Functions of organs/organ systems must be

coordinated to maintain homeostasis

Neural system of humans
**Importance of Coordination**
Transmission of nerve impulse **Topics Covered in This Chapter** Coordination: Interaction and complementary
functions of two or more organs
Mechanisms of neural coordination
Impulse conduction across a synapse
Introduction to
Neural Control and Increased energy demand for muscular activity

Provides organized network of point-to-point

connections Coordination Increased supply of oxygen
**Neural System**
Increase in respiration rate
Allows for quick coordination
**Systems Involved in Coordination**
Provides chemical integration through hormones **Endocrine System**
**Example: Physical Exercise** Necessitates: Increased heart rate

Increased blood flow via blood vessels

After exercise, activities of nerves, lungs, heart,

and kidneys return to normal
 Made up of highly specialized cells called Functions: Detect, receive, and transmit
**Composition** **neurons** different kinds of stimuli

Simple organization
NEURAL SYSTEM **Lower Invertebrates**
Example: Hydra Composed of a network of neurons

More organized neural system

**Neural Organization** **Insects** Brain

Presence of: Ganglia

Neural tissues

**Vertebrates** More developed neural system

 Brain
Includes:
Spinal cord
**Central Neural System (CNS)**
Functions: Site of information processing and
control
**Divisions of the Neural System**
Comprises all nerves associated with the CNS

**Peripheral Neural System (PNS)** Transmit impulses from tissues/organs to the

**Afferent Fibres**
CNS
**Types of Nerve Fibres**:
HUMAN NEURAL **Efferent Fibres**
Transmit regulatory impulses from the CNS to
peripheral tissues/organs
Part of the PNS
SYSTEM
Comprises nerves, fibres, ganglia, and plexuses **Visceral Nervous System** Relays impulses from the CNS to skeletal
**Somatic Neural System**
muscles
Functions: Impulses travel from the CNS to the
viscera and vice versa **Divisions of the PNS** Transmits impulses from the CNS to involuntary
organs and smooth muscles
**Autonomic Neural System**
**Sympathetic Neural System**
**Subdivisions**:
**Parasympathetic Neural System**
 Contains cytoplasm and typical cell organelles
**Cell Body**
Contains granular bodies called Nissl�s
granules

Short fibres that branch repeatedly

**Structure of a Neuron** Composed of three major parts: **Dendrites** Project out of the cell body

Transmit impulses towards the cell body

Long fibre with a branched distal end

Enveloped by Schwann cells forming a myelin

sheath
NEURON AS **Axon** Each branch terminates in a **synaptic knob**
Contains synaptic vesicles with
neurotransmitters

Gaps between myelin sheaths are called

STRUCTURAL AND Transmits nerve impulses away from the cell
**nodes of Ranvier**
**Myelinated Axons**
FUNCTIONAL UNIT body

Found in spinal and cranial nerves

**Types of Axons**
OF NEURAL SYSTEM
One axon and two or more dendrites
Enclosed by Schwann cells without forming a **Multipolar Neurons**
myelin sheath
Found in the cerebral cortex
**Unmyelinated Axons**
Commonly found in the autonomic and somatic One axon and one dendrite
neural systems **Types of Neurons (Based on Axon **Bipolar Neurons**
and Dendrites)** Found in the retina of the eye

Cell body with one axon only

**Unipolar Neurons**
Typically found in the embryonic stage
 Stimulus-induced permeability to Na+ is short-
lived
Neurons are excitable cells due to a polarised
Followed by a rise in permeability to K+ **Restoration of Resting Potential** membrane
Restores resting potential at the site of Ion channels on the neural membrane are
excitation selectively permeable
K+ diffuses outside the membrane:
Neuron becomes responsive to further Membrane more permeable to **Potassium ions
stimulation (K+)**
**Polarisation Mechanism**
Nearly impermeable to **Sodium ions (Na+)**
Axon membrane has positive charge on the
outer surface and negative charge on the inner Impermeable to negatively charged proteins in
surface axoplasm
At adjacent sites (e.g., site B): **Excitability of Neurons** Resting state:
Inner surface: from site A to site B High concentration of K+ and negatively
Current flows: Generation and charged proteins in axoplasm
Outer surface: from site B to site A
**Conduction of Nerve Impulse** Conduction of Nerve Low concentration of Na+ in axoplasm
Polarity at site B is reversed
Impulse Low concentration of K+ and high
Action potential generated at site B **Action Potential Generation at Site B** concentration of Na+ in extracellular fluid

The sequence repeats along the axon, Transports 3 Na+ outwards for 2 K+ into the
Maintained by the **sodium-potassium pump**
conducting the impulse cell

**Ionic Gradients Maintenance** Outer surface of the axonal membrane: positive

charge
Membrane at site A becomes permeable to Na+
Results in: Inner surface: negative charge
Reversal of polarity at site A
This creates the **resting potential**
When a stimulus is applied at a site (e.g., point
Outer surface: negatively charged Rapid influx of Na+ leads to:
A): **Generation of Nerve Impulse**
Inner surface: positively charged

This change is called **action potential** (nerve

impulse)
 A nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron
**Definition** to another through **synapses**.

Membranes of pre- and postsynaptic neurons

are in very close proximity.

Arrival of action potential at axon terminal

stimulates movement of synaptic vesicles.
Transmission of Electrical current flows directly between
neurons.
Synaptic vesicles fuse with the plasma
Impulses
Transmission is similar to impulse conduction
membrane. **Mechanism of Transmission at **Electrical Synapses**
along an axon.
Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on
Chemical Synapses**
the postsynaptic membrane. Faster than chemical synapses.

**Release of Neurotransmitters** into the **Types of Synapses** Rare in the system.

Binding opens ion channels, allowing ion entry.
synaptic cleft.
Membranes of pre- and postsynaptic neurons
New potential can be **excitatory** or Generates a new potential in the postsynaptic
are separated by a fluid-filled space called
**inhibitory**. neuron.
**synaptic cleft**.
**Chemical Synapses**
Impulse transmission involves
**neurotransmitters**.
 The brain is the central information processing
organ of the body.
**Definition**
**Forebrain** Acts as the **command and control system**.

**Midbrain** **Divisions of the Brain**

**Hindbrain** Controls **voluntary movements**.
Central Neural Regulates balance of the body.

**Skull**: Provides hard protection.

System Manages functioning of vital involuntary organs
(e.g., lungs, heart, kidneys).
**Dura Mater**: Outer layer. **Protection of the Brain**
Oversees **thermoregulation**.
**Cranial Meninges**: Three layers covering the
**Arachnoid**: Thin middle layer.
brain.
**Functions of the Brain** Regulates **hunger and thirst**.
**Pia Mater**: Inner layer in contact with brain
tissue. Maintains **circadian rhythms** (24-hour
cycles).

Coordinates activities of several endocrine

glands.

Influences **human behavior**.

Processes **vision, hearing, speech, memory,

intelligence, emotions**, and **thoughts**.
 Major part of the human brain.

Divided into two halves: **left and right

cerebral hemispheres**.

Connected by **corpus callosum** (tract of

nerve fibres).
**Cerebrum**
Thrown into prominent folds.
Covered by **cerebral cortex** (grey matter).
**Association Areas**: Responsible for complex
Contains motor areas, sensory areas, and
functions like intersensory associations,
association areas.
memory, and communication.

Inner part called **white matter** (myelinated

**Components** fibres).

Major coordinating centre for sensory and

**Thalamus**
motor signaling.
Formed by the inner parts of cerebral
hemispheres and associated structures (e.g.,
Forebrain Located at the base of the thalamus.
amygdala, hippocampus).
Body temperature.
Regulation of sexual behaviour. **Limbic System** **Hypothalamus** Controls:
Urge for eating and drinking.
Expression of emotional reactions (excitement,
Involved in:
pleasure, rage, fear). Contains neurosecretory cells that secrete
**hypothalamic hormones**.
Motivation.
 Composed of fibre tracts.
**Pons** **Location**: Between the
thalamus/hypothalamus (forebrain) and pons
Interconnects different regions of the brain.
(hindbrain).

Has a convoluted surface. **Cerebral Aqueduct**: Canal that passes

**Cerebellum** **Components**:
Midbrain through the midbrain.
Provides additional space for many more
neurons. **Dorsal Portion**: Consists mainly of four

Connected to the spinal cord. Midbrain & Hindbrain round swellings (lobes) called **corpora
quadrigemina**.

Respiration. **Medulla (Medulla Oblongata)**

Hindbrain
Cardiovascular reflexes. Contains centres that control:

Gastric secretions.

Composed of midbrain, pons, and medulla

oblongata.
**Brain Stem**
Forms the connection between the brain and
spinal cord.