Grammar & Syntax

Complete Exam Study Notes

End-Term Exam Preparation | Section 4D

★ Topics included: Heads & Dependents • Constituents • Transformational Grammar • Clauses I •

SyntacticForms/Functions/Roles

★ NOT included: Wh-Movement (standalone) • Systemic Functional Linguistics

TOPIC 1: HEADS AND THEIR DEPENDENTS

(Tallerman, Understanding Syntax — Chapter 4)

What is a Head?
Every phrase has one most important word — this is the HEAD. All other words around it are called
DEPENDENTS. The head determines the meaning and the word class of the whole phrase.
Phrase Head Phrase Type

very bright sunflowers sunflowers (N) Noun Phrase (NP)

overflowed quite quickly overflowed (V) Verb Phrase (VP)

very bright bright (A) Adjective Phrase (AP)

quite quickly quickly (Adv) Adverb Phrase (AdvP)

inside the house inside (P) Preposition Phrase (PP)

4 Properties of Heads
Property Explanation

1. Semantic The head carries the main/central meaning of the phrase

2. Word Class The head's word class = the whole phrase's word class

3. Obligatory The head cannot be omitted (left out)

4. Selects Dependents The head chooses what type of words come with it (complements)

How Heads Influence Their Dependents (3 Ways)

1. Word Class Selection

The head decides what category of word can appear with it.

• A noun can be modified by an adjective: bright sunflowers ✓

• A noun CANNOT be modified by an adverb: *brightly sunflowers ✗
• A verb is modified by an adverb: spoke sincerely ✓ (not: *spoke sincere)

2. Agreement
Dependents must agree with the head's grammatical features (gender, number).
• French example: un livre vert (masculine) vs une pomme verte (feminine)
• The adjective and determiner change to match the head noun's gender.
3. Government (Case)
The head verb or preposition requires the NP to occur in a specific grammatical case.
• Japanese example: Subject gets nominative case (-ga), object gets accusative case (-o)

Adjuncts vs Complements (Two Types of Dependents)

Complements Adjuncts

Optional? Often OBLIGATORY Always OPTIONAL

Relationship to head Very close — head selects them Extra/additional information

Position Closer to the head Further from the head

Example admires famous linguists sings in the bath

(cannot say: *She admires.) (can say: She sings.)

Easy rule HEAD NEEDS them HEAD does NOT need them

Key Test: Complement vs Adjunct

• Complements: cannot be replaced by just any phrase. E.g., resort to something — must use 'to',
not *resort about.
• Adjuncts: can be replaced by many different phrases. E.g., sings in the bath / before breakfast / at
the bus stop
• Order test: We met the new students yesterday ✓ (complement closer) / *We met yesterday the
new students ✗

Verb Classes by Complement Type

Verb Type Complement Required Example

Intransitive None The bath overflowed.

Transitive NP object She admires famous linguists.

Ditransitive Two complements (NP + NP) She gave Tom a book.

Verb + PP complement Specific PP She resorted to the manual.

Verb + Clause Clause He wondered whether to leave.

TOPIC 2: HOW TO IDENTIFY CONSTITUENTS

(Tallerman, Understanding Syntax — Chapter 5)

What is a Constituent?
A constituent is a group of words that forms a single unit/phrase in a sentence. The phrases which make
up sentences are called the constituents of a sentence.
Example showing ambiguity proves structure exists:
• Black cab drivers went on strike. — Two meanings = two structures:
• [Black [cab drivers]] = black-coloured cab drivers
• [[Black cab] drivers] = drivers of black cabs
Different groupings of words = different constituent structures.

4 Tests for Constituent Structure

Test 1: Sentence Fragment Test

If a group of words can answer a question on its own (as a sentence fragment), it is a constituent.

• Question: What did she write? Answer: That book with the blue cover. ✓ → constituent
• Question: What did she buy? Answer: *That book with her first wages. ✗ → NOT a constituent
★ Rule: Grammatical fragment = constituent. Ungrammatical fragment = NOT a constituent. Always use
ungrammatical examples too!

Test 2: Echo Question Test

Replace part of a sentence with a wh-word (what, who, which, where, how). If the result is grammatical,
that part is a constituent.

• Kim bought what with her first wages? ✓ (replaces 'that book' — a constituent)
• *Kim wrote what with the blue cover? ✗ ('that book' alone is NOT a constituent here)

Test 3: Cleft Test

Put the phrase into: "It was ___ that...". If grammatical = constituent.

• It was [that book with the blue cover] that Kim wrote. ✓ → constituent
• *It was [that book with her first wages] that Kim bought. ✗ → NOT a constituent

Test 4: Movement Test / Pronoun Test ★ (included per your WhatsApp)

Replace a group of words with a pronoun (it, they, he, she, them). If you can, that group is a constituent.
• The students wondered how [cheap textbooks] could be obtained.
• → The students wondered how [they] could be obtained. ✓ → 'cheap textbooks' = constituent
Test Method Result

Fragment Test Can it answer a question alone? Yes = constituent

Echo Question Test Replace with wh-word — grammatical? Yes = constituent

Cleft Test Fit into 'It was ___ that...'? Yes = constituent

Pronoun/Movement Test Can a pronoun replace it? Yes = constituent

TOPIC 3: TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE GRAMMAR

(AIOU Study Guide — Unit 8: Transformations from Syntax)

Key Concepts
Term Meaning

Transformation The process which changes the order of elements in a sentence

Rules that equip speakers to transform deep structures into surface
Transformational Rules
structures
Deep Structure The underlying/hidden meaning of a sentence (before transformation)
 Surface Structure The actual spoken/written form (after transformation)

Generative Grammar A grammar that generates all grammatical sentences of a language

Three Transformational Rules for Question Formation

Three questions can be derived from one basic declarative sentence:

• You have locked the room. → Have you locked the room? (Subject-Auxiliary Inversion)
• You locked the room. → Did you lock the room? (Do-Support)
• You locked the room. → Why did you lock the room? (Wh-Movement)

Rule i: Subject-Auxiliary Inversion (SAI)

Used to make YES/NO questions. The auxiliary verb moves to the front, before the subject.

Pattern: NP + Aux + VP → Aux + NP + VP

Statement (Deep Structure) Question (Surface Structure)

He has finished his work. Has he finished his work?

She is sleeping. Is she sleeping?

You can draw this picture. Can you draw this picture?

Aslam hasn't reached home. Hasn't Aslam reached home?

★ Multiple auxiliaries: Only the FIRST auxiliary undergoes inversion.

• He will have been singing. → Will he have been singing?

★ Contracted -n't MOVES with the auxiliary. Uncontracted 'not' does NOT move.

Rule ii: Do-Support

Used when a sentence has NO auxiliary verb. Since the tense element cannot stand alone, we attach
'do' to it.
Statement After SAI (tense moves) After Do-Support (final)

You go for a walk. [Present] you go... Do you go for a walk?

She cooked dinner. [Past] she cooked... Did she cook dinner?

Amjad listens to music. [Present] Amjad listens... Does Amjad listen to music?
★ Why do-support? Tense cannot float alone — it MUST attach to a verb. When no auxiliary exists, 'do/does/did' is
created.

Rule iii: Wh-Movement

Used to make WH-QUESTIONS. The wh-word moves to the FRONT of the sentence. This triggers SAI
and Do-Support.
Deep Structure After Wh-Movement Final Question

You bought what. *What you bought. What did you buy?

Ahmed lives where. *Where Ahmed lives. Where does Ahmed live?
★ IMPORTANT: Wh-movement ALONE does not produce grammatical questions. It triggers SAI and Do-Support. All
three rules work together.
 TOPIC 4: CLAUSES I
(Miller, An Introduction to English Syntax — Chapter 6)

Phrase vs Clause
Phrase Clause

Definition Group of words WITHOUT subject + predicate Group of words WITH subject + predicate

Can stand alone? No ✗ Sometimes ✓

Example The king / is falling The weather is lovely today

Types NP, VP, PP, AP, AdvP Main clause / Subordinate clause

Types of Clauses

1. Main / Independent Clause

• Has its own subject and predicate
• Gives complete sense
• Can stand alone
• Structure: S+V+O (transitive verb) / S+V (intransitive verb)
• Example: The weather is lovely today. (subject + predicate — complete sense)

2. Subordinate / Dependent Clause

• Has its own subject and predicate
• Does NOT give complete sense
• Cannot stand alone
• Example: because the weather is lovely today (needs a main clause)

Together: The birds are singing [Main clause] because the weather is lovely today [Subordinate clause]
★ The word 'because' = subordinating conjunction. It makes the clause dependent.

7 Properties of Main Clause (from Miller)

2 Verb + complements & adj unctsComplements = obligatory. Adjuncts = optional. Both give extra info.

3 Marked for aspect 4

4 Has mood Statement (Wickham eloped), Question (Did he elope?), Command (Elope!)

5 Syntax reflects focus Never will Wickham elope with Lydia. (fronted = emphasis)

6 Describes situations Agents + patients + circumstances (place, time)

7 First contribution to discourseMain clauses give complete sense, so they start discourse.

# Property Explanation / Example

1 Contains a finite verb A verb marked for tense (time). Present: is/am/are. Past: was/were.
aspects: Indefinite (he walks), Progressive (he is walking), Perfect (he has finished), Perfect P
Two Types of Multi-Clause Sentences
Type Structure Conjunctions Example

Compound Sentence2+ independent clauses Coordinating: and, but, or, so, nor, yet, for Captain Benwick
ausesSubordinating:
Complex Sentence 1 main + 1+ subordinate cl hen, if, although, since married Louisa
because, w
and Captain Wentw The birds are singing because

the weather is lovely.

Types of Subordinate Clauses

1. Complement Clauses
• Complete the meaning of a noun or verb
• Introduced by complementizer 'that'
• Verb complement clause (modifies verb): Elizabeth regretted [that she had met Wickham].
• Noun complement clause (modifies noun): They accepted the theory [that the world is flat].
★ Test: If 'that' CANNOT be replaced by 'which' → it is a complement clause.

• *Elizabeth regretted which she had met Wickham. ✗ → 'that' = complement clause

2. Relative Clauses
• Modify nouns only (tell the quality of a noun)
• Also called adjective clauses
• Placed after the noun they modify
• Introduced by: 'that' or wh-words: who, which, when, where (= relative pronouns)
• Example: The cottage [which Mrs. Dashwood accepted] was rather small.
★ Test: If 'that' CAN be replaced by 'which' → it is a relative clause.

• I like the book that you gave me. / I like the book which you gave me. ✓ → relative clause
★ Sometimes the relative pronoun can be omitted: 'The book Marianne was reading' ✓ — but not always!

3. Adverbial Clauses
• Modify verbs, adverbs, or whole clauses
• Are adjuncts (optional)
• Introduced by subordinating conjunctions: because, when, as, if, although, since

Type Conjunction Example

Reason because, since Because

Marianne loved
Time when, after, before When Fanny returned, she found Tom Bertram very ill. Willoughby, she
Although Mr D'Arcy disliked Mrs Bennet, he married refused to believe
Concession although, though
Elizabeth. he had deserted
he

Manner as Henry changed his plans as the mood took him.

Condition if If Emma had left Hartfield, Mr Woodhouse would have been unhappy.
 TOPIC 5: SYNTACTIC FORMS, GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS & SEMANTIC
ROLES
(Kim & Sells, English Syntax: An Introduction — Chapter 3)

Three Levels of Analysis

Level Categories

Syntactic Form (category) NP, VP, AP, PP, CP, AdvP...

Grammatical Function Subject (SUBJ), Object (OBJ), Modifier (MOD), Predicate (PRED)...

Semantic Role Agent, Patient, Experiencer, Theme, Goal, Source, Location, Instrument, Benefactive
Example: The monkey scratched a boy on Monday.
Phrase Syntactic Form Grammatical Function Semantic Role

The monkey NP Subject (SUBJ) Agent

scratched V Predicator —

a boy NP Object (OBJ) Patient

on Monday PP Modifier (MOD) Location/Time

Grammatical Functions

Subject — 3 Tests
Test Method Example

Agreement Main verb agrees with subject She never writes/*write home.

Tag Question Pronoun in tag refers back to subject The lady singing is a genius, isn't she?

SAI Only subject triggers inversion This teacher is a genius. → Is this

teacher a
genius?

★ Being closest to the verb does NOT mean it's the subject: 'The effectiveness of teaching depends on factors.'

Direct Object (DO)

• Undergoes the action of the verb
• Test: Passivization — the DO becomes subject in passive voice
• His girlfriend bought this computer. → This computer was bought by his girlfriend. ✓

Indirect Object (IO)

• Precedes the DO
• Semantic roles: goal, recipient, or benefactive
Example IO Role

I threw [the puppy] [the ball]. Goal

John gave [the boys] [the CDs]. Recipient

My mother baked [me] [a birthday cake]. Benefactive

• IO can also become subject in passive: The boys were given the CDs.
Predicative Complement
• Follows verb but is NOT a DO
• Predicates a property of the subject or object
• Does NOT passivize: *Chairman was elected Graham. ✗
• Examples: Michelle became an architect. / They elected Graham chairman.

Oblique Complement
• Usually a PP, required by the verb (obligatory)• John put books in the box.
(cannot remove 'in the box')
• John talked to Bill about the exam.

Modifier / Adjunct
• Always optional
• Specifies manner, location, time, reason (how, when, where, why)
• Can be stacked: I saw this film [several times] [last year] [during the summer]. ✓
• Modifiers do NOT become subjects in passive sentences

Semantic Roles (Thematic Roles)

Role Definition Example

Agent Does/causes the action (possibly intentionally)John ate his noodle. (John = agent)

Patient Has something happen to it; affected by actionA boy hit the ball. (ball = patient)
The students felt comfortable. (students =
Experiencer Aware/perceiving something
experiencer)
Theme Changes position/condition, or is in a stateJohn gave a book. (book = theme)
John made a doll for his son. (son =
Benefactive Benefits from the action
benefactive)
Source Motion proceeds FROM here John came from Seoul. (Seoul = source)

Goal Motion proceeds TOWARD here Mary received an award. (Mary = goal)

Location Where the action takes place John put books in the attic. (attic = location)

Instrument Tool/medium used for the action John hit the ball with a bat. (bat = instrument)
★ IMPORTANT: Semantic role and grammatical function are NOT the same!

John tagged the monkey. → John = Agent = Subject

The monkey was tagged by John. → monkey = Patient = Subject
Same semantic roles, different grammatical functions. This is why we need BOTH levels.
QUICK REVISION SUMMARY
Topic Key Points to Remember

Heads Head = most important word. Determines phrase type. 4 properties: semantic, word class, obligatory, s

Dependents Complements = obligatory, very close to head. Adjuncts = optional, extra info. Complements appear cl

Constituents Group of words forming a unit/phrase in sentence.

4 Tests Fragment Test, Echo Question Test, Cleft Test, Pronoun/Movement Test.
SAI Yes/no questions. Auxiliary moves before subject. NP+Aux+VP → Aux+NP+VP.

Do-Support No auxiliary in sentence → 'do/does/did' inserted. Tense cannot stand alone.

Wh-Movement Wh-word moves to front. Triggers SAI + Do-Support. All 3 rules together = grammatical wh-question.
Main = complete sense, stands alone. Subordinate = incomplete, needs main
Main vs Subordinate
clause.
Complement (completes noun/verb, 'that' cannot be replaced by 'which'). Relative (modifies noun,
Sub. Clause Types
'that
Grammatical Functions Subject (agreement/tag/SAI tests), DO (passivize), IO (precedes DO), Predicative Complement (not D

Semantic Roles Agent (does action), Patient (affected), Experiencer (perceives), Theme (changes state), Benefactive (

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