ICT DEPARTMENT

INTRODUCTION TO
ICT
ICT

MR. KIPNGENOH A. ROTICH

0724828197 / 0724279400
kipngenohaaron@[Link]

The best way to predict the future is to invent it.

 INTRODUCTION TO ICT
Definition of a computer
A computer is an electronic device that accepts user input (data) and transforms it under influence of
sets of special instructions (Program) to produce desired output (information).

Data
They are raw facts that are meaningless to the user and cannot be used to make decision e.g.
Numbers, letters etc

Processing
Refers to the way data is manipulated to turn into information e.g. Arithmetic operation e.g.
Addition, subtraction etc.

Information
Refers to data, which has been processed and can be used for decision-making.

Information Communication Technology

Is an integration of computers, communication and other technologies applied to the collection and
storage of data that is subsequently processed and transmitted with the intention of providing
information to the recipient or decision makers?

Computer-Based Information Communication System (CBIS)

This comprises of computer hardware, computer software, data/information, people/users, procedures
and communication devices (network)

PARTS OF A COMPUTER
i. System Unit
This part houses the brain of the computer called Central processing unit (CPU) and other
devices called drives that store, record and read data.
ii. Peripheral devices
They are connected to system unit using cables called data interface cables that carry data and
information to and from the devices.

Examples of peripheral devices are:

Input devices
 Keyboard - Enables the user to enter data and instructions in the computer by pressing
keys.
 Mouse - Enables user to issue instructions to computer by controlling the mouse pointer
displayed on screen.
 Scanners etc.
Output devices
 Monitor - Enables the user to see information (output).
 Printers
 Projectors

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DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS

i. First generation computers (1940 - 1958)

 They relied on thermionic valves (vacuum tubes) to control internal operations
 These computers were huge
 Expensive
 Often broke down
 They were slow compared to today's computers
 Produced a lot of heat
 Used magnetic drum memory for data storage.
 Their internal storage capacity was limited
 Cards were used to enter data into the computer.
 Difficult to program, use and maintain

Examples of First generation computers

IBM 650
ENIAC (Electronic Numeric Integrator and calculator)
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)

Advantages of first generation computers

a) Vacuum tube technology made possible the advent of electronic digital computer.
b) These computers were the fastest calculating devices at their time.

Disadvantages of first Generation computers

a) They were too bulky
b) They were unreliable
c) Had limited memory
d) They generated a lot of heat
e) Consumed a lot of power

ii. Second generation computer (1958 1964)

 They used transistors for internal operations and magnetic core for memory technology
 Card as a primary storage medium
 Less costly than the first generation
 They had increased storage capacity compared to first generation.
 They were slightly smaller than the first generation computers
 Produced less heat than the first generation.
 Increased speed and reliability compared to first generation.

Examples second-generation computers

IBM 1401
UNIVAC 1107
CDC 1604
ATLAS LEO Mark III
Honeywell 200

Advantages of 2nd Generation computers

a) Were smaller in size compared to first generation
b) They were more reliable
c) They generated less heat
d) They were less prone to hardware failure

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 Disadvantages of 2nd Generation computers
a) Require air conditioning to cool them down
b) Required frequent maintenance
c) Commercial production was difficult and costly

iii. Third generation computers (1964 1970)

 These computers used Integrated Circuits (ICs)
 Used magnetic disk for data storage hence increased storage capacity
 More flexibility with input/ output
 Smaller size
 Had better performance and reliability
 Were easier to program, use and maintain
 Had increased speed and storage capacity
 This time saw emergence of microcomputers. It also introduced software industry, operating
systems.

Examples Third generation computers

IBM, System 360
Burroughs B5500 etc.
ICL 19000 SERIES

Advantages of 3rd generation

a) They were smaller in size
b) Were more reliable
c) They emitted less heat
d) Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure were rare
e) They required less power

Disadvantages of 3rd Generation

a) Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of integrated circuit
b) They were costly

iv. Fourth generation computers (1970 1989)

 These computers used Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI)
Circuit
 Used semiconductor memories, magnetic memories bubble memories and optical disks for
storage purposed. Thus had large storage capacity
 Had a high processing speed
 First operating system was introduced
 Easier to use and program
 The LSI and VLSI were used in the innovation of microprocessor. Microprocessor is a
complete Central Processing Unit (CPU) used in microcomputers
 Microcomputers and supercomputers were realized

Examples Fourth generation computers

IBM 370 and 4300
Burroughs B7700
Honeywell DPS-88

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 Advantages of 4th generation computers
a) They are smaller in size because of high component density
b) Very reliable
c) Generate negligible heat
d) Much faster in computational
e) They are not prone to hardware failure
f) They are portable because of their small size

Disadvantages of fourth generation computers

a) Highly sophisticated technology required for manufacturer of LSI chips. .

(v) Fifth generation computers (1990 Present)

This generation is characterized by the emerging of telecommunication with computer technology.
Scientists are working on this generation to bring machines with genuine IQ the ability to reason
logically and with real knowledge of the world. The anticipated computer will have the following
characteristics
 It is expected to do parallel processing
 It will be based on logical inference operations
 It's expected to make use of artificial intelligence (AI)

Currently
 Emit negligible heat
 Perform multiprocessing
 Computers have very high processing power and speed
 Size is increasingly becoming smaller because of superior hardware and software products that
are small in size
 Therefore the circuit technology is AI, parallel architectures, three Dimensional circuit design
and super-conducting materials
 Use advanced hard disks and optical disks for storage e.g. DVDs
 Use multi-user operating systems and advanced application programs Massive connectivity

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers are classified into three main categories

Classification of
Computers

Physical Size Functionality Purpose

Super computers Analog Computers

Mainframe Digital computers General Purpose
Mini computers Hybrid Computers Special Purpose
Microcomputer

1. Physical Size

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 These classification computers are classified according to their physical size. This can be:
a. Super computers
They are the fastest, largest, most expensive and powerful computers. Mainly used in scientific
research, simulation, weapon analysis etc

b. Mainframe
They are less powerful and less expensive than the super computers. It finds its application in
government agencies, big companies e.g. banks, hospitals etc

c. Mini computers
They are physically smaller and cheaper than mainframes. They are used in research institutions,
scientific laboratories etc

d. Microcomputer
The smallest, cheapest, and least powerful type of computers. They are mainly used in learning
institutions.

Types of microcomputers
i. Desktop computer
Not portable.
It's designed to be placed on top of an office desk
ii. Laptop computer
Portable like briefcase
Designed to be used by placing it on the lap
iii. Palm top computer
Small enough to fit in the pocket and can be held in the palm when being used.

Advantages of laptops computers

i. They are portable
ii. Ruggedness-laptop computers are designed to withstand most of the rigors of travel
iii. Display-Active color screen show sharper, clearer images which prevent eye strain
iv. Power-Laptop batteries serve as built in un-interruptible power supply

Disadvantages of laptop computers

i. Performance- Many laptops have slower clocks speed to conserve power and also have
similar memory capacity
ii. Expandability - Laptops PCs limit your expansion options
iii. Connecting Laptops have few ports and no growth potential
iv. Security- Laptops unlike PCs are easier to steal
v. Display- Laptops screens are limited to VGA resolution

2. Functionality
In this classification computers are classified according to the type of data they process
a. Analog Computers
They perform arithmetic operations and logical comparisons by measuring changes in physical
magnitude e.g. speed, temperature etc.
b. Digital computers
Their operations are based on two states namely "on" and "off" or "1" and" 0"
c. Hybrid Computers
They are computers which are built' with the characteristics of both analog and digital
computers.

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3. Purpose
In this classification computers are classified according to the purpose they serve
a. General Purpose
They are designed to be able to perform a variety of tasks when loaded with appropriate
programs.
b. Special Purpose
They are designed to serve a specific purpose. E.g. robots used in industries, mobile phone for
communication only etc

Areas Where Computers Are Used

Supermarkets
To help in management of daily stock control, for product of receipts and can be used with the bar code
reader

Banks
Manage financial transactions through the use of special cash dispensing machines
Called ATMs used for cash deposit and withdrawal services. They are also used for
i. Processing of cheque
ii. For preparation of payrolls
iii. Better record keeping and processing of documents
iv. Provide electronic money transfer facilities

Homes
i. Entertainment e.g. watching movies, playing music, playing computer games
ii. For storing personal information / documents
iii. For calculating and keeping home budgets

Industries
i. To monitor and control industrial processes through the use of robots
ii. For management control i.e. to keep track of orders, bills and transactions
iii. For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more customers
iv. Used with biometric readers to record time in and out for workers

Law enforcement agencies

i. For matching, analyzing and keeping database of fingerprints
ii. For taking photographs and other identification details
iii. For records keeping_
iv. For face recognition, scene monitoring and analysis, which help the police carry out criminal
investigations speedily:
Transport industry
i. Airports: to control the movement of aircrafts, their take off and landing using radar equipment
ii. For making reservations (Booking purposes)
iii. Storing flight information
iv. Automobile traffic control i.e. monitoring vehicle traffic in busy towns
v. In Railway corporations to coordinate the movement of goods and wagons
vi. In shipping control for efficient management of fleets, cargo handling and communication

Offices
i. For receiving and sending of information through e-mails, fax, etc
ii. Production of documents
iii. Keeping records

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 iv. Doing research
v. Used with CCTVs to monitor security situations in the offices
vi. Used with biometric readers to time in and out workers

Hospitals
i. For keeping patient records
ii. Control of life support machines in intensive care unit
Computer laboratory
Is a room that has been specially prepared to facilitate installation of computers and to provide a safe
conducive environment for teaching and learning of computer studies.

Factors to consider when preparing a computer laboratory

i. Security of computer programs and other resources
ii. Reliability of the source of power
iii. The number of computers to be installed and the available floor space
iv. The maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate

Safety Precautions in Computer Laboratory

Behavior in the computer laboratory

i. Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust. Smoke and dust particles can damage computer
components
ii. Avoid carrying food and beverage to computer room. Food particles may:
a. Particles may cause clogging of the movable computer component e.g. mouse
b. Liquids may cause rusting of metallic parts and electrical shocks when in contact with
naked electric cables
c. It may encourage rodents into the lab e.g Rats
d. May cause accidents like banana peels and oily food staffs
iii. Avoid unnecessary movements because you may accidentally knock down peripherals devices.
iv. Follow the correct procedure for starting and shutting down the computer
Dangers of failing to follow the correct procedure
a. User may lose all unsaved work
b. May cause the hard disk to crash
c. May cause other electronic components to get faulty
v. Accidents, which may occur, should be reported immediately
vi. If you are not sure of how to handle or operate any piece of equipment in the laboratory please
ask for assistance

Avoid water and water taps in the lab

Implication
i. May cause rust to the metallic parts
ii. May cause fire if it come into contact with water
iii. May cause increase in dampness of the room
iv. If in a cemented floor if it gets into contact with soap it may make the floor slippery causing
accidents
Ventilation
There must be good air circulation in the computer room to avoid suffocation and overheating. Proper
ventilation enables the computer to cool hence avoid damage to electronic part.

Lab layout
Should be such that an instructor (tutor) can teach from the front. There should be enough room
between rows so that a person can easily move about the room. This can be attained using the two
popular patterns for laying desks in a computer laboratory namely

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Classroom pattern

White board
Tutor

Student

Walking space

Conference pattern

White board
Tutor

Student

Walking space

Whichever lab layout is to be adopted, the lab should also have the following
i. Installing lighting arrestors on the computer lab.
ii. The room should be well laid out with enough space for movement.
iii. Providing antiglare screens (light filters and adjustable screens to avoid eye strain and fatigue
caused by over bright CRT monitors.)
iv. The walls of the computer room should not be painted with over bright reflective oil paints and
the screens should face away from the window to avoid glare caused by bright backgrounds.

Protection against fire

The computer room should have gaseous fire extinguishers like those filled with carbon dioxide. Water
based and powder based extinguishers should be avoided because they can cause damage to the
computer components
Cable insulation
All power cables in the computer room must be properly insulated and laid away from busy pathways
in the room. This will avoid the danger of exposing the user to electric shock and power interruptions
caused by stumbling on cables

Lighting
Computer room should be well lit to avoid eyestrain that leads to headaches, stress and fatigue. The
user may adjust the brightness of the computer monitor until the eyes feel comfortable. Also radiation
filter screens may be fitted.

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Protection against fire
Computer room should have gaseous fire extinguisher like those filled with CO2. Water based or
powder extinguishers should be avoided because they can damage computer components

Dust and dump control

Dust
The room should be fitted with special curtains to reduce entry of dust particles.
Computers also should remain covered with dust covers when not in use.
Humidity
Humidity should be regulated in the computer room to remain an optimum of 50%. Humidity lower
than this allows static electricity to build up and cause damage to computer components. High
humidity of over 70% may cause rusting of metallic parts

Standard furniture
The table on which a computer is placed must be strong and wide enough to hold the weight and
accommodate all peripheral devices. The user's seat must be comfortable and have a straight backrest
that allows someone to sit upright to avoid muscle pains and aches.

Burglar proofing
To prevent unauthorized access to the computer room:
i. Fit strong metallic grills and locks on doors, windows
ii. Do not welcome strangers to computer room
iii. Install security alarms at strategic access points to alert security personal incase of break in. e.g.
motion censors etc

Stable power supply

Computers require a stable source of power. Momentary power interruptions or fluctuations often cause
computers to crash, damage data storage devices or loss of information that had not been saved prior to
the power disruptions. Power from main supply is not always stable

Types of power protection devices

i. A surge protector
A surge protector is a power protection device that protects the computer against electrical
surges. Surges are large amounts of electricity which exceed the maximum level a device is
capable of holding. Surges can damage or destroy computer components.
ii. Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
Protects a computer from loss of power. It charges when mains power is on and has power
surge (high power voltage) and brownout (less power voltage) protection capabilities. When
the main power goes off, it beeps to alert the user.
Function of UPS
[Link] regulates power form unstable power source to the required clean stable voltage
[Link] temporarily provides power to the computer incase of a sudden power failure.
[Link] beeps to alert the user when the main Power goes off.
[Link] supply power when there is a brownout
PRACTICAL HANDS ON SKILLS
Starting up (Booting)
It's the process by which a computer loads system files into the main memory. i.e. the operating system
is read from the hard disk and loaded to the main memory

Types of Booting
i. Cold booting

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 The process of switching on a computer that has been off completely by pressing the power
button

When cold booting

[Link] sure that all the components are properly connected.
[Link] the computer to an active power source.
[Link] on the monitor first, then the system unit using their respective power buttons.

Three ways of warm booting

i. By pressing Alt + Ctrl + Delete from the keyboard then clicking on Restart from the
message box that appears (For server based operating system)
ii. Pressing on the reset button on the system unit
iii. Pressing start button then the restart button

Process of booting
During booting, the computer starts by checking all its components to determine whether they
are functioning correctly and whether they are available for use. This process is called the
power-on-self-test (POST). During this process, the monitor displays information showing the
status of each device being tested. In case one of the devices is faulty or missing, this process
will halt and a message alerting the user is displayed on the screen. The special program that
directs the POST process is called the basic input output system (BIOS). When the POST
process is over, the computer may display a prompt message requesting for user name and
password or it may directly go to the desktop.

The process of providing user name and password or such information is called logging on and
it is a security measure meant to deter unauthorized users from using the computer.

ii. Warm booting

This happens when the computer, originally on, is forced to restart by pressing the restart
button on the system unit.

Shutting down a computer

NB: Always follow the correct procedure at all the times. If the procedure is not followed then loss of
data, damage of programs and computer components may occur.

Procedure for shutting down a computer

i. Ensure that all the work has been properly stored. This process is called saving.
ii. Close all programs that may be currently running.
iii. If your computer is running on Microsoft Windows 2000 or later versions then:
a. Click the start button on the screen.
b. Select the Shut Down command from the menu list.
c. In the prompt that appears, click on Shut down.
d. After a few seconds a prompt message appears “computer shutting down
e. Finally turn off the monitor since the system unit turns off automatically
Parts of Keyboard
Keys on the keyboard can be categorized into five groups as follows:
i. Alphanumeric keys
ii. Function keys
iii. Cursor movement and editing keys
iv. Special PC operation keys
v. Numeric keypad keys

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A. Alphanumeric keys
These keys are labeled with alphabetic letters A to Z, numbers arranged in a line, 1, 2 0 respectively
and symbols like: ?, ], % etc. This group also includes the following keys: caps lock, enter, tab, space
bar and backspace.

 Caps lock key:

Pressing this key let‟s the user to type in upper case letters (capitals). To switch back to lower case
letters simply press the same key again.
 Enter key (return key):
Pressing this key forces the text cursor to move to the beginning of the next line. A cursor is a blinking
underscore ( - ) or a vertical beam ( I ) that shows where the next character to be typed will appear. The
enter key is also used to instruct the computer to execute a command that has been selected on the
screen.
 Tab key:
This key is used to move the text cursor at set intervals on the same line e.g. 10 mm, 20 mm etc.
 The space bar:
This bar creates a space between words during typing.
 The backspace key:
This key deletes characters from right to left on the same line

B. Function keys
They are labeled F 1, F2 up to F 12. They are used for tasks that occur frequently in various programs.
For example pressing Fl key in most programs starts the help menu. Have different meaning depending
on the program being run

C. Cursor movement and editing keys

Cursor movement keys are used to move the cursor on the screen.

These keys are:

 Arrow keys:
Pressing the right or left arrow key moves the cursor one character to right or left respectively. Pressing
the upward or downward arrow key moves the text cursor one line up or down respectively.

 Page up and page down keys:

Pressing page up key moves the cursor up one page in case the document has many pages. Pressing
page down key moves the cursor down one page in case the document has many pages.

 Home and end keys:

Pressing home key moves the cursor to the beginning of the current line. Pressing end key moves the
cursor, to the end of the current line.
 Editing keys
These are:
Insert key: This key helps the user to insert or replace a character at the cursor position.
Delete (Del) key: This key deletes characters at the cursor position from left to right

D. Special PC operation keys

These keys are rarely used singly but in combination with other keys to give special instructions to the
computer. They include Shift, Ctrl, Alt, Fn and Esc keys.

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E. Numeric keypad keys
The numeric keypad consists of a set of numbers 0 to 9 and the arithmetic signs like + (addition), -
(minus), * (multiplication) and / (division). They are located on the right hand side of the keyboard.
The keypad is meant to help the user to rapidly enter numeric data. It can only be used when the num
lock key, situated on the numeric key pad, is turned on. Otherwise, they can be used as cursor
movement and editing keys when num lock key is turned off.

NB: Not all keyboards have the numeric keypad e.g. portable computers lack a separate numeric
keypad due to size limitations.

A toggle key: These are key when activated causes other keys to function in a predefined way.
Caps Lock Key – A toggle key that, when activated, causes all alphabetic characters to be uppercase
Num Lock – activate the numeric key pad when made active and locks the numeric keypads when not
activated

Mouse Techniques

Terminology Meaning
Point Move the mouse until the mouse pointer on the screen points on the item
Click Position the tip of the mouse pointer over specified element, then press and
release the left mouse button once. Selects an object/icons, files in a list and
dialog box options.
Double clicking Pressing the left mouse button twice in quick/rapid succession. Expands
icons, starts applications, opens a file and chooses items from a list.
Right clicking Pressing the right hand side mouse button once. It displays a shortcut menu
or context sensitive menu, which apply to the right clicked text item.
Drag and Drop Press and hold down the mouse button as the mouse is moved. Release once
the destination is reached. Through drag and drop, user drags an item from
one location on the screen to another, move windows, icons and resizes
windows.

Drag and drop:

Procedure
i. Point to the item you want to drag.
ii. Press the left hand side mouse button and hold it down
iii. Slide the mouse until the pointer reaches the desired position on the screen.
iv. Finally release the mouse button and the item will be dropped in the new location

Practical keyboard skills

When using the keyboard observe the following typing rules:

i. Sit upright with both feet firmly on the ground maintaining an alert posture.
ii. Place the material to be typed on your left in a position you can read without strain.

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iii. Rest both hands on the keyboard with fingers resting on the home keys. These are keys on
which fingers rest during typing in readiness to press other keys. The home keys for the left
hand starting with the small finger are A, S, D, F with the thumb on spacebar while those of the
right hand are the apostrophe ( ), semicolon (;), L, K with the thumb on the spacebar.
iv. Start typing the text slowly at first, making sure you are using all the ten fingers and that you
press the key nearest to the home keys with

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 COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Definition
Computer system refers to a collection of components/entities that work together to process, store and
manage information using computers

Computer system consist of three main components

i. Hardware
These are the mechanical, electrical and electronic part that makes up computer. They include
monitor, system unit, keyboard, mouse hard disks etc
ii. Software
It is a set of computer programs that guides the computer in each and every activity that
happens inside the computer during data processing.
iii. Live ware (computer users)
Refers to users who have computer knowledge and hence can properly utilize the computer
hardware and software resources

Input Devices
These are devices, which accept data from human readable form and convert them into
electronic or machine-readable form.

Data may be entered into a computer using keying devices, pointing devices, or automatically
captured from the "Source referred to as data capture devices, or by voice recognition devices
such as microphones.

NB: The main purpose of input devices is to convert the human readable data into electronic or
machine-readable form.

Input devices can be classified according to how they are used to enter data. This
includes:
i. Keying devices such as the keyboard, keypad etc.
ii. Pointing devices such as mouse, trackball etc
iii. Scanning and other data capture devices. Such as Optical scanners etc
iv. Speech recognition or voice input devices such as microphone
v. Touch screen, digitizer and digital cameras

1. Keying devices
Keyboard and keypad
These devices enter data into a computer by typing. Apart from a few differences, a computer keyboard
is similar to the typewriter keyboard. A keypad is a miniature (tiny) keyboard, which is mostly used on
small portable computers, calculators palm notes, mobile phones etc.

Common types of keying devices include:

i. Traditional keyboards: It‟s a full sized rigid keyboards
ii. Ergonomic keyboard: It‟s specially design to provide comfort and alleviate wrist strain.
iii. Flexible keyboard: It‟s a more portable type of a keyboard that can be folded and packed into a
bag.
iv. Keypad: Is a miniature keyboard used in portable devices such as PDAs, laptops, palm notes,
calculators and mobile phones.
v. Braille keyboard: is a special keyboard for the blind. It consist of keys identified by raised dots
Advantages of keyboards
i. Its very reliable compared to other methods of text input (voice input)

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 ii. It‟s cost effective since every computer comes with a keyboard and there is no additional cost.
2. Pointing devices
These are the input devices that enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer on the screen.
Examples include:
i. Mouse
Enter data or Instructions by controlling a pointer on the screen.
 Mechanical mouse
It has a ball underneath, two buttons and an optional scroll wheel.
 The optical mouse
Have a pointing device that uses light emitting diode (LED), an optional sensor and
digital signal processing (DSP) in place of the traditional mouse ball and
electromechanical transducer.
 Cordless (wireless) mouse
Cordless or wireless mouse is a battery powered mouse that uses radio or infrared
waves instead of being physically connected to the system unit.
Uses of a mouse
 To select options from menus or from a set of icons by clicking the mouse button .
 To position the cursor when editing text or using design package
 To select an object in a drawing or a piece of text to be copied, moved or deleted.
Advantages of using a mouse
 Is easy and convenient to use
 It is inexpensive
 Most modern software includes an option to use it
 It selects a position on screen much more quickly than a keyboard
Disadvantages
 Cannot be used to input text easily, you need a keyboard to do that.
 It is relatively slow for selecting menu options
 Requires a flat surface to operate
 It is not accurate for drawing purposes

Computer Mouse

ii. Track ball

A trackball works just like the mouse but instead of moving it on a flat surface, a ball fixed on
its top is rolled using the index finger. As the ball rotates, it moves a pointer on the screen one
can then click its button to execute the selected command.
Advantages
 It does require a flat surface or extra space to operate

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 iii. Joystick
A joystick is an input device that looks like a car gear lever, which can be moved sideways,
upwards, or downwards to control the position of the cursor or objects on the screen. Just like
the mouse, it has a button, which is used for selecting an item. It is commonly used in playing
video game

iv. Light pen

It is a hand held pen-like device that has a light sensitive point. A light pen can make
selections, place images, draw and indicate dimensions by simply touching the screen. A light
pen does not emit light but instead, it reacts to the light emitted by the display using a
photosensitive detector at its base.
Uses of a light pen
 Are used as design aids
 Used to read bar codes and to indicate a point on the a screen or pad
Advantages
 Provide a direct mode of input
 More precise than using a mouse
Disadvantages
 Can only detect the presence and absence of light
 Can only be used in conjunction with a graphic VDU, which is able to sense special
hardware and software.

Light pen

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3. Scanning devices (Document readers)
They are devices that capture data into the computer directly. They are classified according to the
technology they use to capture data.
Classification of Scanners
i) Optical Scanners
They capture data using light. A light beam passes over an object and the image is analyzed by
specialized software. They are of three types

a) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

Detect marks made on a piece of paper using a soft pen or pencil, by passing an infrared beam
of light over them. The documents are pre-printed with predefined data positions. The OMR
converts the marks into computer readable data. The reader detects the presence and absence of
a mark on a form by sensing reflected infrared light
Advantages of OMR
i. Has low error rates
ii. Conspicuous errors are easily corrected
iii. Data captured at source, hence minimizing amount of manual work
Disadvantages of OMR
i. Mark readers are relatively slow
ii. Verification of marked data is difficult iii. Not widely used in business

Application of OMR
i. Marking of mul
ii. tiple-choice examination papers e.g. KCPE or aptitude test.
iii. Insurance premium collection
iv. Analyzing responses to structured questionnaires
v. Selecting correct number combinations from lottery tickets
vi. Payroll data entry
vii. Market research questionnaires
viii. Voter's registration process

Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

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 b) Optical Bar Recognition (OBR)
These scanners are used to capture data coded as lines of varying thickness known as
bar codes or Universal Product Code (UPC). Scan and translate a bar code into
machine understandable mode. Bar codes are lines of different thickness and are
common on consumer products and contain item information such as country of
manufacture, manufacturer and the product code. Bar codes do not have the price
details because prices vary from one place to another.

There are two types of bar code scanners

i. The hand held wand
ii. The desktop bar code reader

Advantages of OBR
i. Bar codes can be printed by normal printing methods
ii. The type of item or price does not have to be repeatedly written / typed
Disadvantages of OBR
i. Bar codes can only be read by machines
ii. Only numbers can be coded in this way
iii. They are relatively fixed, so they are unsuitable for recording prices which
can frequently change
Application of OBR
i. On labels and on shelves for stocktaking
ii. Printed on shop goods e.g. Supermarkets, wholesale shops
iii. In libraries

Optical Bar Recognition (OBR) wand

c) Optical Character/image Scanner (OCR)

Is the most advanced type of scanner that works like the human eye. It is used to read
typewritten, computer printed, or handwritten characters and transforms the images
into a softcopy that can be manipulated using a word processor. Today OCR comes as
integrated feature of more advanced scanners called flat-bed scanners are used to
capture pictures and real objects.
Advantages of OCR
i. Data is captured at source hence errors are limited
ii. Its an easier method to use

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 iii. Document design is less complicated
iv. Characters can be read by people
Disadvantages of OCR
i. Some Optical scanners are expensive
ii. Handling precaution is necessary e.g. document should not be folded or
creased for accurate reading.
iii. Only certain font is acceptable
Application of OCR
i. Used in billing

Optical Character/image Scanner (OCR)

iii) Magnetic Scanners

These scanners use the principle of magnetism to sense the document characters that have been
written using magnetized ink. They can also be said to use magnetic technology to capture data.
a) Magnetic - Ink character recognition (MICR)
This scanner is able to detect characters written in special magnetic ink. It is used in banks to
read cheques, credit cards etc.
Advantages of MICR
i. Its fast, accurate and automatic
ii. The codes are' both machine and human readable
iii. Reduces forgery i.e. its difficult to forge
Disadvantages of MICR
i. MICR system is limited to only 14 characters
ii. MICR system is based on magnetism and can easily be damaged.

b) Magnetic Stripe recognition (Magnetic card reader)

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 A magnetic stripe is a thin magnetic tape, often found at the back of a plastic card such as ATM
card. The magnetic stripe is used to recognize the data in such cards.
Advantages of magnetic stripes
i. Simple to produce
ii. Not easy damaged
iii. Stores fairly large numbers of characters
Disadvantages of magnetic stripes
i. Data can be changed or erased by magnetic fields
Application of magnetic stripes
i. On credit cards
ii. On bank cards e.g. A TM
iii. As tags on clothes
iv. As a phone card
v. Production control where punched cards holds data in a factory like employee's details
vi. Access control for security reasons in many offices to control access to buildings or
rooms
vii. Car parks where badges are used to raise car barriers, allowing entry or exit from a car
park.

Magnetic Stripe recognition (Magnetic card reader)

4. Speech Recognition Devices / voice input

This is a type of input method where microphone is used to enter data in form of spoken words
directly into the computer.

Advantages of Speech Recognition

i. No keyboards is necessary i.e. very fast
ii. Useful in situations where
a. Hands or eyes are busy handling documents etc.
b. People are moving around, since wireless microphone can be used
iii. Can be used from remote locations via the telephone

Disadvantages of Speech Recognition

i. Homophones - Some words sound the same.
ii. Recognition is slow
iii. Limited vocabularies
iv. Background noise can disrupt the data entered.
v. Speaker variability i.e. the speed, pitch, loudness, pronunciation of individuals

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 Application Areas of Speech Recognition
i. Security and Access control e.g. – Office security for room access, House/car security
ii. Quality control and automatic in factories i.e. speech input used to order Robots.
iii. Automated materials handling in airports to direct luggage to appropriate conveyor belt
iv. Voice activated toys and games

Speech Recognition Devices / voice input

Other Digital Devices

a) Touch Screen
It utilizes the technology of a touch sensitive screen. It works by allowing the, user to
touch the screen in order to select an item. The screen consists of infrared light
crisscrossing behind it. When the user touches a location on the screen, this device
recognizes the location of a contact on the screen through a built-in grid of sensing
lines and sensors.

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 b) Digital Cameras
Capture the same way as other cameras do but stores image in digital form. Pictures are
stored on a memory card instead of a film. The digital image taken can be streamed
directly into a computer, uploaded to internet using a webcam or directly printed using
a special photo printer. Are used to take electronic pictures of an object

They are of two types

i. Still digital camera one that can take still images i.e. photographs
ii. A video digital camera that takes motion pictures

c) Digitizers /Graphic table

A digitizer also known as graphic table1 is made up of a flat surface and allows the
user to draw an image using a stylus. The image drawn does not appear on the tablet on
the computer screen. The stylus moves on the tablet and the drawing is directly
reflected on the screen.

Factors to consider while selecting an Input device

i. Device cost
The initial cost and recurrent cost to be weighed against the expected benefits and operational
characteristics of the facility
ii. Device speed of data input
iii. Data volume: It should cope with that data volume to be input with appropriate timing.

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iv. Device accuracy: Choosing a bar code instead of a keyboard for a point of sale in the
supermarkets
v. Device reliability its should serve without failing
vi. Mode of operation: This will depend on the nature of the system i.e. data processing system.
vii. Appropriateness: weigh out the merits and demerits of the device in relation to where it is
applied / used

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 THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
Definition of terms
 Fetch instruction: Read instructions from the memory
 Interpret instructions: Decode the instruction to determine the operation to
be performed
 Process data: Execute the instruction
 Decode Interpret an instruction
 Write data: Results may mean writing data to memory or an
I/O device
CPU
The CPU also known as the Processor or microprocessor is a tiny chip etched into a silicon chip. It‟s
regarded as the brain (most important component) of the computer. This is so because all data
execution (processing of instructions) and control operations are coordinated here. In microcomputers,
the CPU is housed inside the system unit. It is mounted on a circuit board known as the motherboard or
the system board. The control unit fetches instruction from the main memory then send to ALU for
execution in a process referred to as fetch execute cycle.

Functional organization of the CPU

CPU
Arithmetic and logic unit
Registers

Control unit

Data Information

Input unit Main memory Output Unit

Data /
Information

Auxiliary / secondary storage

Timing and
control signals
Key
Data/
Information flow

CPU is made up of the following main parts

i. Control unit
ii. Arithmetic and logic unit
iii. Registers

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Control unit
It‟s a circuitry located in the CPU that coordinates all processing activities in the CPU as well as input,
storage and output operations. It issues timing and control signals which determines which operation or
instruction is to be executed next. To coordinate these activities, the control unit uses a system clock

The system clock sends electric signals as its means of communication, just like the traffic officer does
in a round about to direct motorists and other road users. The number of pulses per second determines
the speed of a microprocessor. The faster the clock pulses, the faster the CPU hence the faster the
computer can process data.

Arithmetic and logic unit

Its part of the CPU that performs
i. Arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, division and multiplication as well as
ii. Logic operations to compare two or more values such as greater than or less than, equal to or
not equal to, AND, OR and NOT among others.

In order for the ALU to be able to process data, it has special temporary storage locations called
registers, which holds the data just before processing and results after processing. The results of an
arithmetic-logic unit operation are usually transferred to the accumulator (AC).

Special purpose memories

This are types of memories embedded in the microprocessor in order to enhance its processing speed.
These memories include registers, buffer and cache memory

1. Registers
Registers are the smallest units of memory and are located internally within the CPU and are most
often used to either temporarily store results or control information. Registers within the CPU serve two
basic functions:

 User-visible registers: these enable to machine/assembly language programs to minimize main

memory references by optimizing use of registers.

 Control and Status registers: used by the control unit to control the operation of the CPU and
by privileged, operating system programs to control the execution of programs.

a) Accumulator (AC)
The contents can be used by the arithmetic-logic unit for arithmetic and logic operations, and by the
memory buffer register. Usually, all results generated by the arithmetic-logic unit end up in the
accumulator.

b) Instruction Register (IR)

Holds the contents of the last instruction fetched. This instruction is now ready to be executed and is
accessed by the control unit.

d) Memory Address Register (MAR) / Address Register (AR)

This register specifies the address in memory where information can be found and can be also used to
point to a memory location where information is to be stored.
e) Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
The main purpose of this register is to act as an interface between the central processing unit and
memory. When the control unit receives the appropriate signal, the memory location stored in the
memory address register is used to copy data from or to the memory buffer registers.

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f) Storage registers (SR)
Hold a piece of data that is on its way to and from the CPU

g) Program Counter (PC)

Contains the memory address of the next instruction to be executed. The contents of the program
counter are copied to the memory address register before an instruction is fetched from memory. At the
completion of the fetched instruction, the control unit updates the program counter to point to the next
instruction, which is to be fetched

h) Program Status Word (PSW)

Generally referred to as a Status Register (SR), this register encapsulates key information used by the
CPU to record exceptional conditions. Conditions such as CPU-detected errors (an instruction
attempting to divide by zero), hardware faults detected by error checking circuits, and urgent service
requests or interrupts generated by the I/O modules

2. Buffers
This is a temporary holding place that may be part of the CPU or built in an input or output device.
Because the CPU is very fast compared to the input or output devices, buffers provide temporary
storage so that the CPU is set free to carry out other activities instead of waiting for all data to be
entered or information to be output. For example since a printer cannot work at the speed of a CPU, the
printer buffers temporarily holds the output to be printed hence freeing the CPU to perform other
functions.
NB: Buffers can hold more than one piece of data at a time.

3. Cache Memory
Most modem processors incorporate small high-speed type of SRAM called cache memory. The
purpose of cache memory is to allow the processor to access data and instructions even more faster than
it would have taken to fetch it from the relatively slow DRAM.
There are three types of cache memory
 Level 1 also known as primary cache located inside the microprocessor
 Level 2 also known as external cache that may be inside the microprocessor or mounted on
the motherboard
 Level 3 is the latest type of cache that work with level 2 cache to optimize system
performance.
Virtual memory
If you have limited memory or you have many programs open, your computer may need to use part of
the hard drive to simulate more memory. This simulated more memory is called virtual memory and
allows the computer to continue operation but at much slower speed.
NB All the above registers are located in the central processing unit.
The CPU performs the following functions:
i. Processing data through fetch and execute cycle coordinated by the system clock
ii. System control by issuing timing and control signals
iii. Provide temporary storage (registers) and permanent storage like ROM
iv. Runs the Operating System software installed on the computer, peripheral devices such
as printers, scanners etc
v. Gives commands to all parts of the computer system
vi. Control the use of the main memory
vii. Perform all computation
Computer memory

Main memory (primary storage or working storage)

Main memory also known as primary storage provides storage location for data and instructions
accessed by the CPU.

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Main memory has the following functions
i. Holding data just before and after processing
ii. Holding instructions just before and after execution

Computer memory can be classified into read only memory (ROM) and random access memory
(RAM).

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Read only memory is used to store programmed instructions and data permanently or Semi-
permanently. Data and instructions stored in ROM are those required to remain unchanged for long
periods of time e.g. booting instructions like for POST and BIOS, special purpose computers and
computerized fuel pumps instructions etc.

Depending on permanence of the instructions or data written on it, there are four types of read only
memory (ROM) namely;
i. Mask read only memory
This type of ROM is written once at the time of manufacture and cannot be changed.
ii. Programmable read only memory (PROM)
This allows the user to alter it only once after the content is written on it. Once programmed
the content cannot be changed
iii. Erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM)
This has a transparent quartz window through which its contents, can be erased by exposing it
to ultra violet (UV) light, and then reprogrammed for another use.
iv. Electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM)
This type of ROM can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity. An example of
EEPROM is the memory that stores the basic input/output system (BIOS).

Advantages of read only memory (ROM)

i. One can only read its content but you cannot write on it unless it is a special type of ROM
ii. It is non-volatile i.e. its content is not lost when the computer is switched off.
iii. Stores permanent or semi-permanent instructions from the manufacturer called firmware. It can
store semi-permanent instructions because some variations of ROM chips can be programmed
according to the user s specification.

Disadvantages of read only memory (ROM)

i. Some ROM cannot be altered after being programmed.
ii. Since they are inbuilt in the mother board or in the processor they are cost effective in
production. Since they never be needed after initial production of the computer.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is mostly referred to as working storage. It is called random access memory (RAM) because its
content can be read directly regardless of the sequence in which it was stored. RAM holds the
programs being run and the data being used by the CPU at the current time. As opposed to ROM, the
content in RAM is held temporarily and its content is lost once the computer is turned off. RAM is the
memory used in large quantities in Main Memory and every computer must specify its size.

Characteristics of random access memory (RAM) are:

i. Data can be read (retrieved) and written (stored) in it.
ii. RAM is a temporary (volatile) storage because its content disappears when the computer is
switched off.
iii. Its content is user defined i.e. the user dictates what is to be contained in the RAM.

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Types of RAM
There are two types of RAM namely, static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM).

1. Static RAM (SRAM)

SRAM is a fast type of memory found inside a microprocessor. They are used in special purpose
memories known as cache memory discussed earlier.

Characteristics of SRAM
i. It is a very fast memory and holds its contents as long as there is power.
ii. Its content 'does not require refreshment
iii. It is expensive
iv. It is very fast compared to DRAM
v. Found inside a microprocessor
vi. Its mostly used to make special types of memories known as Cache memory
vii. Used for smaller memories since it has low packing density

2. Dynamic RAM
They are slower types of RAM compared to SRAM. The term dynamic, refer to the tendency for the
stored charge to leak away, even with constant power supply. For this reason, DRAM requires periodic
recharging referred to as refreshing to maintain the data stored.

Characteristics of SRAM
i. Require constant refreshing to avoid losing of content
ii. Offer slower access time compared to SRAM
iii. Cheaper compared to SRAM
iv. They are located outside the CPU

A DRAM

Types of DRAM

Fast Page Mode Dynamic Random Access Memory FPM DRAM

Is one of the earlier forms of RAM type and is an improvement over the conventional DRAM.
Traditional DRAM requires the physical column and row address of each memory cell for each
memory access, whereas FPM DRAM uses one row address for multiple accesses.

Extended Data-Out Dynamic Random Access Memory EDO DRAM

It‟s an improvement of FPM DRAM based on the concept of allowing a memory access to begin before
the last one is finished. It performs more than one task at a time. This saves time by overlapping the
processes required to retrieve a set of data.

Extended correct code (ECC) is a special type of DRAM that corrects errors and is mainly used in
servers

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Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory SDRAM
Has a speed twice that of EDO RAM because its able to run at the speed of the system bus up to 100-
133 MHz

Rambus DRAM (RDRAM)

Got its name from the company that developed it, Rambus, inc. the memory uses a special Rambus
channel that has a data transfer rate or 800 MHz

Most of the PCs and laptops have the following types of DRAM
i. Dual-inline packages (DIP) – Attached to the motherboard of PCs
ii. Single inline memory module (SIMM) – Used for old Pentium and currently have been faced
out
iii. Dual inline memory module (DIMM - Used for Pentium I, II, III computers
iv. Small outline DIMM (SoDIMM) - Used mostly for laptops its half the size of DIMM
v. MicroDIMM - Allow higher density of data storage. Mostly designed for portable computers

Memory capacities
Memory and storage capacity is measured in special units called bytes. A byte is equivalent to a single
character, which can be numbers 0 - 9, letters A - Z or a special symbol e.g. a number 2341 has 4 bytes,
while words SGC Centre has 10 bytes since the space between them is one byte.

Memory quantities can be expressed in

i. Kilobytes (KB) - Approximately one thousand bytes (10 3)
ii. Megabytes (MB) - Approximately one million bytes (106)
iii. Gigabytes (GB) - Approximately one billion bytes (1012)
iv. Terabytes (TB) - Approximately one trillion bytes (1024)

Overall organization of the CPU

The ALU, CU and Main Memory use electrical pathways or links called buses. A bus is an electrical
path for signal to flow from one point to another in a circuit. There are three types of computer buses
namely:

i) Control bus
These are unidirectional pathway for all timing and control functions sent by the control unit to other
parts of the system.

ii) Address bus

These are unidirectional buses from the microprocessor used to locate the storage position in memory
or a device to be acted on by the microprocessor. The size of the address bus tells you how much
memory the chip can handle

iii) Data bus

These are bi-directional buses that carry information, and data to and form the microprocessor. The size
of the data bus is an indication of the information moving capability of the chip

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 Address bus

INPUT
CPU MAIN
(Microprocessor OUTPUT
MEMORY DEVICES
)

Control bus

Data bus

Microprocessor communication to main memory and I/O devices via buses

Main memory / Primary memory

ROM RAM

1. MROM … Never Altered SRAM DRAM

In the CPU Located outside the CPU
2. PROM … Altered once Require frequent refreshing
No frequent refreshing
3. EPROM … Altered using UV rays Not as fast as SRAM
needed
4. EEROM … Altered using electricity Very fast Cheap
Very expensive

Computer main memory summary diagram

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Types of processors and their clock speeds

Microprocessors
A microprocessor is a complete CPU where ALU and Control unit has been combined into a tiny single
processor. The microprocessor chips use many different internal designs, and the chips vary in
appearance and capability.

Three basic characteristics that differentiate microprocessors are:

i. Bandwidth: This is the number of bits that can be processed by one instruction
ii. Clock speed or Clock Rate: This is the speed of the internal timer that determines how many
instructions per second the processor can execute. The internal clock regulates the rate at which
instructions are executed and synchronizes all the various computer components. The faster the
clock, the more instructions the CPU can execute.
iii. Instruction set: These are the set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute

Processor clock speed

The speed at which a processor executes instructions is determined by its clock speed. System clock
speed is measured in hertzs. A hertz is a unit of frequency, which measures the number of cycles per
second in a signal.

Quantities of the clock speed can be expressed in;

i. Kilohertz (kHz): Approximately one thousand hertz‟s
ii. Megahertz (MHz): Approximately one million hertz‟s
iii. Gigahertz (GHz): Approximately one billion hertz‟s

NB: Modern CPUs reach over 3 GHz

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Types of processors
Processor Description Clock speed
Intel 8086 The two are almost identical and were 4.7 MHz - 10 MHz
and 8088 used with the first IBMPCs 8086 was an
Improvement of 8088
Intel 80286 Provided increased performance over 6 MHz - 20 MHz
8086. This was the processor that opened
up the PCs to many users.

80386SX Apart from Intel s 80286, AMD 33 MHz – 40 MHz

and produced
80368DX their versions with copied greatly the
Intel. This were the first entry in the
processor market
80486SX Provided over 100% better performance 25 MHz – 50 MHz
and than 80386 and were the first ungradable
80486DX Processors. AMD and Cyrix produced
their version too.
Pentium Since 1992, Intel decided to coin their 60 MHz - presently
(586) and fifth generation with the name Pentium Pentium IV with over
above instead of 80586. Pent is a Latin word 2.8 GHz
that means five. Intel chose the word in
order to distinguish its 80586 and above
processors from AMD and Cyrix
versions i.e. 5x86 and AMDK5
respectively. Examples of Intel Pentium
processor are Pentium Pro, Pentium
MMX, Pentium II and currently Pentium
IV and Pentium IV Duo core processor

Output devices
Output devices are peripheral devices that a computer uses to give out information produced after the
processing operations.

There are two types of output devices

i. Softcopy output devices
Softcopy refers to the intangible output mainly displayed on the screen or through other
output devices such as speakers, or monitors
ii. Hardcopy output devices.
A hardcopy is a tangible output produced mostly on papers by devices such as printers.

Softcopy output devices.

Some of the softcopy output devices are;
Monitors
Also known as Visual Display Unit or Screen. It displays information in form of text, pictures and
video on the screen thus helping the user to monitor operations carried out by the computer.

Terms associated with computer display include:

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Pixel (Short for picture elements)
Is a single dot or point or in an electronic image, which is used to form the image displayed on the
screen. In color monitor, a pixel has three primary colours namely red, green and blue.

Colour depth
Refers to number of colours, which can be displayed by a pixel. It is measured in bits.

Resolution
Is the number of pixels per inch on the screen usually given in dots per inch (dpi) or bits. The higher
the resolution, the more the number of pixels per inch, hence the clearer/sharper the images

Refresh rate
Since the CRTs cannot hold an image for a long time, image in the video RAM is used to refresh the
one on the screen as long as necessary. If a screen has a low fresh rate, images tend to flicker hence
causing eyestrain.

Display size
Its measured in inches as the diagonal length of the screen measured from corner to corner mostly 15
or 17 or 19 or 20 or 21 inches

Types of monitors
i. Monochrome Monitor
It displays images and text in only one colour mostly black and white.
ii. Colour Monitor
It displays images and text in multiple colours.

NB
For a monitor to display information it must be connected to a separate piece of circuit board, plugged
into the motherboard called the video card or graphics adapter. However, some motherboards have
on¬board video capability therefore there is no need for a video card.

Examples of graphic adapters are:

Monochrome display adapter (MDA): This was the first video card that was used in early computers.
MDA displayed text only in one colour.

Hercules graphics card (HGC):

One weakness of the original MDA display was that, it could not support images of any kind. Hercule
graphic card supports monochrome images in addition to text.

Color graphics adapter (CGA):

This can display text and images using up to 16 colours.

Enhanced graphics adapter (EGA):

This is an improvement over colour graphic adapter but also displayed text and images using 16
colours.

Video graphics array (VGA):

This offers at most 256 colours.

Super video graphics array (SVGA):

This is an enhancement of video graphic array capabilities offering over 256 colours.

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 SECONDARY / AUXILIARY DEVICES AND MEDIA

These alternative storage devices that are not part of the main memory cannot be directly accessible by
the CPU. They are housed outside the system unit and therefore they can be carried around to be used
with another computer thus called removable storage devices and media. In order to read or store data
from a storage media, a device called a drive is required.

Characteristics of secondary storage

i. Non-volatile storage
Data stored in this media is permanent unless erased by user
ii. Mass storage
Stores large volume of data
iii. Reusability
Stored data can be erased and the media reused to store fresh data and programs

They can be classified according to the technology used to record data. These can be:
i. Magnetic
ii. Optical.

Magnetic storage media

i. Magnetic tapes.

It: magnetic tape is a ribbon of mylar (plastic-like) material

coated with a thin layer of iron oxide. The tape resembles the
music cassette used in home tape recorders. In order to
read/write data records on the tape, the tape must be inserted in
a tape drive that rotates the tape allowing a read/write head to
perform the operation

One block Inter-recording gaps

Advantages of magnetic tapes

i. They are light i.e. portable
ii. High capacity and backup storage at relatively low cost.
iii. Can be erased and re-used
iv. Holds a lot of data in a compact space

Disadvantages of magnetic tapes

i. Very slow in accessing of data This means that you have to access the proceeding records
before you get the required
ii. Easily damaged by environmental factors i.e. dust, heat, touching etc.
iii. The inter-block space is wastage of storage space.

ii. Magnetic disks

They have a magnetic disk platter that stores data. Examples of magnetic disks are floppy disks
(diskettes), zip disks and jaz disk.

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 a) Floppy disks
A floppy disk or simply a diskette is made up of a small
flexible round disk coated with iron oxide. This disk is
covered with a plastic protective case. Floppy disks are
portable and are inserted in a floppy drive, which has a
read-write head that runs over the magnetized spots that
contain data.

Floppy disks come in two different sizes with different

storage capacities.
i. Initial floppy disks were large (8 and 5 ¼ Inches)in
size but with smaller storage capacities of 100k and
1.2 MB respectively
ii. Presently available 3 ½ inch which has a maximum
storage capacity of about 1.44 MB

When the plastic casing of

the floppy is removed the
cross section will be as
alongside:
Tracks: These are tinny Sector
invisible concentric circles
used to store data

Cross section of a disk platter Track

Opening

Recording window:
Protective Flap Used to read / write
data to the diskett

Disk platter

Plastic case: protect

the mylar coated
with iron oxide that
stores data

Hub: Used to rotate the diskette

Disadvantages of floppy disks Write protect tab
i. Storage area is limited to 1.44 MB Parts of a floppy disk
ii. Easily damaged
iii. Are short-lived
iv. Slow access time. Access time is the time taken to read the data from disk to the Main storage.

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 b) Zip disks

These are high capacity disks that resemble the floppy disks. They
are, however, slightly larger and thicker in size. A zip disk can
hold as much as 250 MB. Zip disks mostly come with separate
portable external zip drive.

iv. Jaz disks

These are small portable disks with high storage capacity of about
1GB to 2GB. They are used for storing data that require large storage.
Like Jaz disk comes with a portable Jaz drive.

Care of magnetic storage media

i. Do not expose them to strong magnetic fields. This would erase the magnetically recorded data
on the disk. Hence do not carry magnets to the computer room.
ii. Keep magnetic media away from excessive heat because heat energy weakens magnetic medias
ability to store data.
iii. Do not drop the disk on the ground.
iv. Do not bend or fold magnetic media or put heavy weights on them to avoid
breaking or damaging them
v. Do not touch the magnetic surfaces
vi. Do not remove media from drive when its still being accessible by the computern because this
may result in data loss.

Optical storage media

These are disks on which data is recorded using a laser beam. A laser beam is a very strong
concentrated light. The beam burns very tiny holes (pits) into a thin shiny surface to record data.
Likewise a laser beam in the optical drive is also used to read, record data on the disk.

Advantages of optical storage media are:

i. They store very large volumes of data.

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 ii. Data stored in them is more stable and more permanent than the

Examples of optical storage disks include: LS-120 super disks (SD), compact disks (CDs), digital
versatile disks (DVD), optical card and optical tape.

LS-120 super disk

This is a diskette that resembles the 3 !-inch floppy disk but uses optical technology instead of magnetic
technology to record data. It has greater capacity of storage and greater speed of data retrieval. The LS-
120 drive can read and write both the 3 ½ inch, 1.44 MB floppy disk and the 120 MB super disk

Fixed storage
Refers to storage devices that are housed inside the system unit e.g. Hard disk. NB: Some hard disks
especially those in small computers such as laptops are removable.

Hard disk (Winchester) or hard drive

Is a sealed unit in which are shiny rigid magnetic disks or

platters that are arranged vertically one after the other on a
common axis. The read and write operations are carried out
by the R/W heads, in the disk drive, under the influence of
the computers command signals. They can hold thousand of
programs and files.

Spindle

Stack of rotating
disks called platters

Read / write head that read

and record data on the disks

Care of hard disk

i. Keep it away from smoke and dust
ii. Switch off the computer using the correct procedure to avoid crashing on rotating disks.
iii. Do not expose the hard disk to magnetic field or excess heat

Advantages of hard disk

i. It's cheap: their prices compared with their very high storage capacity they are cheap
ii. Store very large volume of data
iii. Very reliable than floppy
iv. Does not deteriorate as floppy disks
v. Has faster access time ( Seek time i.e. time taken to access a given track or sector is very little)

Disadvantages
i. Are usually fixed and cannot be removed without opening the system unit.
ii. They can suffer a head crash resulting to loss of data
iii. Are sensitive to dust, humidity, magnetism which can corrupt the data stored

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 iv. They are inflexible i.e. cannot be changed.
v. When the read write head fails or a platter is destroyed it cannot be repaired

Removable Optical storage

Data is written and read from using a laser beam.
Laser disks
Data is recorded using a very concentrated light (laser beam). They store very large volumes of data.
Data stored in them is more stable and permanent than the magnetic media. Examples are: Compact
disks (CD), Digital Versatile Disk (DVD), Optical Card and Optical tape.

i. Compact disk (CD)

CD is made of a small plastic disk with a reflective aluminium coating on one side. They hold
large quantities of data and information, as much as 700MB.

Forms of CDs:
Compact Disk - Read Only Memory (CD-ROM)
When data is recorded on them one cannot change or add anything on them. Mostly used to
store music recordings

Compact Disk - Recordable (CD-R)

They are initially blank but with a CD- Writer (Drive), the user can record data, programs or
information on it. Once data has been written on it, one can only read but not change it i.e. it
becomes read only. They are coated with special dye which changes colour to represent data
when burned using a laser beam.

Both CD-ROMs and CD-Rs are referred to as WORM (Write Once Read Many) because they
allow the use to write (record) data on them once but read them many times.

Compact Disk - Rewriteable (CD-RW)

Data written to the can be erased (overwritten) and rewrite new information.

Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)

Resemble CDs but have higher storage capacity of upto 17 GB, approximately 26 CDs of
capacity 640 MB. They are suitable for recoding motion pictures like videos because of they
offer better sound and pictures quality. There are three common types of DVDs namely read
only, recordable and rewriteable VDs.

ii. Optical card

Resemble MICR, but it has optically recordable stripe that

store information. Mostly used in Banking to store
customer details.

iii. Optical tape

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Similar to magnetic tape, but data is stored on it using optical technology.

Advantages of optical storage

i. Have massive capacity
ii. Stores data permanently
iii. Accessing of data is fast
iv. Secured i.e. it's hard to copy
v. High quality pictures and sound - Portable

Disadvantage
i. Expensive
ii. Costly hardware and software for reading
iii. It can break easily
iv. Very sensitive to things like dust, water, heat, scratches which easily damage them.

Solid state storage devices

Is a kind of nonvolatile storage media that employs integrated circuits rather than mechanical, magnetic
or optical technology. They are regarded as solid state because they do not have moving parts but
everything is electronic as the case of RAM or EEPROM. Examples include flash disks and memory
cards.

Flash disk
It is small in size but with massive storage capacity of as much as
32GB. Its more portable and convenient to carry around than other
secondary storage medias.
Memory card

Advantages of solid state storage over other removable

i. Are noiseless since they have no mechanical parts
ii. Offer faster access to stored data
iii. Are very small hence more portable

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 COMPUTER SAFETY AND ERGONOMICS

What is Ergonomics?
It is . . . fitting the work to the worker
• Ergon = Greek for “work”

• Nomos = Greek for “laws of”

• The Study of Work

• Applies both on and off the job

Benefits of Ergonomics
• Decreased injury risk

• Increased productivity

• Decreased mistakes/rework

• Increased efficiency

• Decreased lost work days

• Decreased turnover

• Improved morale

Ergonomic Risk Factors

• Repetition

• Awkward posture

• Forceful exertion

• Static posture

• Mechanical contact

• Stress

• Temperature

• Vibration

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 1. Use a good chair with a dynamic chair back and sit back in this

2. Top of monitor casing 2-3" (5-8 cm) above eye level

3. No glare on screen, use an optical glass anti-glare filter where needed

4. Sit at arm‟s length from monitor

5. Feet on floor or stable footrest

6. Use a document holder, preferably in-line with the computer screen

7. Wrists flat and straight in relation to forearms to use keyboard/mouse/input

device

8. Arms and elbows relaxed close to body

9. Center monitor and keyboard in front of you

10. Use a negative tilt keyboard tray with an upper mouse platform or downward
tilt able platform adjacent to keyboard

11. Use a stable work surface and stable (no bounce) keyboard tray

In Other Places of Work:

1. Take frequent short breaks (microbreaks)

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 2. Keep elbows close to the body.- Reduce the need for outstretched arms. Use a
higher work surface.

3. Avoid bending over your work.

4. Avoid overhead work. Use a ladder.

5. Use tools that distribute pressure evenly across the palm.

6. Bend the tool, not the wrist.

7. Use tools or extensions that allow you to stand upright

8. Use properly designed ergonomic tools

9. Vary your motions

10. Rotate to other tasks

11. Use low vibration tools if available

12. Maintain tools

13. Use anti-vibration gloves or tool wraps

14. Take frequent pauses

15. Stretch your hands and arms

Lifting
• Size up the load

• If too heavy for one person, get help!

• Lift together or use mechanical assistance

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COMPUTER SOFTWARE

They are set of instructions that guide the computer on what to do.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

They are classified into three ways:
 According to purpose
 According to acquisition
 According to End- User License

A. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

These are software designed to manage the hardware resourses or to help the user accomplish
specific task.
These software are classified into

[Link] software
[Link] software

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
They perform a variety of fundamental operations that avails computer resources to the user.
Functions of system software
 Booting of computer and making sure that all the hardware elements are working properly
 Performing operations such as retrieving, loading, executing and storing application program.
 Storing and retrieving files.
 Performing a variety of system utility function( copying, file handling, disk management)

Division /sub-category of system software

There are four division of system software:

1. Operating software (wins 7, Vista, Unix, Linux)

 Consist of set of complex programs that work together to control execution of user program.
 It act as interface(go between)the application and the computer hardware
 It manages input, output, and storage operation in computer

2. Firmware
They also referred to as stored logic.
It is a combination of both hardware and software recorded permanently on electronic chips.
They are usually read only chip that are mounted or plugged in the motherboard
Firmware may hold an operating system ,utility program language processor

3. Utility software
This is a special software that perform commonly used services that makes a certain aspects of
computing go smoothly.
These services include:- copying, sorting , file handling, disk management etc

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INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING AND DATA COMMUNICATION

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Computer network
“A group of computers linked together using a transmission media so that they can
communicate with each other, share resources (such as hard disk and printer) and access remote
hosts or other network.
Communication
This is the transmission and reception of information across a media with a feed back loop
between them
Data communication
Is the electronic transmission of data from one place to another
Communication channel/ media
This is the path / rout connecting a sending and a receiving end to allow information flow
through

Workstation
A workstation is a client. More specifically, it is a standalone computer equipped with its own
processor and system and application software. It can perform its functions independent of the
network. To expand its resources and knowledge, it may get connected to a network

Server
A server is a computer that shares its resources across the network, and a client are one that
accesses shared resources. Depending on the size and requirements of the network, servers can
be classified as below:
 File Server
 Database Server
 Print Server
 Disk Server

Transmission Impairments:
Impairments are defects that occur during data transmission: They can be
a) Attenuation

It‟s the loss of signal strength during transmission i.e. when an electromagnetic signal
is transmitted along any medium, it gradually become weaker at greater distances; this
is referred to as attenuation. To solve this problem amplifier is used. The amplifier
boosts the signals and extends the transmission distance.
b) Noise
Random electrical signals that can be picked up by the transmission medium and result
in degradation of the data.

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PURPOSE AND LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKING

Purpose of networking
i. Resource sharing
Different computers are connected to each other hence a user at one site may be able to
use the resource available at another site e.g. printer, internet,
ii. Remote communication
This involves the transmission of data signals between two communication devices
located at different geographical locations. Through remote communication people can
be able to share ideas and pass messages over the network
iii. Distributed processing
If a particular process can be subdivided into several sub-processes then each sub-
process can be processed at different sites concurrently hence speeding up the entire
process
iv. Cost effectiveness
Reduction of resources in a network leads to reduction of cost. In stead of purchasing a
printer for each computer you can share one printer thus saving cost
v. Reliability
If one site fails in a computer network, the remaining sites can potentially continue
operating

Limitations of networking
i. Cost
It‟s expensive to acquire networking equipments, train network administrators, users
and maintain the network
ii. Data security
Data and information held on a network is prone to more illegal access, danger of data
theft and also tapping of unauthorized people during transmission
iii. Network failure
If the network fails there is the danger of paralyzing organization operations besides
damaging files and programs
iv. Moral and cultural effect
Large networks like internet have chart rooms and messaging services that may enable
underage children to meet peers and adults on the net some of whom may have bad
intensions. Apparently the access to pornographic and other negative materials is also a
problem.

v. Over reliance on networks

Most organizations have done away with manual operations. This means that all
business process and society depend on computer networks. The disadvantage of over
reliance is that if the network fails then many systems will stop operating

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ELEMENTS / COMPONENTS OF NETWORKING

The most common components of a network are:

i. Data communication media
ii. Communication devices
iii. Network software

a. Data communication media

A data communication media is a channel through which data is transmitted between computers and
other devices. Data communication media can be classified as follows

Communication media

Guided / bound media Unguided / unbounded media

Two wire open line cable Infrared transmission

Twisted pair cable Radio communication

Coaxial cable Microwave transmission

Fibre optic cable Satellite communication

Fig 1: Data communication media

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Communication Using Bound / Guided Media
Guided /physical / non-wireless / bounded media have a physical link between sender and receiver.
Mainly there are three categories of guided media: twisted-Pair, coaxial, and fiber-optic.

1. Open wire
They consist of pairs of bare copper wire conductors that are tired to insulators attached to
cross-arms in telephone poles. They are currently being faced out due to limitation of the
numbers of pairs that can be carried in a single pole line, they are prone to damage, vandalism
and are affected by bad weather

2. Twisted-Pair Cable
Consist of two insulated copper wires twisted in a spiral pattern to minimize electromagnetic
interference (EMI). It‟s the cheapest media used for both the analogue and digital signals. They
are mainly used in telephone systems
They are of two types

Unshielded Twisted (UTP) cable

UTP do not have a shield that prevent electromagnetic interference hence they are
susceptible to noise and external interference.

Shielded Twisted (STP)

STP includes shielding to reduce cross talk as well as to limit the effects of
external interference. For most STP cables, this means that the wiring includes a
wire braid inside the cladding or sheath material as well as a foil wrap around
each individual wire. This shield improves the cable's transmission and
interference characteristics, which, in tern, support higher bandwidth over
longer distance than UTP.

Fig 2: Shielded twisted pair (STP) cable

Advantages of twisted pair cable

i. They are easy to install
ii. They are cheap since they are readily available for telephone use

Disadvantages of twisted pair cable

i. Have low data transmission rate
ii. They have high electromagnetic interference
iii. Suffer high attenuation

3. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has two conductors that share the same axis. A solid copper wire runs down the
center of the cable, and this wire is surrounded by plastic foam dielectric material / insulation.
The foam is surrounded by a second conductor, wire mesh tube, metallic foil, or both. The wire
mesh protects the wire from EMI. It is often called the shield. A tough plastic jacket forms the

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 cover of the cable, providing protection and insulation.

Where Ethernet is concerned, there are two types of coaxial cable

i. Thin Ethernet (also known as thinnet or thinwire,)
ii. Thick Ethernet (also known as thinnet or thickwire)

Advantages of coaxial cable

i. They are immune to external electrical interference because of insulation
ii. High data transmission rate
iii. They are stable even under high data load
iv. Has capability of carrying more signal

Disadvantages of coaxial cable

i. They are expensive to buy
ii. They are bulky thus difficult to work with
Assignment: Draw the diagram of coaxial cable from your textbook Longhorn book 4

4. Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cable transmits light signals rather than electrical signals. In a fibre optic cable light
only moves in one direction. For a two way communication to take place, a second connection
must be made between the two devices. This is the reason for the cable to contain two strands
i.e. the core and the glass fibre

The electric signal from the source are converted to light signal, then propagated along the fibre
optic cable. To convert an electric signal to light, you need a light emitting diode (LED) at the
transmitter. At the receiving end, a photosensitive device can be used to convert the light signal
back to electric signal that can be processed by the computer

Cladding

Core

Glass fibre

Plastic
primary

Nylon coating
/ Jacket

Fig 3: Fiber Optic cable

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 Parts of the fibre optic cable
i. The Core
It is a glass strand: a strand is responsible for one direction communication.
The core is used to send data in one direction. While the
glass fibre sends data in the opposite direction. Light from the laser travels
through this glass to the other device on the receiving end

ii. Cladding
It is a highly reflective material that redirects light back to the core. It has some
light bending characteristic that is why even if the cable is bent into coils and a
light signal is inserted at one end it will still be seen coming out from the other
end.
iii. Plastic primary
It‟s used for insulating between the glass fibre and the nylon; It protects the
inner components from the outer components
iv. Nylon coating / jacket
Protect the cable from the actual physical damage

Fibre optic cables are of two types

i. Single mode
It has a very narrow core. The light in the cable therefore take only one path
through it making it to have a low attenuation rate. It allows for faster
transmission time and longer distances but costs more
ii. Multimode
It has a thicker core and allows several light rays to be fed in the cable. It has a
high attenuation rate and it is used for nearby connection especially within a
building as it is relatively cheaper.

Advantages of Fiber Optic

i. Noise resistance: it is immune to EMI
ii. Less signal attenuation: signal can run for miles without requiring regeneration
iii. Higher bandwidth: fibre optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths
(and hence data rate) than all other cables.
iv. Smaller and lighter than copper cable hence space limited situations
v. Can be used in hazardous (highly flammable) places because they do not
generate electrical signals

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 Disadvantages of Fiber Optic
i. Cost : most expensive among all the cables
ii. Installation / maintenance: is high
iii. Fragility : glass fibre is more easily broken than wire
iv. They are complex to configure

Table 1: Summary Table of the Characteristic of All Cable Type

Factor UTP STP Coaxial Fiber Optic

Cost Lowest Moderate Moderate Highest
Installation Easy Fairly easy Fairly easy Difficult
Bandwidth 10 Mbps 16 Mbps 10 Mbps 100 Mbps –
Capacity 1 Gbps
Node 2 2 30 2
Capacity (10Base2)
Per Segment 100
(10Base5)
Attenuation High High Lower Lowest
EMI Most Less Less No effect by
vulnerable vulnerable vulnerable EMI
to EMI than UTP than UTP

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Unguided Transmission Media
Unguided/non-physical/wireless/unbounded media have no physical link between sender and receiver.

1. Microwave transmission
In microwave transmission signals travel in a straight line and therefore the transmitter and the
receiver must be in a direct line of sight to each other. Microwave transmission is suitable for
point to point transmission.

Microwave signals propagate in one direction at a time, which means that two frequencies are
necessary for two ways communication such as telephone communication. One frequency is
reserved for transmission in one direction and other for transmission in other. Each frequency
requires its own transmitter and receiver. Today, both pieces of equipment usually are
combined in a single piece of equipment called transceiver, which allows a single antenna to
serve both frequencies and functions.

Building A River Building B Microwav

Fig 4: Microwave transmission

Terrestrial microwave systems are typically used when using cabling is very costly and difficult
to set.

Advantages of microwave transmission

i. They operate at a high speed
ii. It is less prone to transmission errors unlike twisted pair cable
iii. Are capable of operating in digital or analog data

Disadvantages of microwave transmission

i. Its signals are affected by atmospheric conductors like lightning
ii. Require additional number of repeaters after every few kilometers
iii. If any object come in between the transmission line of sight it affect signal
transmission

2. Satellite Communication
A satellite is an electronic device placed in an orbit around the earth to receive, amplify

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 and then transmit the signal. Satellite stay in a stationary orbit above the earth; Signals
are beamed up to the satellite from a station on the ground. This is called up link.
These signals are relayed down to the earth station. This down transmission is called
down link.

A satellite transmission system has three main components

i. Transmitter earthstation – set up the uplink
ii. A satellite –
iii. Receiving earth station – one receiving the sent signal on the other end

The geographical area where satellite signals can be located or accesses clearly is called
a satellite footprint. The satellite transmits the signal to many recipients‟ earth stations
to form a point to multipoint transmission.

The new trend in microwave transmission have seen the use of very small aperture
terminals (VSAT) technology. This VSAT refers to a very small satellite dish used both
in data, radio and TV communication. Many business are adopting this new technology
because it enable direct access to satellite communication instead of having to go
through state owned or licensed satellite gateways

Satellite in space

Fig 5: satellite communication

Advantages of satellite communication

i. Satellite microwave can provideSatellite
transmission capability to and from any location on
earth,
Uplink no mater how remote Downlink
ii. Has the second highest band width after fibre optic
iii. Earth station can be installed on the customer property than layering extensive cables

Disadvantages of satellite communication

Receiving
Transmitter i. Its extremely expensive to install
Satellite dish
earthstation
earthstation ii. Any station can receive the signals Satellite dish

iii. Heavy rains or bad weather will increase loss of signals

USA
Singapore

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3. Infrared Transmission
Infrared media uses infrared light to transmit signals. LEDs transmit the signals, and
photodiodes receive the signals. The remote control we use for television, VCR and CD player
use infrared technology to send and receive signals.

The transmitter and the receiver of the infrared signals must be within the line of sight in the
same room. Infrared signals do have a downside; the signals cannot penetrate walls or other
objects, and they are diluted by strong light sources.

4. Radio transmission
Radio waves are omnidirectional meaning that the waves start at a central point and spread
outwards to all directions. The waves are radiated into the atmosphere by radio frequency
antennae at a constant velocity (Draw the diagram in Longhorn Fig 1.13 page 20)
The radio wave can be HIGH (HF) high frequency, very high frequency (VHF) or ultra high
frequency (UHF). The high frequency radio wave signal is transmitted by directing it to
ionosphere of the earth. The ionosphere will reflect it back to the earth surface and the receiver
will pick the signal. It was the only way to communicate before the invention of satellite

VHF radio waves are transmitted along the earth surface. UHF radio waves use the line of sight
principal thus there should be no barrier between the sending and the receiving devices.
Used in : Radio and television broadcast, walkie-talkies

Disadvantages
i. Signals can be intercepted by a unauthorized parties
ii. VHF require repeaters at strategic points to overcome attenuation
iii. The sender and the receiver must be in line of sight as with UHF

Used Assignment
Read on Blue tooth

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B. COMMUNICATION DEVICES

Introduction
Networking means connecting two or more devices for the purpose of sharing data and
resources. When two or more separate networks are connected for exchanging data or
resources, they become an internetwork (or internet). The devices required to link number of
LANs into an Internet are known as internetworking devices.
There are many devices available to accomplish these tasks. The following diagram will help
to understand different types of connective devices. Can also be referred to as
Communication devices
Connecting Devices

Networking Devices Internetworking Devices

Switches
Hub Bridge Router Gateway

Brouters
Repeater

Figure 6: Networking & Internetworking Devices

Networking Devices
Expansion within a single network, called network connectivity. And to expand a single
network the following networking devices can be used.
i. Hub
ii. Network interface card
iii. Repeaters
iv. Bridges

Internetworking Devices
Expansion that involves and joins two separate networks called internetworking
connectivity. Following devices can be used for internetworking.
i. Routers
ii. Brouters
iii. Gateways
iv. Switches

Hub
It‟s a component that connects computers with the same network architecture /
communication protocol to enable rely of signals from one computer to another. A hub
organizes the cables and relays signals to the other media segments. Hubs usually

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 broadcast the data signals to all the computers in the network but only the one whose
address is on the message will receive.
Intelligent hubs are able to monitors the way computers are communicating on a
network and keep this information in their small database called management
information database (MIB). Intelligent hubs can isolate non-functioning computers in
a network
Broadcast storm is a condition where a network is overwhelmed with messages
broadcasted due to malfunctioning of the NIC or the hub related problem especially
when several hubs are joined together to expand the network

Network Interface Card (NIC)

It is a circuit board that can be inbuilt with the motherboard or fitted in the expansion
slot of the workstation and creates a physical interface / link between computer and the
networking media.

Repeater

It receives a signal from one segment of the network, cleans it to remove any distortion,
boots it and then sends it to another segment
A repeater installed on a link receive the signal before it becomes too week or
corrupted, regenerates the original bit pattern, and puts the refreshed signals back onto
the link.

Repeater
I ncomi ng w eak si g nal s Reg ener ated si g nal s

Fig 7: Repeater

Bridge
It‟s a functional unit that interconnect two LANs that use the same logical link control
protocol but may use different medium access control protocol
It‟s a network device that selectively determines the appropriate network segment for
which a message is meant for delivery through address filtering
Purpose
i. Extend the number of stations a segment can support

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 ii. Reduce the overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasting only in the destination
segment of the network

A C D F
C to K

LAN 1
C to K

B E

Bridge
G L
C to K C to K

LAN 2

H I J K

Fig 8: Bridge
In above figure, the packet generated by computer C is intended for computer K.
The bridge allows the packet to cross and relay it to the entire lower segment where
it is received by computer K. IF a packet is destined on a same segment (for
example from computer A to computer F) the bridge will block the packet from
crossing into lower segment to reduce the traffic.

Internetworking

Router
Routers are used to connect separate networks. It makes the use of an internet protocol
and assumes that all the attached devices on the network use the same communication
architecture and protocol.
Modern router can be used like bridges to connect multiple network segments and filter
traffic. Also, unlike bridges, routers can be used to connect two or more independent
networks.
For example a network X and Y with different internet protocol address (IP Address)
can interconnected so that users on each network can share resources on the other
network and still both network continue to function separately.
Brouters
Brouters combines the best of both bridges and routers. When brouters receive packets
that are routable, they will operate as a router by choosing the best path for the packet
and forwarding it to its destination. However, when a non-routable packet is received,
the brouter functions as a bridge, forwarding the packet based on hardware address. To
do this brouters maintain both bridging table, which contains hardware address, and a
routing table, which contains network address.

Gateway

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 It‟s a device that can be configured to provide access to wide area network or Internet.
Gateways operate in all seven layers of OSI model. A gateway is a protocol converter.
A gateway can accept a packet formatted for one protocol (e.g. AppleTalk) and convert
it to a packet formatted for another protocol (e.g. TCP/IP) before forwarding it. It may
be a computer configured to access the Internet

Switches
Switches unlike the hub, they forward a packet of data directly on the address node
without broadcasting. It transmits the packet using the point to point transmission as if
they were linked by a direct cable between them. They are more expensive than the
hubs. Switching hubs are those hubs that incorporate the switching mechanism.

Wireless communication devices

Access point (AP)

Used for wireless devices such as personal digital assistants, laptops and computers
with wireless links. This devices need to have an antennae in order to detect signals in
the surrounding. The signals may be radio waves, microwaves or infrared waves in
nature.

Personal computer memory card international association card (PCMCIA)

The PCMCIA is an add-on card inserted into a device such as a personal digital
assistant or a laptop in order to allow wireless communication between the device and a
wired network server.

Read more on Wireless communication devices

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C. NETWORK SOFTWARE

They can be classified into two main groups namely

i. Network operating system
ii. Network protocol

Network Operating system

This refers to a suit of programs that generally manage a network by optimizing the networked
computers ability to respond to service requests

Functions of a network operating system

i. Making sharing of resources possible
ii. Transmitting data across the network
iii. Respond to request from application programs running on the network
iv. Enable nodes on the network to communicate with each other more efficiently
v. Implement network security features
vi. Supporting services

Network operating system provides network management tools to the network administrator.
These tools can be used for the following
i. Secure the network against unauthorized access
ii. Track network usage and keep a log of all the people who have used the network
iii. Ensure interoperability between various systems on the network
iv. Performance maintenance to ensure maximum throughput on the network

Examples of network operating system

i. Windows NT /2000 / 2003
ii. Unix
iii. Linux
iv. Novell netware

Protocols
Are set of rules and technical procedures that govern communication between two different
devices. Data transmission procedure is broken down into discrete systematic steps. At each
step , a certain action takes place and it has its own rules and procedures

Network protocols are designed after the open systems interconnections (OSI) model. Which
has seven layers each performing a distinct function as shown below?

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Table 3: The 7 layers of OSI model

layer Function Protocol (Read more Pg Services

33)
7 Application The application layer enables the user, whether human or Simple mail transfer
Layer software, to access the network. It provides user interface and protocol(SMTP)File
support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer protocol (FTP)
transfer.
6 Presentation Is concerned with now the information to be exchanged. The
Layer presentation layer ensures interoperability among communicating
devices. It is responsible for code conversion (e.g. from ASCII to The
EBCDIC and vice versa), if required. The presentation layer is Internetworki
also responsible for the encryption and decryption of data for ng Layers
security purposes. It also handles the compression and expansion
of data when necessary for transmission efficiency.
5 Session The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes,
Layer maintains, and synchronizes the link between communicating
devices. It also ensures that each session close appropriately rather
than shutting down abruptly and leaving the user hanging. It
provides organization, synchronization and timing of the exchange
of the data between end systems.
4 Transport The transport layer is responsible for source to destination (end to Transmission control
Layer end) delivery of the entire message to ensure reliability (Manages protocol (TCP), Sequential
data transfer over a network to ensure reliability) packet exchange (SPX),
NetBEUI, Apple
transaction protocol (ATP) The
3 Network The network layer provides addressing, routing and multiplexing Internet protocol (IP) Interconnecti
Layer services. It ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to Internet-work packets on Layers
its destination successfully and efficiently exchange
2 Data Link Data link layer adds error-checking information and formats data
Layer for physical transmission.
1 Physical The physical layer co-ordinates the functions required to transmit
Layer a bit streams over a physical medium. It deals with the mechanical
and electrical specifications of the primary connections, such as
cables and connectors.

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 BASIC COMPUTER NETWORKING
Definition of a Computer Network
A computer network refers to a group of two or more computers or other hardware devices
connected/linked together for purposes of sharing resources, such as files, programs, printers etc. The
computers on a network may be linked through cables, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
Computers on a network use protocols which define a common set of rules and signals to communicate.
NB/ Computers that are not connected to one another are known as stand-alone computers.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORKING

i) Facilitating communications. Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via
e-mail, chat rooms, telephony, video telephone calls, and videoconferencing.
ii) Sharing resources and reducing costs. In a networked environment, each computer on a network
can access and use hardware and software on the network. If several computers and a printer are
connected to a network, each user can access the printer on the network, as they need it instead of
buying as many printers. Other resources include files, applications and disk storage.
Network resources include:
 Printers and other peripherals
 Files, data and information
 Applications/programs
 Disk Storage

iii) It enables distributed processing which allows a user at one computer to use a program on another
computer as a “back end” to process and store the information. The user‟s computer is the “front
end,” performing the data entry.
iv) Centralized data administration and support. Data from all the user systems can be stored on one
machine where it can be managed in an easy and more secure way.
v) Users can store more information, because they can now store data on other computers on the
network.
vi) They allow users to use programs that would otherwise be too large for their computer to run by
itself.
DISADVANTAGES
i. The cost of hardware, software and cabling might be quite high
ii. Complexity of many LANs means that it is often necessary to employ someone to look after the
network and solve problems relating to the system.
iii. Security of data may be compromised if adequate procedures are not adopted.
iv. Any failure in the system often means that it becomes impossible for users to work.
v. Performance issues

TYPES OF NETWORKS
Networks may be categorized into three distinct groups depending upon the physical of
geographical area that they cover.
These groups are: -

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 i. Metropolitan local area network(LAN)
ii. Are network (MAN) and
iii. Wide area network (WAN).

Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers in a limited geographical area,
such as a school computer laboratory, office, or group of buildings. Two popular types of LANs
are peer-to-peer networks and client/server networks.

Metropolitan Area Network

A metropolitan area network is designed to extend over an entire city. It may be a single network
such as a cable television network, or it may be a means of connecting a number of LANs into a
larger network so that resources may be shared LAN-to-LAN as well as device-to-device.

A MAN may be wholly owned and operated by a private company, or it may be a service
provided by a public company, such as a local telephone company. Many telephone companies
provide a popular MAN service called Switched Multi-megabit Data Services (SMDS).

Wide Area Network

A wide are network provides long-distance transmission of data, voice, image, and video
information over a large geographical area that may comprises a country, a continent or even the
whole world.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
What is a Topology?
Network topology specifically refers to the physical arrangement of the network, specially the location of
the computers, other devices and how the cables are run between them.

Network topologies can be viewed in two ways namely

i. Logical /signal topology
Deals with the way data passes from one device to the next on the network. Examples of Logical
topologies are Ethernet and token ring
Ethernet topology
All the computers listen to the network media and can only send data when none of the
others is sending
Token ring topology
A special package for data called token goes around the network and only the computer
whose address is on the data held in the token will take up the token to read the data then
releases the token. The token can then be captured by another computer which needs to
transmit data
ii. Physical topology

Refers to the physical layout arrangement of components on the network. The most common
physical topologies are the bus, the star, the ring and the mesh.

1. Bus Topology

How a Bus topology Works

All the devices are connected to a single central cable. Only one computer can send a message at
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a time. All the computers on the network receive the information, but only the one with the
address that matches the one encoded in the message accepts the information.

Without termination, when the signal reaches the end of the wire, it bounces back and travels
back up the wire. When a signal echoes back and forth along the un-terminated bus, it is called
ringing. To stop the signals from ringing, terminators are attached at either end of the cable. The
terminator absorbs the signals and stops the ringing

Terminator

Computer Computer Computer

Fig

Computer Bus Computer Computer

9: Bus topology

Advantages of Bus
i. The bus is simple, reliable in very small network, and easy to use.
ii. The bus requires the least amount of cable to connect the computers together and is
therefore less expensive than other cabling arrangements.
iii. It is easy to extend a bus. Two cables can be joined into one longer cable with a
BNC barrel connector, making a longer cable and allowing more computers to jinn
the network.

Disadvantages of Bus
i. Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably.
ii. A break in the cable or lake of proper termination can bring the network down.
iii. It is difficult to troubleshoot a bus.
Bus topology is appropriate in following situation:
i) The network is small
ii) The network will not be frequently reconfigured.
iii) The least expensive solution is required.
iv) The network is not expected to grow much

2. Star Topology
In a star topology, all the devices are connected to a central hub.

How a Star Network Works

Each computer on a star network communicates with a central hub that resends the message
either to all the computers (in a broadcast star network) or only to the destination computer (in a
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 switched star network).

Computer

Hub
HUB
Server

Computer

Computer

Computer Computer

Fig 10: Star topology

Advantages of the Star

i. It is easy to modify and add new computers to a star network without disturbing the
ii. Single computer failure does not necessarily bring down the whole star network.
iii. Several types of cable can be used in the same network with a hybrid hub.
iv. When the capacity of the central hub is exceeded, it can be replaced with one that has a
larger number of ports to plug lines into (or multiple hubs can be connected together to
extend the number of ports)
v. The centre of a star network is a good place to diagnose network faults. Intelligent hubs
(hubs with microprocessors that implement features in addition to repeating network
signals) also provide for centralised monitoring and management of the network.

Disadvantages of Star
1. If the central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate.
2. It cost more to cable a star network.

Star topology is appropriate in following situation:

1. It must be easy to add or remove client computer.
2. It must be easy to troubleshoot.
3. The network is large.
4. The network is expected to grow in the future.

3. Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each computer is connected directly to the next computer in line, forming a
circle of cable. It uses token to pass the information from one computer to another.

How a Ring Network Works

Every computer is connected to the next compute in the ring, and each retransmit what it
receives from the previous computer. The message flow around the ring in one direction

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 If a computer has information to send, it modifies the token, adds address information and the
data and sends it down the ring. The information travels around the ring until it either reaches its
destination or returns to the sender.

Computer

Computer
Computer

Computer Computer

Fig 11: Ring topology

When the intended destination computer receives the packet, it returns a message to the sender
including its arrival. A new token is then created by the sender and sent down the ring, allowing
another station to capture the token and begin transmission.

Advantages of Ring
1. All the computers have equal access to the network.
2. Even with many users, network performance is even
3. Allows error checking, and acknowledgement.

Disadvantages of Ring
1. Failure of one computer can affect the whole network.
2. It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring network.
3. Adding or removing computers disturbs the network.
Ring Topology is Appropriate in Following Situation:
i. The network must operate reasonably under a heavy load
ii. A higher-speed network is required.
iii. The network will not be frequently reconfigured.
4. Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point to point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.

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 Computer

Computer Computer

Computer
Computer

Fig 12: Mesh topology

Advantages of Mesh
i. Because of the dedicated link, no traffic between computers.
ii. Failures of one node computer not affect rest of the network.
iii. Because of the dedicated link privacy and security are guaranteed
iv. Point to point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.

Disadvantages of Mesh
i. Due to the amount of cabling and number of input output ports, it is expensive.
ii. Large space is required to run the cables.
iii. Installation and reconfiguration are difficult.
When a Mesh Appropriates to Use
i. Direct transmission is required for privacy reason
ii. Need to have dedicated lint for fast transmission.

5. Tree / hierarchical topology

All the nodes are connected in form of a tree with nodes as leaves and link as branches. The
transmission media is a branching cable with no closed loop. The branches in turn can have more
sub branches. Branches are connected to each other by a hub

Advantages
i. If the workstations below the main workstation fails the entire network does not fail

Disadvantages
i. If the top node fails the entire network fails because it controls all the other nodes
ii. Installation is expensive and complex

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NETWORK COMPONENTS
(a) Networking/Communication Media
The two most popular types of network cabling are the 10BaseT (also known as twisted pair or
Cat5), 10Base5 (also known as Thicknet) and thin coax (also known as 10Base2 or Thinnet). The
“10” in 10Base5 stands for the 10 Mbps transmission rates while the “5” stands for the
maximum distance of 500 meters to carry transmissions. The pairs are twisted together for the
purposes of cancelling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources
10BaseT cabling looks like ordinary telephone wire, except that it has 8 wires inside instead of 4,
transmits at 10Mbps, with a maximum distance of 100 meters and physical star topology with a
logical bus topology. There are basically two types of twisted-pair cabling: unshielded twisted-
pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP). UTP is simply twisted-pair cabling that is
unshielded. In STP cables, each of the pair or collection of pair of wires that are twisted together
are coated with an insulating coating that functions as a ground for the wires which protects the
transmission line from electromagnetic interference leaking into or out of the cable.

Thin coax looks like the copper coaxial cabling that's often used to connect an aerial antenna to a
TV set. The 10baseT/Cat5 cables have connectors that resemble a phone cord connector, only
larger. These are called RJ-45 connectors. Coaxial cables are connected using BNC connectors.

10Base5 Cable and BNC Connector

10BaseT cable, RJ45 Connectors and their ports

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 NB: The BASE is for baseband operation. Baseband is an adjective that describes signals and systems
whose range of frequencies is measured from close to 0 hertz to a cut-off frequency (a maximum
bandwidth or highest signal frequency); it is sometimes used as a noun for a band of frequencies starting
close to zero.
RJ – Registered Jack
Fiber Optic Cables– signals are converted to light form and fired by laser or LEDs in bursts through
insulated, thin glass or plastic fiber. Light bounces back and forth along the core. The pulses of light
represent the „on‟ state in electronic data representation. An optical fiber consists of a core (denser
material) and a cladding (less dense material). In multi-mode fibres, as the name suggests, there are
multiple modes of propagation for the rays of light. These range from low order modes which take the
most direct route straight down the middle, to high order modes which take the longest route as they
bounce from one side

It provides transmission speeds from 100Mbps up to 1Gbps and a maximum distance of several miles. A
small fiber-optic cable can support large amounts of voice conversation at the same time.

Fiber Optic cable

Advantages of Fiber Optic Cables
i. Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference
Although fiber optics can solve data communications problems, they are not needed everywhere. Most
computer data goes over ordinary wires. Most data is sent over short distances at low speed. In ordinary
environments, it is not practical to use fiber optics to transmit data between personal computers and
printers as it's too costly. Electromagnetic Interference is a common type of noise that originates with one
of the basic properties of electromagnetism. Magnetic field lines generate an electrical current as they cut
across conductors. The flow of electrons in a conductor generates a magnetic field that changes with the

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 current flow. Electromagnetic Interference does occur in coaxial cables, since current does cut across the
conductor. Fiber optics are immune to this EMI since signals are transmitted as light instead of current.
Thus, they can carry signals through places where EMI would block transmission.
ii. Data Security
There are no radiated magnetic fields around optical fibers; the electromagnetic fields are confined
within the fiber. That makes it impossible to tap the signal being transmitted through a fiber without
cutting into the fiber. Since fiber optics do not radiate electromagnetic energy, emissions cannot be
intercepted and physically tapping the fiber takes great skill to do undetected. Thus, the fiber is the most
secure medium available for carrying sensitive data.
iii. Non Conductive Cables
A serious concern with outdoor cables in certain computer networks is that they can be hit by lightning,
causing destruction to wires and other cables that are involved in the network. Certain computer
companies are aware of this problem and trying to solve it by having protective devices for wire circuits
to block current and voltage surges.
Any conductive cables can carry power surges or ground loops. Fiber optic cables can be made non-
conductive by avoiding metal in their design. These kinds of cables are economical and standard for
many indoor applications. Outdoor versions are more expensive since they require special strength
members, but they can still be valuable in eliminating ground loops and protecting electronic equipment
from surge damage.
iv. Eliminating Spark Hazards
In some cases, transmitting signals electrically can be extremely dangerous. Most electric potentials
create small sparks. The sparks ordinarily pose no danger, but can be really bad in a chemical plant or oil
refinery where the air is contaminated with potentially explosive vapours. One tiny spark can create a big
explosion. Potential spark hazards seriously hinder data and communication in such facilities. Fiber optic
cables do not produce sparks since they do not carry current.
v. Ease Of Installation
Increasing transmission capacity of wire cables generally makes them thicker and more rigid. Such thick
cables can be difficult to install in existing buildings where they must go through walls and cable ducts.
Fiber cables are easier to install since they are smaller and more flexible. They can also run along the
same routes as electric cables without picking up excessive noise.
vi. High Bandwidth Over Long Distances
Fiber optics have a large capacity to carry high speed signals over longer distances without repeaters than
other types of cables. Generally, coaxial cables have a bandwidth parameter of a few MHz/km, where
else the fiber optic cable has a bandwidth of 400MHz/km.

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Disadvantages
 Cost - Optical fibers are expensive.
 Installation/maintenance is expensive - any crack in the core will degrade the signal, and all
connections must be perfectly aligned.

Wireless Technology
i. Microwave Communications
Information is converted to a microwave signal, sent through the air to a receiver, and recovered.
They use line-of-sight devices which must be placed in relatively high locations. Microwaves are
electromagnetic waves which are "small" compared to waves used in typical radio broadcasting,
in that they have shorter wavelengths.

ii. Satellite Transmission

Communications satellites are relay stations that receive signals from one earth station and
rebroadcast them to another. They use microwave signals

iii. Infrared transmission

Involves sending signals through the air via light waves and requires line-of-sight and short
distances (a few hundred yards). It is used to connect various computing devices. Infrared waves
are electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of visible light.
iv. Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a specification (IEEE 802.15.1) for the use of low-power radio communications to
link phones, computers and other network devices over short distances without wires.

Bluetooth technology was designed primarily to support simple wireless networking of personal
consumer devices and peripherals, including cell phones, PDAs, and wireless headsets. Wireless
signals transmitted with Bluetooth cover short distances, typically up to 30 feet (10 meters).
Bluetooth devices generally communicate at less than 1 Mbps.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING TYPE OF MEDIA TO USE

1. Distance the media can successfully carry a signal
2. Environment in which the media is to be installed
3. Amount of data and the speed at which it must be transmitted
4. Cost of the media and installation

(b) Hub
The central connecting device is called a hub. A hub is a box that is used to gather groups of PCs
together at a central location using cables. A hub simply passes all the information it receives so
that all the devices connected to its ports receive the information. Hubs are mostly used in a
small network (usually less than 30 hosts). Hubs connect LANs of similar technology or to
extend the distance of one LAN. They can be called repeaters or amplifiers.
Advantages of using Hubs
i. They are inexpensive
ii. Easy to install
iii. Can connect different media
iv. Very little delay
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 Disadvantages
i. Limited distance between devices
ii. No protocol or rate conversion
iii. No error detection
iv. Does not filter packets
v. Can compromise data security
vi. Generates unnecessary network traffic
vii. A maximum of 30 devices

(c) SWITCH
The Switch is a more advanced unit over the basic hub. Unlike a hub, a switch will forward
information/packets to the appropriate machine or port according to the address information on a
particular packet. Switches are used on large networks in order to cut down the amount of
unnecessary traffic being generated. They can use the same or different types of cable.

Advantages
i. Can convert protocols
ii. They enhance network performance
iii. Can be configured
iv. Enhances security- only destined device receives the packet.
i. It does filter packets
ii. Does error detection

Disadvantages
i. More expensive than hubs
ii. Higher maintenance demands

(d) Router

Routers are highly intelligent devices that connect multiple network types. They:
a. They translate one network protocol and data format to another.
b. Determine the best path for sending data.
c. They route packets across multiple networks. They use routing tables to store network
addresses to determine the best destination.
d. They are used to segment large networks.
e. They filter out noise.
f. They are normally used to connect one LAN to another. Typically, when a WAN is set
up, there will be at least two routers used.
Their disadvantages include:
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 a. They are a bit slow because they are intelligent devices; as such, they analyze every
packet, causing packet-forwarding delays.
b. Because of this intelligence, they are also more expensive.

Routing moves data on a hop-by-hop basis, what is often called 'hot potato' routing. If a set of
routers ends up passing the data around in a circle, without reaching the destination, it's called a
„routing loop'. Packets get tossed around the loop until they die of old age: their 'Time To Live'
counter in the IP datagram is decremented as it passes through each router and eventually it
reaches zero and is discarded.

(e) Network Adapter Card

A computer is connected to the network through a network interface card, (also called a "NIC",
"nick", or network adapter).
The functions of the NIC include:
i. Prepare data from the computer for the network cable. Data moves through a computer
along paths called buses. These are actually several data paths placed side by side.
Because the paths are side by side (parallel), data can move along them in lateral groups
instead of in a single (serial) data stream. When data travels on a network cable it is said
to be traveling as a serial transmission because one bit follows another.

ii. Send the data to another computer.

iii. Controls data access to the cable by following specific rules.

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 iv. Receive incoming data from the cable and translate it into bytes that can be understood
by the computer's central processing unit (CPU).

v. Servers
A sever is a computer system that provides essential services across a network, to private users
inside a large organization or to public users in the internet. They typically are configured with
additional processing, memory and storage capacity to handle the load of servicing clients.
Servers offer networks the capability of centralizing the control of resources and can thus
reduce administrative difficulties. Servers perform several tasks. For example, servers that
provide files to the users on the network are called file servers. Likewise, servers that host
printing services for users are called print servers.
Servers can be Dedicated Servers/single-purpose are assigned to provide specific applications
or services for the network, and nothing else. For instance, a file server or print server. Non-
dedicated Servers/multi-purpose servers are assigned to provide one or more network services
and local access. For example, a server can be both a file server and a print server at the same
time.
(g) Network Operating Systems (NOSs)
PCs use a disk operating system that controls the file system and how the applications
communicate with the hard disk. Networks use a network operating system (NOS) to control the
communication with resources and the flow of data across the network. The NOS runs on the
server. Some of the more popular network operating systems at this time include Unix, Novell‟s
NetWare, and Microsoft‟s Windows NT Server (or Windows 2000).
(h) Gateways: A gateway is a device used to connect networks using different protocols. Broadly,
a gateway is any connection point or node on a network that provides access to a larger one and
therefore a router is a gateway. They translate one network protocol and data formats to another.
They can translate from network-to-network, system-to-network and system-to-system. Another
example of gateway is a bridge.
(i) Workstations/Client Computers/Terminal
Workstations are the computers that the users on a network do their work on, performing
activities such as word processing, database design, graphic design, e-mail, and other office or
personal tasks. Workstations are basically nothing more than an everyday computer, except for
the fact that they are connected to a network that offers additional resources. Workstations can
range from a diskless computer system to a desktop system. In network terms, workstations are
also known as client computers.
(k) Repeaters
These are network devices used to regenerate or replicate a signal distorted by transmission loss.
They allow a cabling system to extend beyond its maximum allowed length by amplifying the
network voltages so they travel farther. Repeaters are like amplifiers and, as such, are
inexpensive. Repeaters can only be used to regenerate signals between similar network
segments.
(l) Bridges

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 A bridge is a hardware device for linking two networks that work with the same protocol.
Unlike a repeater, which works at the physical level, a bridge works at both the physical and
the logical levels, which means that it can filter frames so that it only lets past data whose
destination address corresponds to a machine located on the other side of the bridge.

How to configure a computer to work in a network.

1. First attach the RJ-45 connector to the Ethernet network port on your PC.
2. Go to Start Button, Control Panel, Network and Internet and then Network and Sharing
Center.
3. Click on Change Adapter Settings on the left panel which will display several network connection
icons e.g. Local Area Connection or Wireless Network Connection
4. Right click on the appropriate adapter, choose Properties to display Connection Properties
window.
5. For most LANs, select the Internet Protocol 4 (TCP/IPv4). Highlight the protocol and choose
Properties.
6. Select Obtain IP address and Obtain DNS Server Address both Automatically or enter the
settings manually by clicking the radio button for Use the Following IP Address and enter the IP
Address, Subnet Mask, and Default Gateway settings. You will also need to enter in your DNS
server addresses as well.
7. Click on Ok button to apply the settings.
NOTE: Internet protocol 6 (TCP/IPv6) is also available in Windows Vista/7.

Internet Protocol address (IP Addresses)

An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g., computer,
printer, router) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. IP
addresses are binary numbers, but they are usually stored in text files and displayed in human-readable
dotted decimal notations, such as [Link]
An IP address has two components, the network address and the host address. For example, consider
the IP address [Link]. Assuming this is part of a Class B network, the first two numbers
(150.215) represent the Class B network address, and the second two numbers (017.009) identify a
particular host/device on this network.
Subnetting
Organizations have multiple networks which are independently managed and each is allocate a separate
network address. Therefore, the host number portion of an IP address is split into a subnet number and a
(smaller) host number. This result is a 3-layer hierarchy

network prefix host number

network prefix subnet number host number

BASIC NETWORK COMMANDS

1. Ping:
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 Ping sends an ECHO_REQUEST packet to the specified host. If the host responds, you get an ICMP
packet back which means the machine is up and connected to the network. You can “ping” an IP
address to see if a machine is alive. If there is no response, you know something is wrong. E.g.
C:\>ping [Link] e.g. ping [Link]
Allows you to ping another computer (the x's represent the IP address of the computer you are attempting
to ping). If this is not able to complete, this should relay back an unsuccessful message, which could be
an indication of cable issues, network card issues, hub issue, etc
C:\>ping localhost
Pings the local host, this will allow you to see if the computer is able to send information out and receive
the information back. Note that this does not send information over a network but may allow you to see
if the card is being seen.
2. IPCONFIG
Ipconfig displays the network settings currently assigned and given by a network such as IP address,
subnet mask and default gateway for each adapter bound to TCP/IP. This command can be utilized to
verify a network connection as well as to verify your network settings.
To get all local network information for your computer use the /all switch as shown below, followed by
the results that would be seen when using this command.
C:\>ipconfig /all
3. Pathping/Tracert
Pathping is designed for environments in which one or more routers exist between hosts. It sends a series
of packets to each router that‟s in the path to the destination host in an effort to determine whether the
router is performing slowly or dropping packets.
(f) E.g. pathping [Link]

Example Results might be:

1 3ms 1ms 1ms [Link] (to the router)
2 4ms 1ms 1ms [Link] (to the proxy server)

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 DATA PROCESSING

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Data
It‟s a collection of raw facts (and may include numbers, letters, symbols, sound or
images) that convey little meaning by themselves and cannot be used for decision
making

Information
This is data that has undergone processing and is meaningful to the user and can be used
for decision making.

Data processing
Refer to the process of transforming data into information either manually or
electronically

DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

Definition
It refers to the input process – output stage that data goes though to be transformed into
information.

Data collection
Future use

Output Data input

Data processing

Figure 1: Data processing cycle

STAGES OF DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

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1. Data collection / Data gathering / Fact finding

Is the process of getting the data from its point of origin for processing purpose

Stages of data collection

i. Data creation
Is the process of putting together facts in an organized format. This could
be in form of manually prepared documents or captured from the source
using a data capture device such as a bar code reader.
ii. Data transmission
This refers to the transfer of the data from the source to the point where
processing will be done. Transmission can be electronically through the
computer to computer or physically through the post office etc
iii. Data preparation
This is the transcription / conversion of data from the source document to
machine readable form. Data collected using devices that capture data in
digital form do not requite transcription/ conversion.
iv. Media conversion
Data may need to be converted from one medium to another e.g. from a
compact disk to hard disk for faster input
v. Input validation
Data entered into the computer is subject to validity and verification
checks before processing.

Verification
It involves checking that what is on input document is exactly the same as
what is entered into the computer.

Validation
This is identification and removal of errors by the computer though the
control of the program
vi. Sorting
The source documents are arranged in a particular order for easy and
faster entry.

Methods of data collection

i. Interview

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 It‟s a process of obtaining information by means of conversation. It helps the
analyst to overcome the interviewee‟s resistance hence providing facts and
verification of the same facts

Types of interviews
a. Structured interviews
Here questionnaires are predetermined and the interview is carried out in
a fixed format.
b. Unstructured interviews
Here questionnaires are not predetermined and the questions are asked per
the flow of the conversation. In this case the interviewee may lose focus
and forget to cover all the areas that are necessary to gather information.
ii. Questionnaire
It is a written set of questions to which the subjects respond in writing.
Questionnaires solicit information on the background of the subjects, their
knowledge of the research problem, their attitudes and views of the problem.

Advantages
 They are easy to analyze
 They are easy to administer
 The subjects can respond at their own time
 They allow the use of a big sample
 The subjects responds at a free environment thus can be sincere
 They are economical in terms of time and money
Disadvantages
 They are difficult to construct
 Require literate subjects
 The rate of return of the questionnaire is usually very low
 Subject may misunderstand certain questions or deliberately give socially
acceptable response
 Limited information is collected

iii. Observation
This method involves watching an operation for a period of time to see for one
self what exactly happens. This method is particularly good for tracing the
bottlenecks and checking facts that have already been noticed
Point to consider during observation
 Not too many behaviors should be observed
 Have a single subject
 The behavior to be observed should be defined in sufficient details
 Where more than one observer is used a study training is necessary
Advantages
 It provide first hand information
 In some situations it may be the only method of getting information
 It supplement interview and questionnaire
Disadvantages
 It cannot be used where events have passed
 Its time consuming
 Can cover a limited area
 There are dangers of the observer being biased
 When recording the observer may miss to observe something else
 The subject may behave differently when being observed.
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 iv. Record inspection
This is going through the existing records in order to get information

Advantages
 First hand information
 It very accurate

Disadvantages
 Time consuming
 Some records may not be complete
 Fault documents may be presented

2. Data input
This is the process where the collected data is converted from the human readable form
to machine readable form

3. Processing
This is the transformation of input data by the central processing unit to a more
meaningful output

4. Output
This is the final activity of data processing cycle which produces the desired output
(information). The information is then distributed to the target group.

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DESCRIPTION OF ERRORS IN DATA PROCESSING

The accuracy of the data entered in the computer determines the accuracy of the information
given out

Types of data processing errors

i. Transcription errors
These errors occurs during data entry and they include
a. Misreading errors
They are brought about by incorrect reading of the source document by the user
and hence entering wrong values. This may be caused by bad hand writing or
confusion on source document e.g. the number „5‟ can be typed as „S‟ or letter
„O‟ typed as „Zero‟
b. Transposition errors
This error occurs as a result of incorrect arrangement of characters .i.e. putting
characters in the wrong order e.g. the user may enter 524 instead of 542.
NB: Transcription errors can be eliminated by the use of data capturing devices.

ii. Computation errors

They occur when an arithmetic operation does not produce the expected results. They
include:
a. Overflow errors
Occurs if the results from a calculation is too large to be stored in the allocated
memory location / space e.g. if the memory space can accommodate an 8 bit
number and the results from the arithmetic calculation is 9 bit number
b. Truncation errors
This result from having real numbers that have a long fractional part which
cannot fit in the allocated memory space the computer cut off the extra characters
from the fractional part e.g. a number like 0.856948 can be truncated to four
digits as 0.856

c. Rounding errors
This result from raising or lowering a digit in a real number to the required
rounded number e.g. a number like 0.589 can be rounded to 0.59

iii. Algorithm / logical errors

These errors occurs as a result of wrong algorithm design

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DATA INTEGRITY

Data integrity refers to the accuracy and completeness of the data entered in a computer or
received from the information system
Factors that determines data integrity
i. Accuracy
Accuracy refers to how close an approximation is to an actual value. As long as
the correct data / instruction / information are entered, the computer will produce
accurate results efficiently.
ii. Timeliness
This refers to whether the information is available when it is needed, and if it‟s
outdated when it is received or when its is used. If the information is not
available when needed or it‟s outdated by the time it‟s used then it has little or no
value in decision making.
iii. Relevance
Data entered must be pertinent to the processing needs at hand and must meet the
requirements of the processing cycle.
iv. Audibility
It‟s also referred to as verifiability. This is the ability of the user to check the
accuracy and completeness of information.

Factors that may lead to lose of data integrity

i. Accidental insertion /alteration, modification, destruction
ii. Deliberate insertion /alteration, modification, destruction
iii. Transfer error
iv. Lack of input validation
Threats to data integrity
Threats to data integrity can be minimized through the following:
i. Using error detection and correction software when transmitting data
ii. Designing user interface that minimize chances of invalid data entry
iii. Using devices that capture data directly from the source e.g. scanner, OMR
iv. Control access to data by enforcing security measures
v. Backing up data preferably on external storage media

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DATA PROCESSING METHODS
There are three methods of data processing
i. Manual / conversion
ii. Mechanical
iii. Electronic
1. Manual / conversion data processing
In this method, most tasks are done manually with a pen and a paper with simple tools
like tables and rulers. The staff in the organization use laid down procedures and rules
to collect data, process and distribute information to the relevant departments for use.
2. Mechanical data processing
In this method, the staffs use various mechanical machines like calculators, cash
registers, typewriters, duplicating machines etc. to perform their operations. Thus it‟s the
automation of the manual tasks.
3. Electronic data processing
This method involves the use of microprocessors where tasks are performed by the use
of electronic machines that simulate human intelligence during data processing. This
method is faster and more accurate than the manual and the mechanical and large
volumes of data can be processed per unit time. It involves the use of computers, mobile
phones, digital TVs, robots etc.

Factors determining the method of data processing

i. Size and type of business
ii. Timing aspect i.e. how fast is the information needed for decision making
iii. Links between applications

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COMPUTER FILES

A file is a collection of related records that give a complete set of information about a certain
item or entity. A file can be stored manually in file cabinets or electronically in computer
storage devices
Advantages of computerized filing system
i. Information takes less space than the manual
ii. Its easy to update and modify information
iii. It offers faster access and retrieval of data and information
iv. It enhances data integrity and reduces duplication
v. Can be accessed within a network environment making it very flexible

Disadvantages of computerized filing system

i. Can be affected by viruses
ii. Require computer literate manpower to operate
iii. Hacking can be possible

Elements of a computer file

It‟s made up of three elements
i. Character
ii. Field
iii. Record
Character
Is the smallest element in a computer file and refer to a letter, number or symbol
that can be entered, stored and output by a computer
Field
Is a single character or a collection of characters that represent a single piece of
data e.g. in a student record, the student admission number is an example of a
field
Record
Is a collection of related fields that represent a single entity e.g. details of a
student in a row such as admission number, name, total marks etc.

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LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL FILES

Computer files are classified as either logical or physical

Logical file
It‟s a type of file viewed in terms of what type of data items it contains and details of
what processing operations may be performed on the data item

Physical File
Is one that is viewed in terms of how data is stored on the storage media and how the
processing operations are made possible. Physical files have implementation details such
as character per field and data type for each field.

TYPES OF COMPUTER PROCESSING FILES

i. Master file
This is the main file that contains relatively permanent records about particular item or
entries e.g. a customer file may contain details such as customer ID, name, address etc.
ii. Transaction file / movement file
It holds temporary input data during transaction processing. This file is used to update
dynamic data on the master files
iii. Report file
They contain a set of records extracted from the data in the master file. They are used to
prepare reports that can be printed at a latter date e.g. overtime report, late arrival report
etc.
iv. Sort file
They are created from existing transactions or master file. They are used where date is to
be processed sequentially. Data or records are first sorted in a particular format e.g.
ascending or descending order
v. Backup file
Is used to hold copies (backup) of data or information from the computer fixed storage
(hard disk) Since a file held in the hard disk may be corrupt, lost or changed accidentally
it is necessary to keep copies of the recent updated files. In case of hard disk failure, a
backup file can be used to reconstruct the original file
vi. Reference file
They are used for reference or look up purpose. Look-up information is that information
which is stored in a separate file but is required during processing. They may contain
permanent or semi-permanent records e.g. price list

FILE ORGANIZATION METHODS

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Files organization is the arrangement of the records withing a particular file. There are four
major methods of file organisation : sequential, direct / random , serial and indexed-sequential
organisation.

1. Sequential File Organisation

Records are stored, sorted and accessed in sequential order by a particular key field e.g.
if a file contains employee data, then the likely data field chosen to be the key field could
be the Employee Number.

Sequential Files are stored on magnetic tape. Data which is stored sequentially can only
be accessed sequentially from the beging of the file proceeding to the tail of the file until
the record is reached. For this reason, it is called sequential access method (SAM) file.

Advantages
i. Simple to understand the approach
ii. Easy to organize and maintain
iii. Reading a record requires only the key field
iv. Require cheap input / output media and devices

Disadvantages
i. Entire file must be accessed even when the activity rate is very slow
ii. Random enquiries are impossible
iii. Data redundancy is very high

2. Direct / Random File Organisation

In this method records are stored randomly but accessed directly. To access a record
stored randomly a record key is used to search for that record.

To get to a particular record, the input will be the record key field, and the output from
this program is the address This is only found in optical and magnetic disks and not on
tapes.

Advantages
iv. Its quick to access a record
v. Its easy to update a record
vi. They do not make the use of indexes

Disadvantages
i. Expensive hardware and software resources are required
ii. Data may be accidentaly erased or overwritten unless special precautions are
taken
iii. Systems designed around it are complex and costly

3. Indexed-Sequential File Organisation

Its a combination of the earlier two methods only that an index is used to enable th
computer to locate individual record on the storage media e.g. in a magnetic drum,
records are stored sequentially on the trak however each record is assigned an index that
can be used to access it directly.
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 Advantages
i. Records can be accessed both sequentilally and randomly
ii. Record are not duplicated
iii. It take lesss time to access a record

Diadavantages
i. The storage media is rather expensive
ii. Accessing a record sequentially is time consuming
iii. Processing records sequentially may introduce redundancy
4. Serial file organization
In this organization records in a file are stored and accessed one after another. The records
cannot be sorted in any way. This method of file organization is in magnetic tapes (draw the
diagram in page 42 book 3 by longhorn)

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ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING MODES
The basic techniques that are used in data processing are:

1. Online processing
Data is processed immediately it is received. The computer is connected directly to the
data input unit via a communication link.

It means being accessible to and under the control of the processor. Terminals where
ever their physical location are said to be on-line when directly linked to the processor.

Application
Interactive processing / transaction processing
a. On-line order processing
b. On-line payroll processing
c. On-line point of sale
d. On-line check out system

Random enquiries
a. On-line credit enquiry
b. On-line product availability enquiry
c. On-line account enquiry

Advantages
i. Files are maintained up to date
ii. Information is readily available for decision making
iii. Its possible to do some file enquiries through the terminals (work station)

Disadvantages
i. They are expensive to run and maintain
ii. Initial capital to purchase the hard ware and the soft ware is high
iii. If the central processor fails the terminals will not get the feed back

2. Distributed processing
It means that a processing facility is made available at a number of sites instead of a
single computer at a central point

Distributed processing allows a business to select the level of processing autonomy in

respect to department and security of data.

Application
Companies with different branches may opt for distributed processing but all submit
their reports to the head office

Advantages distributed processing

i. Less risk of system break down
ii. Less work load is availed at the central processor
iii. Incase of data loss only a small portion of the data is lost

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 Disadvantages
i. Expensive due to extra communication cost
ii. More sophisticated software is required to maintain data integrity
iii. It may time to make a decision since information is processed from different sites

3. Time sharing
Many terminals connected to a central computer are given access to the central
processing unit apparently at the same time. However, in the actual sense each user is
allocated a time slice of the CPU in sequence

The amount of time allocated to each user is controlled by a multi user operating system.
If a time slice allocated to a particular user is not enough the user is allocated another
time slice latter in a round robin manner.

Advantages
i. Where work load is not much the users are served proficiently

Disadvantages
i. Requires a big processor thus it must be expensive
ii. The user has no control of the central computer
iii. If tasks and users are many it may take time to be complete a single task
iv. It may not be reliable in terms of security

4. Batch processing
This is where transactions are accumulated to a computer file over a period of time
(batch) and then processed at a pre-specified period of time to produce a batch of output.
Batch runs can be made on any basis (daily, weekly, monthly or as requested)

Application
Payroll processing

Advantages
i. Simple to develop
ii. The initial cost of processing is low
iii. Timing reports is not necessary

Disadvantages
i. Its not convenient where decisions have to be made immediately
ii. Its difficult to provide priority scheduling
iii. It takes time before information is generated and distributed

5. Multi-processing
In this processing, more than one task is executed at the same time on different
processors of the same computer. In this case the different but independent processors

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 must be coordinated to work together. This coordination is made possible by a
multiprocessing operating system that enable different processors to operate together and
share the same memory.

6. Multi-programming / multi-tasking
In this processing, more than one program is executed at the same time by a single
processing unit. The OS allocates each program a time slice and decides what order they
will be executed

Advantages
i. Increases the productivity of the computer by reducing the CPU idle time
ii. Reduces the incidence of peripheral bound operations

Disadvantages
i. Requires expensive CPU

7. Interactive processing
In this processing there is continuous dialogue between the user and the computer. As
the program executes, it keeps on prompting the user to provide input or respond to
prompts displayed on the screen

8. Real-time systems
Systems process data so fast that the results are available to influence the activities
currently taking place e.g. in a chemical processing plant, the system must react
immediately to any change in reaction.
Application
a. Air line reservation system
b. Online ware house stock control
c. Online hotel accommodation system
d. Online banking system
Advantages
i. Real-time systems are fast and very reliable.
ii. Information is readily available for accurate decision making
iii. It provide immediate control
Disadvantages
i. They require complex and expensive operating system
ii. They require front end processors (FEP) to relieve the central processor the huge
work load.
iii. They are expensive to develop

On-line systems do not need to be real-time but real time system must be on-line system.

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ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN ICT
Definition of terms
1. Ethics: refers to a set of principles or rules that determine the rightness or wrongness of
particular acts of ICT usage. ICT Ethics relate to the standards of conduct governing
individual, institution‟s societies‟ & or international use of information & communication
technology.
2. Policy: Refers to acceptable guidelines developed by technology user groups to outline their
beliefs, vision, strategies, principles and responsibilities in using Information and
Communication technology.

UNETHICAL BEHAVIOUR IN ICT

A. Cyber Crime
The anonymity of the machines makes some crimes easier and creates many new types of
crimes. Stolen and counterfeit ATM cards are used to steal millions of dollars each year
throughout the region.
Other Cyber crimes include:
 Fraud and financial crimes e.g. bank fraud, identity theft and extortion.
 Obscene or offensive content e.g. sedition, hate speech, blasphemy, pornography,
slander etc.
 Harassment e.g. cyber stalking, cyber bullying
 Cyber terrorism
 Cyber warfare for example attacks on a nation‟s network infrastructure etc.
 Cyber extortion
 Online drug trafficking
B. Loss of privacy
The contents of electronic communications and databases can provide important and private
information to unauthorised individuals and organizations if they are not securely guarded.
Millions of transactions are transmitted and recorded in databases at banks, hospitals, shopping
complexes, and various organizations, in the public or private sector. Security measures should
be put in place to protect the confidentiality and privacy of such consumer and institution data.
C. Computer abuse
Computer abuse includes Hacking, dissemination of software Worms, software Viruses, Trojan
Horses (program that introduces viruses to computers), etc.
D. Intellectual property theft
ICT Ethical standards aim to control plagiarism, identity fraud, and the use of copyrighted
material.
Millions of dollars of software is illegally copied each year all over the world.
This phenomenon has a great impact on the software industry.
E. Freedom of speech and press
ICT related standards aim to control (among other things) hate motivated or indecent
communication, harassment and libel whilst protecting free-speech rights.
F. Professional Ethics
Faulty and useless systems that cause disasters and hardships to users might be built by
incompetent ICT professionals. In dispensing their duties ICT professionals must demonstrate
their best practices and standards as set by professional bodies for quality
assurance.
Risks faced by society related to ICT use
i. Errors
Information input into the databases is prone to human and device error.
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Computer programs that process the information may contain thousands of errors. These errors
can create wrong and misleading information about individuals and organizations. Information
and program errors might result in financial loss, or even the loss of lives.
ii. Digital Divide
The increasing use of computers has increased the separation of rich and poor, creating a digital
divide between the information “haves” and “have-nots.” The governments should provide
subsidies and programmes such as training address the issue.
demonstrate their best practices and standards as set by professional bodies for quality
assurance.
G. Unemployment
The automation of work has caused creative destruction by eliminating some vocations and
rendering millions of individuals jobless.
MEASURES TO FIGHT UNETHICAL USE OF ICT
1. Enacting of laws to regulate the use of cyberspace for instance to deter and punish cyber
crimes and other unethical use of ICT
2. Review existing legal systems to ensure they appropriately criminalize abuses of
telecommunications and computer systems and promote the investigation of high-tech
crimes.
3. Development of institutional and national policies to guide use of ICT. These policies
include :
 copyright responsibilities
 imposition of censorship rules
 user rights and responsibilities i.e. connecting user‟s rights such as freedom of
expression and freedom from persecution and responsibilities
Policies protect organizations or companies and its employees from legal actions. If an
employee violates an organization‟s policies in handling a client‟s data, he/she will be held
personally liable and not the organiztion.
4. Enhancing regional and international cooperation on information security
5. Cooperation between oversight bodies such as Communications Commission of Kenya e.g.
in sharing incident reports
6. Holding public education seminars related to incident prevention
7. Publish and distribute various types of technological documents to prevent hackings and
viruses
8. Development of technologies to prevent incidents.

SOURCES OF ICT LEGISTLATIONS

Legisration is the process of making or enacting laws by a governing body.
 Statutory instruments i.e. acts of parliament
 International treaties
 Regulations and By-Laws

Laws exits to protect Intellectual property such as software through the use of trademarks, patents and
the copyright law. When a person (or organization) uses protected information without the owner‟s
permission, he or she is breaking the law.
The Copyright Act allows for civil and criminal charges to be laid against a person who infringes
copyright. Civil charges mean the copyright owner, or someone on behalf of owners, can sue the culprit.
If found guilty, the person infringing copyright will be fined.
Data Protection Act
This refers to an Act of Parliament enacted to regulate the collection, processing, storage/keeping, use
and disclosure of information relating to individuals that is processed automatically. The Act created a

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Commission-Freedom of Information Commission of Kenya-with the mandate of ensuring the
implementation of the Act, to receive complaints regarding violations of the Act, institute legal
proceedings and settlement concerning such violations.
The act contains eight data protection principles. The principles specify that personal data must be:
i) Processed fairly and lawfully
ii) Obtained for specified and lawful purposes
iii) Adequate, relevant and not excessive
iv) Accurate and up to date
v) Not kept any longer than is necessary
vi) Processed in accordance with the individual‟s rights
vii) Securely kept
viii) Not transferred without adequate protection.

Information access and dissemination

Information privacy
Censorship

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CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
MEANING OF CONFLICT
Conflict refers to some form of friction, disagreement, or discord arising within a group when the beliefs
or actions of one or more members of the group are either resisted by or unacceptable to one or more
members of another group
Conflict management is the process of limiting the negative aspects of conflict while increasing the
positive aspects of conflict.

TYPES OF CONFLICT
1. WORKPLACE CONFLICT
 Intra-organization conflict
 Conflict that occurs within an organization
 Can occur along the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the organization
o Vertical conflict: between managers and subordinates
o Horizontal conflict: between departments and work groups
 Intra-group conflict
 Conflict among members of a group
 Early stages of group development
 Ways of doing tasks or reaching group's goals
 Inter-group conflict
 between two or more groups
 Interpersonal conflict
 Between two or more people
 Differences in views about what should be done
 Efforts to get more resources
 Differences in orientation to work and time in different parts of an organization
 Intrapersonal conflict
 Occurs within an individual
 Threat to a person‟s values
 Feeling of unfair treatment
 Multiple and contradictory sources of socialization
 Inter-organizational conflict
 Between two or more organizations
 Not competition
 Examples: suppliers and distributors, especially with the close links now possible

1. Family or domestic conflicts

IMPORTANCE OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

 Increases productivity
 Enables easy decision making
 Creates unity
 Gives freedom of expression
CAUSES OF CONFLICT
1) Task Interdependence
This refers to the nature of the dependence among organizational units for information, financial,
material, or human resources. For example a situation where one unit cannot perform a task until
another unit has completed its task. Generally the greater the interdependence between units of an
organization, the greater the potential for conflicts.
2) Goal Incompatibility
Different departments or units can have different goals. As a result, these goals may become
incompatible and generate conflicts.
3) Differentiation
As each department in an organization tries to cope with the unique demands of its own
environment, it necessarily develops its own types of procedures, cherished values and point of view.
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 Because of these differences between departments , communication and disagreements about the
sharing of resources will be a more difficult task.
4) Reward system
If units are given incentives that will reward the attainment of organizational goals, cooperation is
likely to emerge. However, if the incentives are designed to reward units for the attainment of their
assigned goals, then conflicts will arise over cooperation.
5) Values conflict
Involves incompatibility of preferences, principles and practices that people believe in such as
religion, ethics or politics.
6) Power conflict
Occurs when each party wishes to maintain or maximize the amount of influence that it exerts in the
relationship and the social setting such as in a decision making process.
7) Economic conflict
Involves competing to attain scarce resources such as monetary or human resources.
Remuneration issues e.g. poor pay
8) Lack of cooperation/trust
9) Unclear roles/lack of job description

EFFECTS OF CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATIONS

• Stress
• Absenteeism
• High staff turnover
• De-motivation
• Non-productivity
• Can lead to violence

METHODS OF DEALING WITH CONFLICTS

1. Forcing/Competition (win-lose situation)
In this approach, on of the parties pushes their own views on the others which, of course, will
cause overt or covert resistance.
2. Smoothing
This approach emphasizes the areas of agreement and common goals and de-emphasizing the
disagreements.
3. Avoidance (lose-lose situation)
This is an interpersonal approach in which the individuals seek to avoid the situation that is
causing the conflict.
4. Compromise (win-win situation)
This is a traditional means of conflict resolution which involves agreeing in part with the other
person‟s view or demand.
5. Integration
This is another way of coping with conflicts which involves making structural changes i.e.
modifying and integrating the objectives of groups with different viewpoints. This might require
the changing of the organizational structure and clarifying of authority-responsibility
relationships.

TECHNIQUES OF PREVENTING CONFLICTS

• Emphasize organizational goals over unit goals

• Encourage communication between units
• Structure tasks so that they are predictable and stable.
• Avoid win-lose situations

TECHNIQUES OF REDUCING CONFLICTS

• Physically separate conflicting groups
• Apply bureaucratic rules and regulations. This will enforce a code of behaviour that can lead to
the suppression of conflict
• Limit group interaction.
• Encourage confrontation and negotiation. This requires face to face meeting of the conflicting
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 groups or individuals.
• Bring in third party consultants
• Rotate members between groups so that members of one group learn the problems the other
group faces. It will also lead to establishment of personal bonds between members of various
groups and thereby reduce conflicts.
• Use inter-group training i.e. bring several groups together for training in order to develop
permanent that encourage groups to work together.

HOW TO SOLVE INTERPERSONAL CONFLICTS

• Assure privacy
• Empathize than sympathize
• Listen actively
• Maintain equity
• Focus on issue, not on personality
• Avoid blame
• Identify key theme
• Re-state key theme frequently
• Encourage feedback
• Identify alternate solutions
• Give your positive feedback
• Agree on an action plan

TECHNIQUES OF STIMULATE CONFLICTS

Sometimes conflict can be beneficial to an organization and managers can stimulate conflicts by:
 Increase uncertainty among groups.
Stagnation in organizations is often the result of keeping activities unchanged over long periods
of time. Members of a group know exactly what task are to be performed each day and can
predict the results of those tasks. Uncertainty reduces the ability of members or groups to predict.
Assignment of new tasks, hiring of new personnel, and withholding of information are all
techniques that can be used to increase uncertainty. As uncertainty increases,, anew interest in
activities develops, and potential for conflict becomes greater.

 Change the reward system

Reward system can encourage competition by giving rewards based on a comparative formula
with other groups. This often leads to conflicts due to misinterpretations or miscalculations of
how the reward system operates.

 Increase competition and opportunities for conflict.

When competition intensifies groups usually seek opportunities to engage in conflict. An
organization may benefit from the new-found energy form the groups.

Mr. Rotich Kipngenoh A. ICT DEPARTMENT 94

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SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN ICT
This refers to the ICT community taking responsibility for the impact of their activities to improve the quality of
life of the society. ICT is responsible for many social problems including e-waste
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
The main environmental impacts of ICT products are caused by material used in production (chemical
substances) and energy consumption through production and usage of electronic products.
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have been contributing to environmental problems:
computers, electronic devices and ICT infrastructure consume significant amounts of electricity, placing a heavy
burden on our electric grids and contributing to greenhouse gas emissions. In 2007, the total footprint of the ICT
sector – including personal computers (PCs) and peripherals, telecoms networks and devices and data centers –
was 830 Mt CO2 emission, about 2% of the
estimated total emissions from human activity released that year (a figure equivalent to aviation).
ICT hardware poses severe environmental problems both during its production and its disposal. Each stage of a
computer‟s life, from its production, throughout its use, and into its disposal, presents environmental problems.
Manufacturing computers and their various electronic and non-electronic components consumes electricity, raw
materials, chemicals, and water, and generates hazardous waste. All these directly or indirectly increase carbon
dioxide emissions and impact the environment
HANDLING E-WASTE
IT industry (both hardware and software producers) is the key player for the protection of environment and the
elimination of power consumption. The usage of recycled components, the adoption of rules and guidelines that
contribute to lower power consumption ensure the energy efficiency. These practices should be standard choices
at the IT industry, which have to also be indicated by recognizable marks/signs in order for the consumers to be
familiar with specs and certifications that ensure the recycling and the energy efficiency of those ICT products.
3Rs – Recycle,

Recycling will reduce waste in the production process, recycle the waste and waste heat or transfer them to
enterprises or individuals who have the ability to recycle and reutilize the waste, and properly handle the non-
recyclable waste.

KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL EFFORTS

1. Capacity building
 Teacher training
a. Pre-service
b. In-service
 Training courses for community
a. Local administrators
b. Parents
c. General public
2. Programs development
 4 Raise awareness (You Tube, website, Online discussion Forum, Wikipedia, Blogs, second life)
 4 Resources development (website, CD-Rom, TV and radio programs, electronic books, discussion
board, training package –video, CD,)
CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN ICT
Many companies are not yet convinced of the business case for corporate social responsibility.

Mr. Rotich Kipngenoh A. ICT DEPARTMENT 95

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EMERGING TRENDS AND ISSUES IN ICT
1. E-LEARNING
Refers to the use of electronic media and information and communication technologies (ICT) in
education.
(a) Uses of e-learning include engaging learners to use the web as:

 A source of materials in a wide range of formats. E-learning provides interactive materials and
activities such as text, graphics, animations, and, assessments, and feedback. Online interaction
may include tools like e-mail, bulletin/discussion boards, chat rooms, and instant messaging.
 Online materials can contain voice, data, and video, and are available to the students at any time
from any place.
 Online discussion groups and message boards enable a student to collaborate with the instructor,
with other students in the class, or even with students across the world.

(b) Introduction of Online Courses which provide online course materials, online interaction between
lecturers and students as well as online assessment. Online courses:
a. Offer education to large numbers of students i.e. makes education more accessible to
people with limited financial resources.
b. Offer education at lower costs (travel, instructor fees, accommodation etc)
c. Offer shorter courses
Online courses, however, require large commitment to technology by the colleges offering the courses.
There is also lack of face-to-face contact between students and instructors.
Online distance learning has removed geographic barriers and improved student opportunity.

2. E-COMMERCE
Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce or eCommerce, is a type of industry where the
buying and selling of products or services is conducted over electronic systems such as the Internet and
other computer networks.
Technology can help throughout the process including promotion, searching, selecting, negotiating,
delivery, and support.
ADVANTAGES OF E-COMMERCE
 Increases the speed and accuracy with which businesses can exchange information
 Electronic payments (tax refunds, paychecks, etc.) cost less to issue and are more secure
 Enables people to conduct business from home
 Makes promotion easier for smaller firms which cannot afford other means of advertisement
 Marketing campaigns can be designed and implemented to target specific customer segments for
example based on their search behaviour on the internet.

DISADVANTAGES OF E-COMMERCE

• Some business processes are not suited to e-commerce, even with improvements in technology
• Many products and services require a critical mass of potential buyers (e.g. online grocers)
• Cultural impediments: People are reluctant to change in order to integrate new technology
• The legal environment is uncertain. Laws covering some areas of e-commerce do not exist and in
some other areas, the judicial officers lack the relevant capacity and training.
3. CLOUD COMPUTING
Cloud computing is the use of computing resources (hardware and software) that are delivered as a
service over a network. A company uses the hardware and software in the cloud and a service fee

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ischarged.

Cloud computing offers the following potential benefits:

 Organizational flexibility - Users can access the information anytime and anyplace using a web
browser.
 Agility and rapid deployment - IT department can focus on delivering the tools to mine,
analyse, and share the information and knowledge from databases, files, and people.
 Reduced cost of infrastructure - Technology is moved from on-site to a cloud provider,
eliminating the cost of hardware and applications.
 Refocus of IT resources - Cost savings of hardware and applications can be applied elsewhere.
 Creation of new business models - Applications and resources are easily accessible, so
companies can react quickly to customer needs. This helps them set strategies to promote
innovation while potentially entering new markets.

Mr. Rotich Kipngenoh A. ICT DEPARTMENT 98

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4. DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS OF ICT
Advances in ICT have also allowed it‟s application in many areas of our lives including homes where
most of the domestic appliances now contain an embedded computer system to carry out their control
functions.
For example a modern washing machine has a computer system to handle all the complex washing cycles.
It ensures that the correct amount of water is used for the programme selected and that the water is heated
to the correct temperature.
Other examples of embedded computer systems in the home:

 Central heating systems

 Burglar alarm systems
 Fire alarm systems
 Microwaves
 Dishwashers
 TVs

ADVANTAGES
(a) The appliances do not need direct human control because they have timers. This means the user
can leave them to complete their tasks so they have more leisure time.
(b) The devices are more efficient e.g. in terms of energy use
(c) The appliances are safer to use as they have safety checks built in. In a way, computers systems
such as these are 'invisible' to the user and are called embedded systems.
(d) Computers linked to the Internet have greatly reduced the need for people to leave the home in
order to acquire goods and services for example:

 Entertainment - music and games can be downloaded. Movies can be downloaded and this,
along with Interactive digital television, means there is no need to go to the cinema or video
rental shop.
 Goods - these can be easily ordered from online stores and delivered to the home.
 Food - takeaway food and groceries can be ordered online and delivered directly to the door.
 Services - banking, ordering insurance and many other services can be carried out over the
Internet.

DISDVANTAGES

(a) The devices are more expensive

(b) The devices encourage laziness which has health implications e.g. obesity

5. E-GOVERNMENT
a. E-government services can be implemented using ICT to promote transparency in public
administrations and democratic processes, improving efficiency and strengthening relations with
citizens. Such services include Tax filing and revenue collection, electronic voting, registration of
persons and businesses etc.
b. Services, at all levels, can be adapted to the needs of citizens and business, to achieve a more
efficient allocation of resources and public goods.

Mr. Rotich Kipngenoh A. ICT DEPARTMENT 99

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6. E-HEALTH
a. The adoption of ICTs can be used to improve and extend health care and health information systems
to remote and underserved areas and vulnerable populations. For instance interaction between a
patient and a doctor who are miles apart can be made possible through ICT.
b. ICTs can be used to alert, monitor and control the spread of communicable diseases, through the
improvement of common information systems.
c. ICT can be used for the exchange of health data, taking due account of privacy concerns.
d. ICT can be used to promote continuous medical training, education, and research for health-care
providers in their areas of work without the need for institutionalized training.
e.

7. E-EMPLOYMENT
a. ICT can used to promote teleworking to allow citizens, particularly in the developing countries and
small economies, to live in their societies and work anywhere.
b. ICT can be used to increase employment opportunities for those with disabilities.
c. Promote new ways of organizing work and business with the aim of raising productivity, growth and
well-being through investment in ICTs and human resources for example in automating business
processes to make the more efficient and cheaper.

8. E-ENVIRONMENT
a. ICT can be used to establish monitoring systems, to forecast and monitor the impact of natural and
man-made disasters, particularly in developing countries
b. Governments, in cooperation with other stakeholders are encouraged to use and promote ICTs as an
instrument for environmental protection and the sustainable use of natural resources.
c. Government and the private should implement programmes for sustainable production and
consumption and the environmentally safe disposal and recycling of discarded hardware and
components used in ICTs.
d. E-Waste can be reduced:
i. From the manufacturing phase through:
a. Designing for easy disassembly and recycling
b. Avoiding use of heavy pollutants
c. Minimization on the use of resources
d. Regulations and standards
ii. During the life of equipment:
a. Prolonging its lifetime
b. Designing for reuse/multiple use
iii. At end of life:
a. E-waste conscious management

9. E-AGRICULTURE
a. ICT can be used to ensure the systematic dissemination of information on agriculture, animal
husbandry, fisheries, forestry and food, in order to provide ready access to comprehensive, up-to-date
and detailed knowledge and information, particularly in rural areas.
b. ICTs can be used to market and sell agricultural products for example linking the producers and
potential buyers thereby reducing loss for the farmers and ensuring proper distribution of food in the
country.
c. Automation of farming technology e.g. computerized irrigation system which reduce human error and
wastage of water.

Mr. Rotich Kipngenoh A. ICT DEPARTMENT 100

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EMERGING ISSUES IN ICT
1. ICT has brought about the emergence of Cyber crimes such as pornography, Electronic fraud,
cyber stalking, terrorism etc
2. Wrong use of ICT leads to Internet and other types of computer addiction
3. Emergence of health and other safety issues related to computer use e.g. Muscular-skeletal
disorders such as tendonitis, backache and eyestrain.
4. Erosion of social and inter-personal skills
5. Existence of different standards
6. Constant evolution in ICT necessitates constant training
9. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
Technology Transfer, also called Transfer of Technology (TOT) and Technology Commercialization,
is the process of transferring skills, knowledge, technologies and facilities among governments or
universities and other institutions to ensure that scientific and technological developments are accessible
to a wider range of users who can then further develop and exploit the technology into new products,
processes, applications, materials or services.

Types of Technology Transfer:

o Cooperative research and development
o Licensing or sale of intellectual property
 Either across firms or to a startup spin-off firm
o Technical assistance
o Public exchange of information
 E.g. conferences, publications, networking

The Internet is an excellent example of a technology initially developed with government support
diffusing to have a broader commercial impact. The government through the Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA) funded construction of the Internet but later made the network available for
use by the general public.

Institutions for Technology Transfer

 Technology transfer can involve firms, governments, and universities.
 Research joint ventures (RJV)
 Industry-university collaborations

Therefore,
 Success is not about being the best. It‟s about always getting better
 The best way to predict the future is to invent it
 Life is either a daring adventure or nothing at all

MR. KIPNGENOH AARON ROTICH

0724828197 / 0724279400
kipngenohaaron@[Link]
[Link]/in/rotich-kipngenoh-aaron-6070a1218
[Link]
SOFTWARE DEVELOPER ICT TRAINER

Mr. Rotich Kipngenoh A. ICT DEPARTMENT 101

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