
Artificial paving slabs composed of cement concrete, sometimes treated with
Pavement sodium silicate. Lime pozzolana concrete blocks (e.g., $300 \times 300 \times
Blocks 100 \text{ mm}$) are used for paving, sometimes provided with a thin wearing
course of cement sand mortar due to low abrasion resistance.
General
Used for nonfacing, utilitarian applications, or as facing units.
Uses

Plywood, particle board, Veneers, laminated board and their uses.

These materials are derived from wood and are typically classified as engineered wood
products.

Material Uses / Applications

Veneers Thin sheets of wood. Plywood is manufactured by gluing together veneers.
Used for wall and ceiling cladding, partitions, doors, railway carriages, bus
Plywood
bodies, and furniture.
Manufactured by bonding wood particles (wood waste, wood chips) together
Particle
under heat and pressure using an adhesive. Used for wall and ceiling cladding,
Board
partitions, doors, and furniture.
Laminated Wood laminated by synthetic resin is classified as laminated wood. Laminated
Board materials are generally strong and durable.

Types of glass: soda lime glass, lead glass, borosilicate glass, Toughened glass,
Reinforced glass, Fiber glass and their uses.

Type of Glass Description and Uses

Soda-Lime Glass Ordinary glass, manufactured from lime, soda, and sand.
Lead Glass (Flint
Produced by adding calcined lead and tin oxide to ordinary glass.
Glass)
Borosilicate Glass Suitable to withstand high temperature.
Toughened Glass
A type of safety glass.
(Tempered Glass)
Reinforced Glass
Has wire mesh embedded within it.
(Wired Glass)
Fiber Glass (Glass
Consists of thin glass fibers. Used for heat and sound insulation.
Wool)
Used for window panes, mirrors, and in electrical switch boards (due to
Glass (General Uses) low conductivity). Glass is made more fluid for processing (blowing,
drawing) by the addition of lime.

Ferrous and non-ferrous metals and their uses.

Metals are derived from ores. Ferrous metals contain iron as the main constituent.

Ferrous Metals

Metal Description and Uses

A ferrous metal. Used in water pipes and for ornamental castings. It is relatively
Cast Iron
brittle.
Wrought A ferrous metal. Used for forgings, rivets, anchor irons, and for objects where
Iron high toughness is required.
A ferrous metal. Used extensively for reinforcement in concrete. Varieties include
Steel
mild steel, high carbon steel, and structural steel.

Non-Ferrous Metals

These metals do not contain iron as the main constituent.

Metal Description and Uses

Aluminum Used for light alloys. Used for roofing sheets and for internal framework of
(Al) aircraft.
Copper (Cu) Used for electrical wire. Also used for electrical switch boards.
Zinc (Zn) Used for galvanizing iron and steel.
Lead (Pb) Used for lining of acid tanks, roofing and flashings, and waterproofing.
Tin (Sn) Used for coating copper and bronze utensils.
Unit– IV: Special Construction Materials
Types of Material and Suitability in Construction Works

Water Proofing Materials

Damp-proofing a building involves interposing a continuous layer of damp-proofing material

(D.P.C.) between the source of dampness and the structure.

Suitability and Properties: A good water-proofing material should be impervious, durable,

able to resist loads, and capable of accommodating some structural movement without fracture.

Category Examples and Suitability

Flexible Bitumen felts and plastic sheeting (e.g., Polythene sheets) are examples.
Materials Bitumen and asphalt are extensively used as waterproofing materials.
Semi-rigid
Mastic asphalt or a combination of layers.
Materials
Rigid
First class bricks, stones, slates, and cement concrete are examples.
Materials
Grout Consists of cement slurry and acrylic-based chemicals/polymers.

Specific Material Uses/Types:

 Bitumen: Blown bitumen is used for roofing and damp-proofing felts. Hot applied
blown bitumen is a component of several D.P.C. treatments.
 Cement Paints: These are durable, strong, and display better water-proofing qualities.
 Hydrophobic Cement: This cement is most suitable for basements and for making
watertight concrete.
 Admixtures for Concrete: These can be added to make concrete water resistant. They
are classified as water repellent type (e.g., calcium soaps, resins, vegetable oil, fats,
waxes) or pore filling type (e.g., alkaline silicates, aluminum/zinc sulfate,
aluminum/calcium chlorides).

Termite Proofing Materials

Termite proofing is crucial, especially in structures built using susceptible organic materials like
wood.

Material/Method Application/Suitability
ASCU preservative (a water-soluble fixed type preservative) renders timber
Chemical
immune to the attacks of white ants (termites). It contains hydrated arsenic
Preservatives
pent oxide, copper sulphate, and sodium or potassium dichromate.
Solignum paints, when applied hot using a brush, are well suited for
Paints/Coatings
preserving timber from white ants. Hard boards may be manufactured with
 improved termite resistances. Sound insulating materials should also be
resistant to termite attacks.
Special Wood Structural hollow clay tiles are known to be termite proof. Cement-
Products bonded particle board is resistant against termites and rotting.
The timber surface can be charred (burnt up to a depth of 15 mm) to protect
Charring the inner timber from white ants. This method is typically used for wood
fencing poles or telephone pole bottoms.

Thermal and Sound Insulating Materials

The goal of thermal insulation is to restrict heat transfer from warmer to cooler areas, while
sound insulation aims to restrain noise levels.

Suitability and Properties:

 Thermal Materials: Should have low thermal conductivity, be impermeable to water,

fire proof, and resist insect attacks.
 Sound Materials: A good sound insulator should have low density, porous texture, be
incombustible, lightweight, easy to fix, moisture resistant, and resistant to
vermins/termites.

Material Category Examples and Suitability/Uses

Examples include aerated concrete, gypsum boards, fiber boards,
asbestos cement boards, cork boards, foam plastic, aluminum foil,
General Insulators
reflecting paints, expanded blast furnace slag, vermiculite, fiberglass, and
glass wool.
Wood Provides more thermal insulation compared to steel and concrete.
Glass Wool Used for heat and sound insulation.
Thermocol (a cellular plastic material) is used for sound and heat
Plastics insulation of ceilings, walls, refrigerators, and air conditioning. Foamed
(Foamed/Cellular) polystyrene is a rigid lightweight slab with very low thermal
conductivity used for insulation.
Gypsum items have good sound absorbing capacity and good fire
Gypsum resistance. Pyrocell (a cellular, fire-resistant gypsum mass) possesses
good acoustical and insulating properties.
LWC, particularly lightweight aggregate concrete, is suitable where low
Light Weight density and good thermal insulation are required. A 125 mm thick wall
Concrete (LWC) of aerated concrete provides thermal insulation about four times greater
than a 230 mm clay brick wall.
Common examples include cellular concrete, asbestos, rock wool, glass
wool, and gypsum plaster (which is very effective). Concrete blocks
Acoustic Materials
offer more soundproofing than brick construction due to their higher
density.
Fibers and its Types – Jute, Glass, Plastic, Asbestos Fibers (only uses)

Fibers are classified as continuous filaments or discrete elongated pieces, often used as a
component of composite materials or spun into thread.

Fiber
Uses/Applications
Type
Jute is classified as a vegetable fiber. Vegetable fibers are used in the manufacture of
Jute
paper and cloth.
Used to strengthen polymeric material and composites. They are widely employed in
Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC). Glass wool (made of glass fibers) is used for
Fibers heat and sound insulation, as a filter medium for air conditioners, and as aggregate
in asbestos-cement items. Fiberglass cloth is used in roll roofing materials.
Used as synthetic fibers in Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC), such as
polypropylene. Polypropylene, nylon, and PVC are used to manufacture
Plastic
Geosynthetics, serving functions like reinforcement, separation, drainage, and
Fibers
moisture barriers. Polythene and polyvinyl resins are used to make films for damp
proofing courses and for curing concrete.
Used to make sheets (A.C. sheets) and boards for roofing, false-ceilings, paneling,
partitions, door panels, window panes, and sign boards. Used in pipes to drain water.
Asbestos
Used for manufacturing paints. Used to make plastics heat resistant. Asbestos fibers
Fibers
have been commercially successful in fiber-reinforced concrete. Also used as a
component of insulating materials.
Unit– V: Processed Construction Materials
Constituents and uses of POP (Plaster of Paris), POP finishing boards, sizes and
uses. Gypsum and Gypsum based material.

Gypsum and Gypsum-Based Material

Gypsum is a naturally occurring soft crystalline rock and a non-hydraulic binder. When heated,
it loses water of crystallization and turns into a powder which, upon re-adding water, can be
molded and hardens into interlocking crystals. Gypsum items are often used for wall construction,
owing to their small bulk density, incombustibility, good fire resistance, and rapid
drying/hardening with negligible shrinkage.

Plaster of Paris (POP) / Stucco: POP is produced by incompletely dehydrating pure finely
ground gypsum below 185°C. It is also known as Stucco. Uses include face plaster of walls and
ornamental works. Neat Plaster of Paris sets in about 5 to 7 minutes.

Hard Finish Plaster: Produced by burning gypsum at a very high temperature and adding a
chemical like burnt Glauber’s salt or potassium sulfate. It forms an unusually hard, dense, and
durable surface. Used for corners, angles, and wherever a very hard waterproof coating is
required (e.g., bathrooms, kitchens, laundries).

POP Finishing Boards / Gypsum Plaster Boards

These boards are made of thin layers of cardboard or wood cemented together with wall plaster.
They have high fire resisting properties and can be sawn to the desired size and shape. They
may be strengthened by incorporating fibers like sissal or coconut fibers.

Sizes of Gypsum Plaster Boards:

 Widths: 400, 600, 800, 900, 1200 mm.

 Lengths: 1200, 1500, 1800, up to 3600 mm (in steps of 100 mm).
 Thickness: 9.5 to 15 mm.

Paints- whitewash, cement paint, Distempers, Oil Paints and Varnishes with
their uses. (Situations where used).

Type of
Uses / Situations Where Used
Finish
Used for coatings that minimize water absorption and decay on timber. Generally
Oil Paints applied to new wood surfaces in a sequence starting with knotting and priming.
Used for painting ornamental castings.
Transparent coatings used for wood surfaces where the natural color and grain are
Varnishes desired. Spar varnish is not used indoors due to stickiness in warm weather. Spirit
varnish (e.g., French polish) dries quickly but is easily affected by weathering,
 limiting its durability.
Whitewash Very pure lime (shell lime) is used for white wash and colour wash.
Primarily used for coating interior surfaces not exposed to weather. Distempers
form a thick, brittle coating that is porous, allowing application on even newly
Distempers
plastered surfaces. Types include oil bound washable distemper and non-
washable distemper (emulsion paints).
Durable, strong, and possess good water-proofing qualities. They are used on
Cement
exterior surfaces of buildings. They can be mixed with boiled linseed oil for use
Paints
over corrugated iron sheets.

Industrial waste materials- Fly ash, Blast furnace slag, Granite and marble
polishing waste and their uses.

Material Uses/Applications (Situation Where Used)

Classified as a puzzolana. Used as a supplementary cementitious material
(SCM) to enhance concrete properties. Used in brick manufacturing, where it
helps in reducing drying shrinkage and aids shaping. Used as a raw material
Fly Ash
for oil-well cement. Used to make fly ash lime bricks. Used as a substitute for
sand in mortar/concrete, imparting strength and hydraulicity. Used as a filler in
asphalt mixes.
Classified as a puzzolana (Ground Blast Furnace Slag). Used for manufacturing
Blast Furnace Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cements. Used as aggregate for making precast
Slag concrete products, possessing good fire resisting properties. Used in
lightweight aggregates.
The sources do not specifically detail the uses of polishing waste from granite
Granite and and marble. However, they describe the general uses of the materials
Marble themselves. Granite is used for structural purposes like bridge components,
Polishing retaining walls, and road construction. Marble is used for high-class
Waste ornamental and superior building work, such as floor finishes, dados, and
mosaic floor tiles.

Agro waste materials - Rice husk, Bagasse, coir fibers and their uses.

Material Uses/Applications (Situation Where Used)

Rice Husk Ash Classified as a puzzolana.
Bagasse/Agro
Agricultural wastes are sometimes used in the manufacture of fiber boards.
Waste
Coir fibers (coconut fibers) are sometimes incorporated into fibrous gypsum
Coir Fibers
plaster boards to strengthen them.

Special processed construction materials; Geo-synthetic, Ferro Crete, Artificial

timber, artificial sand and their uses.
Material Uses/Applications (Situation Where Used)
Used for a variety of applications in civil engineering construction, including
reinforcement, separation, drainage, filtration, moisture barriers, seepage
control, foundations, and pavements. They are useful for replacing costly
Geosynthetics conventional materials and for poor site conditions. Geotextiles are permeable
and used for separation, drainage, filtration, and reinforcement. Geogrids are
used for separation and reinforcement (e.g., improving bearing capacity in
road pavements).
A composite material consisting of cement mortar reinforced with steel mesh.
Known for excellent crack control and impermeability. Used for liquid
Ferrocement
retaining structures, boat building, gas containers, and canal lining. Due
(Ferro Crete)
to cost-effectiveness and ability to be cast in thin sections, it is suitable for low
cost roofing, precast units, domes, vaults, and corrugated sheets.
While the term 'Artificial Timber' is not explicitly defined, the sources
describe various engineered wood products that serve this purpose, replacing
Artificial natural wood in construction. Examples include: Plywood, Fibreboards,
Timber Particle boards (chipboards), Block boards, and Lamin boards. These
products allow for a more complete utilization of raw materials (including
wood waste).
Refers to manufactured aggregates obtained by crushing solid rock. Used as
fine aggregate in mortar and concrete. Crushed stone sand performs the
Artificial Sand
functions of natural sand in mortar, such as helping achieving economy,
preventing shrinkage cracks, and furnishing strength.