Chapter 1 Introduction to

Computers, Programs, and Java

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 Objectives
● To understand computer basics, programs, and operating systems (§§1.2–1.4).
● To describe the relationship between Java and the World Wide Web (§1.5).
● To understand the meaning of Java language specification, API, JDK, and IDE
(§1.6).
● To write a simple Java program (§1.7).
● To display output on the console (§1.7).
● To explain the basic syntax of a Java program (§1.7).
● To create, compile, and run Java programs (§1.8).
● To use sound Java programming style and document programs properly (§1.9).
● To explain the differences between syntax errors, runtime errors, and logic
errors (§1.10).
● To develop Java programs using NetBeans (§1.11).
● To develop Java programs using Eclipse (§1.12).

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 What is a Computer?
A computer consists of a CPU, memory, hard disk, floppy disk,
monitor, printer, and communication devices.

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 CPU
The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of a computer. It
retrieves instructions from memory and executes them. The CPU
speed is measured in megahertz (MHz), with 1 megahertz equaling 1
million pulses per second. The speed of the CPU has been improved
continuously. If you buy a PC now, you can get an Intel Pentium 4
Processor at 3 gigahertz (1 gigahertz is 1000 megahertz).

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 Memory
Memory is to store data and program instructions for CPU to
execute. A memory unit is an ordered sequence of bytes, each holds
eight bits. A program and its data must be brought to memory before
they can be executed. A memory byte is never empty, but its initial
content may be meaningless to your program. The current content of
a memory byte is lost whenever new information is placed in it.

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 How Data is Stored?
Data of various kinds, such as numbers,
characters, and strings, are encoded as a
series of bits (zeros and ones). Computers
use zeros and ones because digital devices
have two stable states, which are referred to
as zero and one by convention. The
programmers need not to be concerned about
the encoding and decoding of data, which is
performed automatically by the system based
on the encoding scheme. The encoding
scheme varies. For example, character ‘J’ is
represented by 01001010 in one byte. A
small number such as three can be stored in a
single byte. If computer needs to store a
large number that cannot fit into a single
byte, it uses a number of adjacent bytes. No
two data can share or split a same byte. A
byte is the minimum storage unit.

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 Storage Devices
Memory is volatile, because information is lost when the power is
off. Programs and data are permanently stored on storage devices
and are moved to memory when the computer actually uses them.
There are three main types of storage devices:Disk drives (hard disks
and floppy disks), CD drives (CD-R and CD-RW), and Tape drives.

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 Output Devices: Monitor
The monitor displays information (text and graphics). The resolution
and dot pitch determine the quality of the display.

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 Communication Devices
A DSL (digital subscriber line) uses a phone line and can transfer data in a
speed 20 times faster than a regular modem.
A cable modem uses the TV cable line maintained by the cable company. A
cable modem is as fast as a DSL.
Network interface card (NIC) is a device to connect a computer to a local
area network (LAN).
The LAN is commonly used in business, universities, and government
organizations. A typical type of NIC, called 10BaseT, can transfer data at
10 mbps (million bits per second).

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 Programs
Computer programs, known as software, are instructions to
the computer.

You tell a computer what to do through programs. Without

programs, a computer is an empty machine. Computers do
not understand human languages, so you need to use
computer languages to communicate with them.

Programs are written using programming languages.

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 Programming Languages
Machine Language Assembly Language High-Level Language

Machine language is a set of primitive instructions

built into every computer. The instructions are in
the form of binary code, so you have to enter binary
codes for various instructions. Program with native
machine language is a tedious process. Moreover
the programs are highly difficult to read and
modify. For example, to add two numbers, you
might write an instruction in binary like this:

1101101010011010
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 Programming Languages
Machine Language Assembly Language High-Level Language

Assembly languages were developed to make programming

easy. Since the computer cannot understand assembly
language, however, a program called assembler is used to
convert assembly language programs into machine code.
For example, to add two numbers, you might write an
instruction in assembly code like this:
ADDF3 R1, R2, R3

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 Programming Languages
Machine Language Assembly Language High-Level Language

The high-level languages are English-like and easy to learn

and program. For example, the following is a high-level
language statement that computes the area of a circle with
radius 5:
area = 5 * 5 * 3.1415;

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Popular High-Level Languages

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 Interpreting/Compiling Source Code
A program written in a high-level language is called
a source program or source code. Because a
computer cannot understand a source program, a
source program must be translated into machine
code for execution. The translation can be done
using another programming tool called an
interpreter or a compiler.

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 Interpreting Source Code
An interpreter reads one statement from the source
code, translates it to the machine code or virtual
machine code, and then executes it right away, as
shown in the following figure. Note that a statement
from the source code may be translated into several
machine instructions.

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 Compiling Source Code
A compiler translates the entire source code into a
machine-code file, and the machine-code file is then
executed, as shown in the following figure.

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 Operating Systems
The operating system (OS) is a
program that manages and controls
a computer’s activities. The
popular operating systems for
general-purpose computers
are Microsoft Windows, Mac
OS, and Linux. Application
programs, such as a Web
browser or a word processor,
cannot run unless an
operating system is installed
and running on the computer.

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 Why Java?
The answer is that Java enables users to develop and
deploy applications on the Internet for servers, desktop
computers, and small hand-held devices. The future of
computing is being profoundly influenced by the Internet,
and Java promises to remain a big part of that future. Java
is the Internet programming language.

●Java is a general purpose programming language.

●Java is the Internet programming language.

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 Java, Web, and Beyond
● Java can be used to develop standalone
applications (desktop applications).
● Java can be used to develop applications
running from a browser.
● Java can also be used to develop applications
for hand-held devices.
● Java can be used to develop applications for
Web servers.

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 Java’s History
● James Gosling and Sun Microsystems
● Oak
● Java, May 20, 1995, Sun World
● HotJava
– The first Java-enabled Web browser
● Early History Website:

[Link]

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 JDK Versions
● JDK 1.02 (1995)
● JDK 1.1 (1996)
● JDK 1.2 (1998)
● JDK 1.3 (2000)
● JDK 1.4 (2002)
● JDK 1.5 (2004) a. k. a. JDK 5 or Java 5
● JDK 1.6 (2006) a. k. a. JDK 6 or Java 6
● JDK 1.7 (2011) a. k. a. JDK 7 or Java 7
● JDK 1.8 (2014) a. k. a. JDK 8 or Java 8

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 JDK Editions
● Java Standard Edition (J2SE)
– J2SE can be used to develop client-side standalone
applications or applets.
● Java Enterprise Edition (J2EE)
– J2EE can be used to develop server-side applications
such as Java servlets, Java ServerPages, and Java
ServerFaces.
● Java Micro Edition (J2ME).
– J2ME can be used to develop applications for mobile
devices such as cell phones.
This book uses J2SE to introduce Java
programming.
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 Popular Java IDEs
● NetBeans
● Eclipse

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 A Simple Java Program
Listing 1.1
// This program prints Welcome to Java!
public class Welcome {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}
} Animatio
n

IMPORTANT NOTE: If you cannot run the buttons, see

Welcome [Link]/liang/[Link].

Run

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Creating and Editing Using NotePad
To use NotePad, type
notepad [Link]
from the DOS prompt.

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Creating and Editing Using WordPad
To use WordPad, type
write [Link]
from the DOS prompt.

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 Creating, Compiling, and
Running Programs

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 Compiling Java Source Code
You can port a source program to any machine with appropriate
compilers. The source program must be recompiled, however, because
the object program can only run on a specific machine. Nowadays
computers are networked to work together. Java was designed to run
object programs on any platform. With Java, you write the program
once, and compile the source program into a special type of object
code, known as bytecode. The bytecode can then run on any computer
with a Java Virtual Machine, as shown below. Java Virtual Machine is
a software that interprets Java bytecode.

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animation

Trace a Program Execution

Enter main method

// This program prints Welcome to Java!

public class Welcome {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}
}

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animation

Trace a Program Execution

Execute statement

// This program prints Welcome to Java!

public class Welcome {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}
}

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animation

Trace a Program Execution

// This program prints Welcome to Java!

public class Welcome {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}
}

print a message to the

console

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Two More Simple Examples

Animatio
n
WelcomeWithThreeMessages Run
Animatio
n
ComputeExpression Run

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Companion
Website Compiling and Running Java
from the Command Window
● Set path to JDK bin directory
– set path=c:\Program Files\java\jdk1.8.0\bin
● Set classpath to include the current directory
– set classpath=.
● Compile
– javac [Link]
● Run
– java Welcome
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 Compiling and Running Java
Companion
Website from TextPad
● See Supplement II.A on the Website for details

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 Anatomy of a Java Program
● Class name
● Main method
● Statements
● Statement terminator
● Reserved words
● Comments
● Blocks

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 Class Name
Every Java program must have at least one class.
Each class has a name. By convention, class names
start with an uppercase letter. In this example, the
class name is Welcome.

// This program prints Welcome to Java!

public class Welcome {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}
}

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 Main Method
Line 2 defines the main method. In order to run a
class, the class must contain a method named main.
The program is executed from the main method.

// This program prints Welcome to Java!

public class Welcome {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}
}

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 Statement
A statement represents an action or a sequence of actions.
The statement [Link]("Welcome to Java!") in
the program in Listing 1.1 is a statement to display the
greeting "Welcome to Java!“.

// This program prints Welcome to Java!

public class Welcome {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}
}

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 Statement Terminator
Every statement in Java ends with a semicolon (;).

// This program prints Welcome to Java!

public class Welcome {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}
}

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 Reserved words
Reserved words or keywords are words that have a
specific meaning to the compiler and cannot be used for
other purposes in the program. For example, when the
compiler sees the word class, it understands that the word
after class is the name for the class.

// This program prints Welcome to Java!

public class Welcome {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}
}

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 Blocks
A pair of braces in a program forms a block that groups
components of a program.

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 Special Symbols

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 { …}

// This program prints Welcome to Java!

public class Welcome {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}
}
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 ( … )

// This program prints Welcome to Java!

public class Welcome {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}
}
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 ;

// This program prints Welcome to Java!

public class Welcome {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}
}
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 // …

// This program prints Welcome to Java!

public class Welcome {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}
}
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 "…"

// This program prints Welcome to Java!

public class Welcome {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}
}
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 Programming Style and
Documentation
● Appropriate Comments
● Naming Conventions
● Proper Indentation and Spacing Lines
● Block Styles

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 Appropriate Comments
Include a summary at the beginning of the program
to explain what the program does, its key features,
its supporting data structures, and any unique
techniques it uses.

Include your name, class section, instructor, date,

and a brief description at the beginning of the
program.

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 Naming Conventions
● Choose meaningful and descriptive names.
● Class names:
– Capitalize the first letter of each word in the
name. For example, the class name
ComputeExpression.

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 Proper Indentation and Spacing
● Indentation
– Indent two spaces.

● Spacing
– Use blank line to separate segments of the code.

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 Block Styles
Use end-of-line style for braces.

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 Programming Errors
● Syntax Errors
– Detected by the compiler
● Runtime Errors
– Causes the program to abort
● Logic Errors
– Produces incorrect result

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 Syntax Errors
public class ShowSyntaxErrors {
public static main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java);
}
}

ShowSyntaxErrors Run

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 Runtime Errors
public class ShowRuntimeErrors {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link](1 / 0);
}
}

ShowRuntimeErrors Run

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 Logic Errors
public class ShowLogicErrors {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Celsius 35 is Fahrenheit degree ");
[Link]((9 / 5) * 35 + 32);
}
}

ShowLogicErrors Run

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Chapter 2 Elementary Programming

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 Motivations
In the preceding chapter, you learned how to create,
compile, and run a Java program. Starting from this
chapter, you will learn how to solve practical
problems programmatically. Through these
problems, you will learn Java primitive data types
and related subjects, such as variables, constants,
data types, operators, expressions, and input and
output.

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 Objectives
● To write Java programs to perform simple computations (§2.2).
● To obtain input from the console using the Scanner class (§2.3).
● To use identifiers to name variables, constants, methods, and classes (§2.4).
● To use variables to store data (§§2.5–2.6).
● To program with assignment statements and assignment expressions (§2.6).
● To use constants to store permanent data (§2.7).
● To name classes, methods, variables, and constants by following their naming conventions (§2.8).
● To explore Java numeric primitive data types: byte, short, int, long, float, and double (§2.9.1).
● To read a byte, short, int, long, float, or double value from the keyboard (§2.9.2).
● To perform operations using operators +, -, *, /, and % (§2.9.3).
● To perform exponent operations using [Link](a, b) (§2.9.4).
● To write integer literals, floating-point literals, and literals in scientific notation (§2.10).
● To write and evaluate numeric expressions (§2.11).
● To obtain the current system time using [Link]() (§2.12).
● To use augmented assignment operators (§2.13).
● To distinguish between postincrement and preincrement and between postdecrement and predecrement (§2.14).
● To cast the value of one type to another type (§2.15).
● To describe the software development process and apply it to develop the loan payment program (§2.16).
● To write a program that converts a large amount of money into smaller units (§2.17).
● To avoid common errors and pitfalls in elementary programming (§2.18).

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 Introducing Programming with an
Example
Listing 2.1 Computing the Area of a Circle
This program computes the area of the circle.
Animatio
ComputeArea
n

Run IMPORTANT NOTE: If you cannot run the buttons, see

[Link]/liang/[Link].

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animation

Trace a Program Execution

public class ComputeArea { allocate memory
/** Main method */ for radius
public static void main(String[] args) {
double radius; radius no value
double area;

// Assign a radius
radius = 20;

// Compute area
area = radius * radius * 3.14159;

// Display results
[Link]("The area for the circle of radius " +
radius + " is " + area);
}
}

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animation

Trace a Program Execution

public class ComputeArea {
/** Main method */ memory
public static void main(String[] args) {
double radius; radius no value
double area; area no value
// Assign a radius
radius = 20;
allocate memory
// Compute area for area
area = radius * radius * 3.14159;

// Display results
[Link]("The area for the circle of radius " +
radius + " is " + area);
}
}

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animation

Trace a Program Execution

public class ComputeArea { assign 20 to radius
/** Main method */
public static void main(String[] args) {
double radius; radius 20
double area;
area no value
// Assign a radius
radius = 20;

// Compute area
area = radius * radius * 3.14159;

// Display results
[Link]("The area for the circle of radius " +
radius + " is " + area);
}
}

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animation

Trace a Program Execution

public class ComputeArea {
/** Main method */ memory
public static void main(String[] args) {
double radius; radius 20
double area;
area 1256.636
// Assign a radius
radius = 20;

// Compute area compute area and assign it

area = radius * radius * 3.14159; to variable area

// Display results
[Link]("The area for the circle of radius " +
radius + " is " + area);
}
}

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animation

Trace a Program Execution

public class ComputeArea {
/** Main method */ memory
public static void main(String[] args) {
double radius; radius 20
double area;
area 1256.636
// Assign a radius
radius = 20;

// Compute area
area = radius * radius * 3.14159; print a message to the
console
// Display results
[Link]("The area for the circle of radius " +
radius + " is " + area);
}
}

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 Reading Input from the Console
1. Create a Scanner object
import [Link]; // Scanner is in the [Link]
package
Scanner input = new Scanner([Link]);
2. Use the method nextDouble() to obtain to a double
value. For example,
[Link]("Enter a double value: ");
Scanner input = new Scanner([Link]);
double d = [Link]();
Animatio
n
ComputeAreaWithConsoleInput ComputeAverage

Run Run
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The information for the classes in an imported
package is not read in at compile time or
runtime unless the class is used in the program.

The import statement simply tells the compiler

where to locate the classes.

There is no performance difference between a

specific import and a wildcard import declaration.

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 Identifiers
● Identifiers are the names that identify the elements such
as classes, methods, and variables in a program.
● An identifier is a sequence of characters that consist of
letters, digits, underscores (_), and dollar signs ($).
● An identifier must start with a letter, an underscore (_),
or a dollar sign ($). It cannot start with a digit.
● An identifier cannot be a reserved word. (See Appendix
A, “Java Keywords,” for a list of reserved words).
● An identifier cannot be true, false, or
null.
● An identifier can be of any length.
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For example, $2, ComputeArea, area, radius, and
print are legal identifiers,

whereas

2A and d+4 are not because they do not follow the

rules. The Java compiler detects illegal identifiers
and reports syntax errors.

Note
Since Java is case sensitive, area, Area, and AREA
are all different identifiers.

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 Variables
// Compute the first area
radius = 1.0;
area = radius * radius * 3.14159;
[Link]("The area is “ +
area + " for radius "+radius);

// Compute the second area

radius = 2.0;
area = radius * radius * 3.14159;
[Link]("The area is “ +
area + " for radius "+radius);

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 Declaring Variables
int x; // Declare x to be an
// integer variable;
double radius; // Declare radius to
// be a double variable;
char a; // Declare a to be a
// character variable;

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 Assignment Statements
x = 1; // Assign 1 to x;
radius = 1.0; // Assign 1.0 to radius;
a = 'A'; // Assign 'A' to a;

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 Declaring and Initializing
in One Step
● int x = 1;
● double d = 1.4;

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 Named Constants
final datatype CONSTANTNAME = VALUE;

final double PI = 3.14159;

final double PI;

PI=3.14159;

PI=3;
final int SIZE = 3;

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 Naming Conventions
● Choose meaningful and descriptive names.
● Variables and method names:
– Use lowercase. If the name consists of several
words, concatenate all in one, use lowercase
for the first word, and capitalize the first letter
of each subsequent word in the name. For
example, the variables radius and area, and
the method computeArea.

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 Naming Conventions, cont.
● Class names:
– Capitalize the first letter of each word in
the name. For example, the class name
ComputeArea.

● Constants:
– Capitalize all letters in constants, and use
underscores to connect words. For
example, the constant PI and
MAX_VALUE

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 Numerical Data Types

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Reading Numbers from the Keyboard
Scanner input = new Scanner([Link]);
int value = [Link]();

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 Numeric Operators

A= d (/) * b + r (%)

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 Integer Division
+, -, *, /, and %

5 / 2 yields an integer 2.
5.0 / 2 yields a double value 2.5

5 % 2 yields 1 (the remainder of the division)

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 Problem: Displaying Time
Write a program that obtains minutes and
remaining seconds from seconds.

DisplayTime Run

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 NOTE
Calculations involving floating-point numbers are
approximated because these numbers are not stored
with complete accuracy.
For example,
[Link](1.0 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1);
displays 0.5000000000000001, not 0.5, and
[Link](1.0 - 0.9);
displays 0.09999999999999998, not 0.1.
Integers are stored precisely. Therefore, calculations
with integers yield a precise integer result.
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 Exponent Operations
[Link]([Link](2, 3));
// Displays 8.0
[Link]([Link](4, 0.5));
// Displays 2.0
[Link]([Link](2.5, 2));
// Displays 6.25
[Link]([Link](2.5, -2));
// Displays 0.16

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 Number Literals
A literal is a constant value that appears directly
in the program.
For example, 34, 1,000,000, and 5.0 are literals in
the following statements:

int i = 34;
long x = 1000000;
double d = 5.0;

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 Integer Literals
An integer literal can be assigned to an integer variable
as long as it can fit into the variable. A compilation error
would occur if the literal were too large for the variable to
hold. For example, the statement byte b = 1000 would
cause a compilation error, because 1000 cannot be stored
in a variable of the byte type.
An integer literal is assumed to be of the int type, whose
value is between -231 (-2147483648) to 231–1
(2147483647). To denote an integer literal of the long type,
append it with the letter L or l. L is preferred because l
(lowercase L) can easily be confused with 1 (the digit
one).
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 Floating-Point Literals
Floating-point literals are written with a decimal
point. By default, a floating-point literal is treated
as a double type value. For example, 5.0 is
considered a double value, not a float value. You
can make a number a float by appending the letter f
or F, and make a number a double by appending the
letter d or D. For example, you can use 100.2f or
100.2F for a float number, and 100.2d or 100.2D
for a double number.

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 double vs. float
default
The double type values are more accurate than the
float type values. For example,
[Link]("1.0 / 3.0 is " + 1.0 / 3.0);

[Link]("1.0F / 3.0F is " + 1.0F / 3.0F);

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 Scientific Notation
Floating-point literals can also be specified in
scientific notation, for example, 1.23456e+2, same as
1.23456e2, is equivalent to 123.456, and 1.23456e-2
is equivalent to 0.0123456. E (or e) represents an
exponent and it can be either in lowercase or
uppercase.

0.12345= 12.345E-2

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 Arithmetic Expressions

is translated to

(3+4*x)/5 – 10*(y-5)*(a+b+c)/x + 9*(4/x + (9+x)/y)

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 How to Evaluate an Expression
Though Java has its own way to evaluate an
expression behind the scene, the result of a Java
expression and its corresponding arithmetic
expression are the same. Therefore, you can safely
apply the arithmetic rule for evaluating a Java
expression.

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 Problem: Converting Temperatures
Write a program that converts a Fahrenheit degree
to Celsius using the formula:

Note: you have to write

celsius = (5.0 / 9) * (fahrenheit – 32)

FahrenheitToCelsius Run

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 Problem: Displaying Current Time
Write a program that displays current time in GMT in the
format hour:minute:second such as 1:45:19.
The currentTimeMillis method in the System class returns
the current time in milliseconds since the midnight, January
1, 1970 GMT. (1970 was the year when the Unix operating
system was formally introduced.) You can use this method
to obtain the current time, and then compute the current
second, minute, and hour as follows.

ShowCurrentTime

Run
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Augmented Assignment Operators

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 Increment and
Decrement Operators

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 Increment and
Decrement Operators, cont.

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 Increment and
Decrement Operators, cont.
Using increment and decrement operators makes
expressions short, but it also makes them complex and
difficult to read. Avoid using these operators in expressions
that modify multiple variables, or the same variable for
multiple times such as this:
int k = ++i + i;
Which is equivalent to the following two lines:
k= ++i;
k+=i;

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 Assignment Expressions and
Assignment Statements
Prior to Java 2, all the expressions can be used as
statements. Since Java 2, only the following types of
expressions can be statements:
variable op= expression; // Where op is +, -, *, /, or %
++variable;
variable++;
--variable;
variable--;

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 Numeric Type Conversion
Consider the following statements:
byte i = 100;
long k = i * 3 + 4;
double d = i * 3.1 + k / 2;

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 Conversion Rules
When performing a binary operation involving two
operands of different types, Java automatically
converts the operand based on the following rules:

1. If one of the operands is double, the other is

converted into double.
2. Otherwise, if one of the operands is float, the other
is converted into float.
3. Otherwise, if one of the operands is long, the other is
converted into long.
4. Otherwise, both operands are converted into int.

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 Type Casting
Implicit casting
double d = 3; (type widening)

Explicit casting
int i = (int)3.0; (type narrowing)
int i = (int)3.9; (Fraction part is truncated)

What is wrong? int x = (5 / 2.0); //compilation error

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 Problem: Keeping Two Digits After
Decimal Points
Write a program that displays the sales tax with two
digits after the decimal point.

SalesTax Run

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Casting in an Augmented Expression
In Java, an augmented expression of the form
x1 op= x2 is implemented as x1 = (T)(x1 op x2),
where T is the type for x1. Therefore, the following
code is correct.
int sum = 0;
sum += 4.5; // sum becomes 4 after this statement

sum += 4.5 is equivalent to sum = (int)(sum + 4.5).

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 Problem:
Computing Loan Payments
This program lets the user enter the interest
rate, number of years, and loan amount, and
computes monthly payment and total
payment.

ComputeLoan Run
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 Problem: Monetary Units

This program lets the user enter the amount in

decimal representing dollars and cents and output
a report listing the monetary equivalent in single
dollars, quarters, dimes, nickels, and pennies.
Your program should report maximum number of
dollars, then the maximum number of quarters,
and so on, in this order.

ComputeChange Run
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 Common Errors and Pitfalls
● Common Error 1: Undeclared/Uninitialized
Variables and Unused Variables
● Common Error 2: Integer Overflow
● Common Error 3: Round-off Errors
● Common Error 4: Unintended Integer Division
● Common Error 5: Redundant Input Objects
● Common Pitfall 1: Redundant Input Objects

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 Common Error 1:
Undeclared/Uninitialized Variables
and Unused Variables
double interestRate = 0.05;
double interest = interestrate * 45;

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 Common Error 2: Integer Overflow

int value = 2147483647 + 1;

// value will actually be -2147483648

2147483647 = 01111111 11111111 11111111 11111111

If you add 1 to that, you get:

10000000 00000000 00000000 00000000

In two's complement, that is the number -2147483648.

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 Common Error 3: Round-off Errors

[Link](1.0 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1 - 0.1);

[Link](1.0 - 0.9);

Round-off Errors=(1/3)-0.333333

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Common Error 4: Unintended Integer
Division

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 Common Pitfall 1: Redundant Input
Objects
Scanner input = new Scanner([Link]);
[Link]("Enter an integer: ");
int v1 = [Link]();

Scanner input1 = new Scanner([Link]);

[Link]("Enter a double value: ");
double v2 = [Link]();
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 Chapter 3 Selections

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1
 Motivations
If you assigned a negative value for radius in
Listing 2.2, [Link],
the program would print an invalid result. If the
radius is negative, you don't want the program to
compute the area. How can you deal with this
situation?

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 Objectives
▪ To declare boolean variables and write Boolean expressions using relational
operators (§3.2).
▪ To implement selection control using one-way if statements (§3.3).
▪ To implement selection control using two-way if-else statements (§3.4).
▪ To implement selection control using nested if and multi-way if statements
(§3.5).
▪ To avoid common errors and pitfalls in if statements (§3.6).
▪ To generate random numbers using the [Link]() method (§3.7).
▪ To program using selection statements for a variety of examples
(SubtractionQuiz, BMI, ComputeTax) (§§3.7–3.9).
▪ To combine conditions using logical operators (&&, ||, and !) (§3.10).
▪ To program using selection statements with combined conditions (LeapYear,
Lottery) (§§3.11–3.12).
▪ To implement selection control using switch statements (§3.13).
▪ To write expressions using the conditional expression (§3.14).
▪ To examine the rules governing operator precedence and associativity (§3.15).
▪ To apply common techniques to debug errors (§3.16).

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3
 The boolean Type and Operators
Often in a program you need to compare two
values, such as whether i is greater than j. Java
provides six comparison operators (also known
as relational operators) that can be used to
compare two values. The result of the
comparison is a Boolean value: true or false.

boolean b = (1 > 2);

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 Relational Operators
Java Mathematics Name Example Result
Operator Symbol (radius is 5)

< < less than radius < 0 false

<= ≤ less than or equal to radius <= 0 false
> > greater than radius > 0 true
>= ≥ greater than or equal to radius >= 0 true
== = equal to radius == 0 false
!= ≠ not equal to radius != 0 true

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 Problem: A Simple Math Learning Tool
This example creates a program to let a first grader
practice additions. The program randomly
generates two single-digit integers number1 and
number2 and displays a question such as “What is
7 + 9?” to the student. After the student types the
answer, the program displays a message to indicate
whether the answer is true or false.

IMPORTANT NOTE: If you cannot run the buttons,

see
[Link]/slide/[Link] AdditionQuiz Run
.
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6
 One-way if Statements
if (radius >= 0) {
area = radius * radius * PI;
if (boolean-expression) { [Link]("The area"
statement(s); + " for the circle of radius "
}
+ radius + " is " + area);
}

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7
 Note
if i > 0 { if (i > 0) {
[Link]("i is positive"); [Link]("i is positive");
} }
(a) Wrong (b) Correct

if (i > 0) { if (i > 0)
[Link]("i is positive"); Equivalent [Link]("i is positive");
}

(a) (b)

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 Simple if Demo

Write a program that prompts the user to enter an integer. If the

number is a multiple of 5, print HiFive. If the number is divisible
by 2, print HiEven.

SimpleIfDemo Run

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9
 The Two-way if Statement
if (boolean-expression) {
statement(s)-for-the-true-case;
}
else {
statement(s)-for-the-false-case;
}

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 if-else Example
if (radius >= 0) {
area = radius * radius * 3.14159;

[Link]("The area for the “

+ “circle of radius " + radius +
" is " + area);
}
else {
[Link]("Negative input");
}

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11
 Multiple Alternative if Statements

if (score >= 90.0) if (score >= 90.0)

[Link]("A"); [Link]("A");
else else if (score >= 80.0)
if (score >= 80.0) Equivalent [Link]("B");
[Link]("B"); else if (score >= 70.0)
else [Link]("C");
if (score >= 70.0) else if (score >= 60.0)
[Link]("C"); [Link]("D");
else else
if (score >= 60.0) [Link]("F");
[Link]("D"); This is better
else
[Link]("F");

(a) (b)

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Multi-Way if-else Statements

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animation
Trace if-else statement
Suppose score is 70.0 The condition is false

if (score >= 90.0)

[Link]("A");
else if (score >= 80.0)
[Link]("B");
else if (score >= 70.0)
[Link]("C");
else if (score >= 60.0)
[Link]("D");
else
[Link]("F");

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14
animation
Trace if-else statement
Suppose score is 70.0 The condition is false

if (score >= 90.0)

[Link]("A");
else if (score >= 80.0)
[Link]("B");
else if (score >= 70.0)
[Link]("C");
else if (score >= 60.0)
[Link]("D");
else
[Link]("F");

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15
animation
Trace if-else statement
Suppose score is 70.0 The condition is true

if (score >= 90.0)

[Link]("A");
else if (score >= 80.0)
[Link]("B");
else if (score >= 70.0)
[Link]("C");
else if (score >= 60.0)
[Link]("D");
else
[Link]("F");

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16
animation
Trace if-else statement
Suppose score is 70.0 grade is C

if (score >= 90.0)

[Link]("A");
else if (score >= 80.0)
[Link]("B");
else if (score >= 70.0)
[Link]("C");
else if (score >= 60.0)
[Link]("D");
else
[Link]("F");

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17
animation
Trace if-else statement
Suppose score is 70.0 Exit the if statement

if (score >= 90.0)

[Link]("A");
else if (score >= 80.0)
[Link]("B");
else if (score >= 70.0)
[Link]("C");
else if (score >= 60.0)
[Link]("D");
else
[Link]("F");

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18
 Note
The else clause matches the most recent if clause in the
same block.

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19
 Note, cont.
Nothing is printed from the preceding statement. To force
the else clause to match the first if clause, you must add a
pair of braces:
int i = 1;
int j = 2;
int k = 3;
if (i > j) {
if (i > k)
[Link]("A");
}
else
[Link]("B");
This statement prints B.
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20
 Common Errors
Adding a semicolon at the end of an if clause is a common
mistake.
if (radius >= 0); Wrong
{
area = radius*radius*PI;
[Link](
"The area for the circle of radius " +
radius + " is " + area);
}
This mistake is hard to find, because it is not a compilation error or
a runtime error, it is a logic error.
This error often occurs when you use the next-line block style.
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21
 TIP
if (number % 2 == 0) Equivalent
even = true; boolean even
else = number % 2 == 0;
even = false;
(a) (b)

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22
 CAUTION
if (even == true) Equivalent if (even)
[Link]( [Link](
"It is even."); "It is even.");
(a) (b)

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23
Generating Random Numbers

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24
 Problem: An Improved Math Learning Tool
This example creates a program to teach a
first grade child how to learn subtractions.
The program randomly generates two single-
digit integers number1 and number2 with
number1 >= number2 and displays a question
such as “What is 9 – 2?” to the student. After
the student types the answer, the program
displays whether the answer is correct.
SubtractionQuiz Run

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25
 Problem: Body Mass Index
Body Mass Index (BMI) is a measure of health on
weight. It can be calculated by taking your weight
in kilograms and dividing by the square of your
height in meters. The interpretation of BMI for
people 16 years or older is as follows:
BMI Interpretation

BMI < 18.5 Underweight

18.5 <= BMI < 25.0 Normal
25.0 <= BMI < 30.0 Overweight
30.0 <= BMI Obese

ComputeAndInterpretBMI Run

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26
 Problem: Computing Taxes
The US federal personal income tax is calculated
based on the filing status and taxable income.
There are four filing statuses: single filers, married
filing jointly, married filing separately, and head of
household. The tax rates for 2009 are shown below.

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27
 Problem: Computing Taxes, cont.
if (status == 0) {
// Compute tax for single filers
}
else if (status == 1) {
// Compute tax for married file jointly
// or qualifying widow(er)
}
else if (status == 2) {
// Compute tax for married file separately
}
else if (status == 3) {
// Compute tax for head of household
}
else {
// Display wrong status
} ComputeTax Run
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28
 Logical Operators
Operator Name Description

! not logical negation

&& and logical conjunction

|| or logical disjunction

^ exclusive or logical exclusion

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 Truth Table for Operator !

p !p Example (assume age = 24, weight = 140)

true false !(age > 18) is false, because (age > 18) is true.

false true !(weight == 150) is true, because (weight == 150) is false.

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 Truth Table for Operator &&
p1 p2 p1 && p2 Example (assume age = 24, weight = 140)

false false false (age <= 18) && (weight < 140) is false, because both

conditions are both false.

false true false

true false false (age > 18) && (weight > 140) is false, because (weight

> 140) is false.

true true true (age > 18) && (weight >= 140) is true, because both

(age > 18) and (weight >= 140) are true.

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 Truth Table for Operator ||
p1 p2 p1 || p2 Example (assume age = 24, weihgt = 140)

false false false

false true true (age > 34) || (weight <= 140) is true, because (age > 34)

is false, but (weight <= 140) is true.

true
true false

true
true true
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 Truth Table for Operator ^
p1 p2 p1 ^ p2 Example (assume age = 24, weight = 140)

false false false (age > 34) ^ (weight > 140) is false, because (age > 34) is false

and (weight > 140) is false.

false true true (age > 34) ^ (weight >= 140) is true, because (age > 34) is false

but (weight >= 140) is true.

true false true (age > 14) ^ (weight > 140) is true, because (age > 14) is

true and (weight > 140) is false.

true true false

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33
 Examples
Here is a program that checks whether a number is divisible by 2
and 3, whether a number is divisible by 2 or 3, and whether a
number is divisible by 2 or 3 but not both:

TestBooleanOperators Run

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34
 Examples
[Link]("Is " + number + " divisible by 2 and 3? " +
((number % 2 == 0) && (number % 3 == 0)));

[Link]("Is " + number + " divisible by 2 or 3? " +

((number % 2 == 0) || (number % 3 == 0)));

[Link]("Is " + number +

TestBooleanOperators
" divisible by 2 or 3, but not both? " +
Run
((number % 2 == 0) ^ (number % 3 == 0)));

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35
Companion
Website
The & and | Operators

Supplement III.B, “The & and | Operators”

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Companion
Website
The & and | Operators
If x is 1, what is x after this
expression?
(x > 1) & (x++ < 10)

If x is 1, what is x after this

expression?
(1 > x) && ( 1 > x++)

How about (1 == x) | (10 > x++)?

(1 == x) || (10 > x++)?
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37
 Problem: Determining Leap Year?
This program first prompts the user to enter a year as
an int value and checks if it is a leap year.
A year is a leap year if it is divisible by 4 but not by
100, or it is divisible by 400.
(year % 4 == 0 && year % 100 != 0) || (year % 400
== 0)

LeapYear Run

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 Problem: Lottery
Write a program that randomly generates a lottery of a two-
digit number, prompts the user to enter a two-digit number,
and determines whether the user wins according to the
following rule:
• If the user input matches the lottery in exact order, the
award is $10,000.
• If the user input matches the lottery, the award is
$3,000.
• If one digit in the user input matches a digit in the
lottery, the award is $1,000.

Lottery Run

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 switch Statements
switch (status) {
case 0: compute taxes for single filers;
break;
case 1: compute taxes for married file jointly;
break;
case 2: compute taxes for married file separately;
break;
case 3: compute taxes for head of household;
break;
default: [Link]("Errors: invalid status");
[Link](1);
}

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switch Statement Flow Chart

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 switch Statement Rules
The switch-expression
must yield a value of char, switch (switch-expression) {
byte, short, int or String
type and must always be case value1: statement(s)1;
enclosed in parentheses. break;
case value2: statement(s)2;
The value1, ..., and valueN must break;
have the same data type as the …
value of the switch-expression.
The resulting statements in the case valueN: statement(s)N;
case statement are executed when break;
the value in the case statement default: statement(s)-for-default;
matches the value of the switch-
}
expression. Note that value1, ...,
and valueN are constant
expressions, meaning that they
cannot contain variables in the
expression, such as 1 + x.

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 switch Statement Rules
The keyword break is optional, switch (switch-expression) {
but it should be used at the end of
case value1: statement(s)1;
each case in order to terminate the
remainder of the switch break;
statement. If the break statement case value2: statement(s)2;
is not present, the next case
statement will be executed. break;
…
case valueN: statement(s)N;
The default case, which is break;
optional, can be used to perform default: statement(s)-for-default;
actions when none of the
specified cases matches the
}
switch-expression.
When the value in a case statement matches the value
of the switch-expression, the statements starting from
this case are executed until either a break statement or
the end of the switch statement is reached.

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animation

Trace switch statement

Suppose day is 2:

switch (day) {
case 1:
case 2:
case 3:
case 4:
case 5: [Link]("Weekday"); break;
case 0:
case 6: [Link]("Weekend");
}

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44
animation

Trace switch statement

Match case 2

switch (day) {
case 1:
case 2:
case 3:
case 4:
case 5: [Link]("Weekday"); break;
case 0:
case 6: [Link]("Weekend");
}

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animation

Trace switch statement

Fall through case 3

switch (day) {
case 1:
case 2:
case 3:
case 4:
case 5: [Link]("Weekday"); break;
case 0:
case 6: [Link]("Weekend");
}

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animation

Trace switch statement

Fall through case 4

switch (day) {
case 1:
case 2:
case 3:
case 4:
case 5: [Link]("Weekday"); break;
case 0:
case 6: [Link]("Weekend");
}

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47
animation

Trace switch statement

Fall through case 5

switch (day) {
case 1:
case 2:
case 3:
case 4:
case 5: [Link]("Weekday"); break;
case 0:
case 6: [Link]("Weekend");
}

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animation

Trace switch statement

Encounter break

switch (day) {
case 1:
case 2:
case 3:
case 4:
case 5: [Link]("Weekday"); break;
case 0:
case 6: [Link]("Weekend");
}

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animation

Trace switch statement

Exit the statement

switch (day) {
case 1:
case 2:
case 3:
case 4:
case 5: [Link]("Weekday"); break;
case 0:
case 6: [Link]("Weekend");
}

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50
 Problem: Chinese Zodiac
Write a program that prompts the user to enter a year
and displays the animal for the year.

ChineseZodiac Run

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51
 Conditional Operators
if (x > 0)
y=1
else
y = -1;

is equivalent to

y = (x > 0) ? 1 : -1;
(boolean-expression) ? expression1 : expression2

Ternary operator
Binary operator
Unary operator
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 Conditional Operator
if (num % 2 == 0)
[Link](num + “is even”);
else
[Link](num + “is odd”);

[Link](
(num % 2 == 0)? num + “is even” :
num + “is odd”);

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 Conditional Operator, cont.
boolean-expression ? exp1 : exp2

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 Operator Precedence
var++, var--
+, - (Unary plus and minus), ++var,--var
(type) Casting
! (Not)
*, /, % (Multiplication, division, and remainder)
+, - (Binary addition and subtraction)
<, <=, >, >= (Relational operators)
==, !=; (Equality)
^ (Exclusive OR)
&& (Conditional AND) Short-circuit AND
|| (Conditional OR) Short-circuit OR
=, +=, -=, *=, /=, %= (Assignment operator)

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 Operator Precedence and Associativity
The expression in the parentheses is evaluated first.
(Parentheses can be nested, in which case the expression
in the inner parentheses is executed first.) When
evaluating an expression without parentheses, the
operators are applied according to the precedence rule and
the associativity rule.

If operators with the same precedence are next to each

other, their associativity determines the order of
evaluation. All binary operators except assignment
operators are left-associative.

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 Operator Associativity
When two operators with the same precedence
are evaluated, the associativity of the operators
determines the order of evaluation. All binary
operators except assignment operators are left-
associative.
a – b + c – d is equivalent to ((a – b) + c) – d
Assignment operators are right-associative.
Therefore, the expression
a = b += c = 5 is equivalent to a = (b += (c = 5))

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 Example
Applying the operator precedence and associativity rule,
the expression 3 + 4 * 4 > 5 * (4 + 3) - 1 is evaluated as
follows:

3 + 4 * 4 > 5 * (4 + 3) - 1
(1) inside parentheses first
3 + 4 * 4 > 5 * 7 – 1
(2) multiplication
3 + 16 > 5 * 7 – 1
(3) multiplication
3 + 16 > 35 – 1
(4) addition
19 > 35 – 1
(5) subtraction
19 > 34
(6) greater than
false
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Companion
Website
Operand Evaluation Order
Supplement III.A, “Advanced discussions on
how an expression is evaluated in the JVM.”

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 Debugging
Logic errors are called bugs. The process of finding and
correcting errors is called debugging. A common approach
to debugging is to use a combination of methods to narrow
down to the part of the program where the bug is located.
You can hand-trace the program (i.e., catch errors by
reading the program), or you can insert print statements in
order to show the values of the variables or the execution
flow of the program. This approach might work for a short,
simple program. But for a large, complex program, the
most effective approach for debugging is to use a debugger
utility.

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 Debugger
Debugger is a program that facilitates debugging.
You can use a debugger to

Execute a single statement at a time.

Trace into or stepping over a method.
Set breakpoints.
Display variables.
Display call stack.
Modify variables.

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Companion
Website Debugging in NetBeans

Supplement II.E, Learning Java Effectively with

NetBeans

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Companion
Website Debugging in Eclipse

Supplement II.G, Learning Java Effectively with

Eclipse

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Chapter 4 Mathematical Functions,
Characters, and Strings

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 Motivations
Suppose you need to estimate the area enclosed by four
cities, given the GPS locations (latitude and longitude) of
these cities, as shown in the following diagram. How
would you write a program to solve this problem? You will
be able to write such a program after completing this
chapter.

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 Objectives
F To solve mathematics problems by using the methods in the Math class (§4.2).
F To represent characters using the char type (§4.3).
F To encode characters using ASCII and Unicode (§4.3.1).
F To represent special characters using the escape sequences (§4.4.2).
F To cast a numeric value to a character and cast a character to an integer (§4.3.3).
F To compare and test characters using the static methods in the Character class (§4.3.4).
F To introduce objects and instance methods (§4.4).
F To represent strings using the String objects (§4.4).
F To return the string length using the length() method (§4.4.1).
F To return a character in the string using the charAt(i) method (§4.4.2).
F To use the + operator to concatenate strings (§4.4.3).
F To read strings from the console (§4.4.4).
F To read a character from the console (§4.4.5).
F To compare strings using the equals method and the compareTo methods (§4.4.6).
F To obtain substrings (§4.4.7).
F To find a character or a substring in a string using the indexOf method (§4.4.8).
F To program using characters and strings (GuessBirthday) (§4.5.1).
F To convert a hexadecimal character to a decimal value (HexDigit2Dec) (§4.5.2).
F To revise the lottery program using strings (LotteryUsingStrings) (§4.5.3).
F To format output using the [Link] method (§4.6).

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 Mathematical Functions
Java provides many useful methods in the Math
class for performing common mathematical
functions.

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 The Math Class
F Class constants:
– PI
–E
F Class methods:
– Trigonometric Methods
– Exponent Methods
– Rounding Methods
– min, max, abs, and random Methods

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 Trigonometric Methods
F sin(double a) Examples:

F cos(double a)
[Link](0) returns 0.0
F tan(double a) [Link]([Link] / 6)
returns 0.5
F acos(double a) [Link]([Link] / 2)
returns 1.0
F asin(double a)
[Link](0) returns 1.0
F atan(double a) [Link]([Link] / 6)
returns 0.866
[Link]([Link] / 2)
Radians returns 0
toRadians(90)
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 Exponent Methods
F exp(double a) Examples:
Returns e raised to the power of a.
[Link](1) returns 2.71
F log(double a)
[Link](2.71) returns 1.0
Returns the natural logarithm of a.
[Link](2, 3) returns 8.0
F log10(double a) [Link](3, 2) returns 9.0
Returns the 10-based logarithm of [Link](3.5, 2.5) returns
a. 22.91765
[Link](4) returns 2.0
F pow(double a, double b)
[Link](10.5) returns 3.24
Returns a raised to the power of b.
F sqrt(double a)
Returns the square root of a.

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 Rounding Methods
F double ceil(double x)
x rounded up to its nearest integer. This integer is returned as a double
value.
F double floor(double x)
x is rounded down to its nearest integer. This integer is returned as a
double value.
F double rint(double x)
x is rounded to its nearest integer. If x is equally close to two integers,
the even one is returned as a double.
F int round(float x)
Return (int)[Link](x+0.5).
F long round(double x)
Return (long)[Link](x+0.5).

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 Rounding Methods Examples
[Link](2.1) returns 3.0
[Link](2.0) returns 2.0
[Link](-2.0) returns –2.0
[Link](-2.1) returns -2.0
[Link](2.1) returns 2.0
[Link](2.0) returns 2.0
[Link](-2.0) returns –2.0
[Link](-2.1) returns -3.0
[Link](2.1) returns 2.0
[Link](2.0) returns 2.0
[Link](-2.0) returns –2.0
[Link](-2.1) returns -2.0
[Link](2.5) returns 2.0
[Link](-2.5) returns -2.0
[Link](2.6f) returns 3
[Link](2.0) returns 2
[Link](-2.0f) returns -2
[Link](-2.6) returns -3
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 min, max, and abs
F max(a, b)and min(a, b) Examples:
Returns the maximum or
minimum of two parameters. [Link](2, 3) returns 3
F abs(a) [Link](2.5, 3) returns
Returns the absolute value of the 3.0
parameter. [Link](2.5, 3.6)
F random() returns 2.5
Returns a random double value [Link](-2) returns 2
in the range [0.0, 1.0). [Link](-2.1) returns
2.1

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 The random Method
Generates a random double value greater than or equal to 0.0 and less
than 1.0 (0 <= [Link]() < 1.0).

Examples:

Returns a random integer

(int)([Link]() * 10)
between 0 and 9.

50 + (int)([Link]() * 50) Returns a random integer

between 50 and 99.

In general,

a + [Link]() * b Returns a random number between

a and a + b, excluding a + b.

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 Case Study: Computing Angles
of a Triangle
x2, y2
A = acos((a * a - b * b - c * c) / (-2 * b * c))
a B = acos((b * b - a * a - c * c) / (-2 * a * c))
B
c C = acos((c * c - b * b - a * a) / (-2 * a * b))
C
A x3, y3
b
x1, y1

Write a program that prompts the user to enter the

x- and y-coordinates of the three corner points in a
triangle and then displays the triangle’s angles.
IMPORTANT NOTE: If you cannot run the buttons, see
[Link]
ComputeAngles Run

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 Character Data Type
Four hexadecimal digits.
char letter = 'A'; (ASCII)
char numChar = '4'; (ASCII)
char letter = '\u0041'; (Unicode)
char numChar = '\u0034'; (Unicode)

NOTE: The increment and decrement operators can also be used

on char variables to get the next or preceding Unicode character.
For example, the following statements display character b.
char ch = 'a';
[Link](++ch);
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 Unicode Format
Java characters use Unicode, a 16-bit encoding scheme
established by the Unicode Consortium to support the
interchange, processing, and display of written texts in the
world’s diverse languages. Unicode takes two bytes,
preceded by \u, expressed in four hexadecimal numbers
that run from '\u0000' to '\uFFFF'. So, Unicode can
represent 65535 + 1 characters.
Unicode \u03b1 \u03b2 \u03b3 for three Greek
letters

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 ASCII Code for Commonly Used
Characters
Characters Code Value in Decimal Unicode Value

'0' to '9' 48 to 57 \u0030 to \u0039

'A' to 'Z' 65 to 90 \u0041 to \u005A
'a' to 'z' 97 to 122 \u0061 to \u007A

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Escape Sequences for Special Characters

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 Appendix B: ASCII Character Set
ASCII Character Set is a subset of the Unicode from \u0000 to \u007f

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 ASCII Character Set, cont.
ASCII Character Set is a subset of the Unicode from \u0000 to \u007f

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 Casting between char and
Numeric Types
int i = 'a'; // Same as int i = (int)'a';

char c = 97; // Same as char c = (char)97;

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 Comparing and Testing
Characters
if (ch >= 'A' && ch <= 'Z')
[Link](ch + " is an uppercase letter");
else if (ch >= 'a' && ch <= 'z')
[Link](ch + " is a lowercase letter");
else if (ch >= '0' && ch <= '9')
[Link](ch + " is a numeric character");

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20
 Methods in the Character Class
Method Description

isDigit(ch) Returns true if the specified character is a digit.

isLetter(ch) Returns true if the specified character is a letter.
isLetterOfDigit(ch) Returns true if the specified character is a letter or digit.
isLowerCase(ch) Returns true if the specified character is a lowercase letter.
isUpperCase(ch) Returns true if the specified character is an uppercase letter.
toLowerCase(ch) Returns the lowercase of the specified character.
toUpperCase(ch) Returns the uppercase of the specified character.

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 The String Type
The char type only represents one character. To represent a string
of characters, use the data type called String. For example,

String message = "Welcome to Java";

String is actually a predefined class in the Java library just like the
System class and Scanner class. The String type is not a primitive
type. It is known as a reference type. Any Java class can be used
as a reference type for a variable. Reference data types will be
thoroughly discussed in Chapter 9, “Objects and Classes.” For the
time being, you just need to know how to declare a String
variable, how to assign a string to the variable, how to concatenate
strings, and to perform simple operations for strings.
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Simple Methods for String Objects
Method Description

length() Returns the number of characters in this string.

charAt(index) Returns the character at the specified index from this string.
concat(s1) Returns a new string that concatenates this string with string s1.
toUpperCase() Returns a new string with all letters in uppercase.
toLowerCase() Returns a new string with all letters in lowercase.
trim() Returns a new string with whitespace characters trimmed on both sides.

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Simple Methods for String Objects
Strings are objects in Java. The methods in the preceding
table can only be invoked from a specific string instance.
For this reason, these methods are called instance methods.
A non-instance method is called a static method. A static
method can be invoked without using an object. All the
methods defined in the Math class are static methods. They
are not tied to a specific object instance. The syntax to
invoke an instance method is

[Link](arguments).

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24
 Getting String Length
String message = "Welcome to Java";
[Link]("The length of " + message + " is "
+ [Link]());

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 Getting Characters from a String

String message = "Welcome to Java";

[Link]("The first character in message is "
+ [Link](0));

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 Converting Strings
"Welcome".toLowerCase() returns a new string, welcome.
"Welcome".toUpperCase() returns a new string,
WELCOME.
" Welcome ".trim() returns a new string, Welcome.

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 String Concatenation
String s3 = [Link](s2); or String s3 = s1 + s2;

// Three strings are concatenated

String message = "Welcome " + "to " + "Java";

// String Chapter is concatenated with number 2

String s = "Chapter" + 2; // s becomes Chapter2

// String Supplement is concatenated with character B

String s1 = "Supplement" + 'B'; // s1 becomes SupplementB

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 Reading a String from the Console
Scanner input = new Scanner([Link]);
[Link]("Enter three words separated by spaces: ");
String s1 = [Link]();
String s2 = [Link]();
String s3 = [Link]();
[Link]("s1 is " + s1);
[Link]("s2 is " + s2);
[Link]("s3 is " + s3);

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 Reading a Character from the
Console
Scanner input = new Scanner([Link]);
[Link]("Enter a character: ");
String s = [Link]();
char ch = [Link](0);
[Link]("The character entered is " + ch);

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 Comparing Strings
Method Description

equals(s1) Returns true if this string is equal to string s1.

equalsIgnoreCase(s1) Returns true if this string is equal to string s1; it is case insensitive.
compareTo(s1) Returns an integer greater than 0, equal to 0, or less than 0 to indicate whether
this string is greater than, equal to, or less than s1.
compareToIgnoreCase(s1) Same as compareTo except that the comparison is case insensitive.
startsWith(prefix) Returns true if this string starts with the specified prefix.
endsWith(suffix) Returns true if this string ends with the specified suffix.

OrderTwoCities Run

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 Obtaining Substrings
Method Description

substring(beginIndex) Returns this string’s substring that begins with the character at the specified
beginIndex and extends to the end of the string, as shown in Figure 4.2.

substring(beginIndex, Returns this string’s substring that begins at the specified beginIndex and
endIndex) extends to the character at index endIndex – 1, as shown in Figure 9.6.
Note that the character at endIndex is not part of the substring.

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Finding a Character or a Substring
in a String
Method Description

indexOf(ch) Returns the index of the first occurrence of ch in the string. Returns -1 if not
matched.
indexOf(ch, fromIndex) Returns the index of the first occurrence of ch after fromIndex in the string.
Returns -1 if not matched.
indexOf(s) Returns the index of the first occurrence of string s in this string. Returns -1 if
not matched.
indexOf(s, fromIndex) Returns the index of the first occurrence of string s in this string after
fromIndex. Returns -1 if not matched.
lastIndexOf(ch) Returns the index of the last occurrence of ch in the string. Returns -1 if not
matched.
lastIndexOf(ch, Returns the index of the last occurrence of ch before fromIndex in this
fromIndex) string. Returns -1 if not matched.
lastIndexOf(s) Returns the index of the last occurrence of string s. Returns -1 if not matched.
lastIndexOf(s, Returns the index of the last occurrence of string s before fromIndex.
fromIndex) Returns -1 if not matched.

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Finding a Character or a Substring
in a String
int k = [Link](' ');
String firstName = [Link](0, k);
String lastName = [Link](k + 1);

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 Conversion between Strings and
Numbers
int intValue = [Link](intString);
double doubleValue = [Link](doubleString);

String s = number + "";

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 Problem: Guessing Birthday
The program can guess your birth date. Run
to see how it works.

GuessBirthday Run

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 Mathematics Basis for the Game
19 is 10011 in binary. 7 is 111 in binary. 23 is 11101 in binary
10000
10000 00110 1000
10 10 100
+ 1 + 1 + 1
10011 00111 11101

19 7 23

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 Case Study: Converting a
Hexadecimal Digit to a Decimal Value
Write a program that converts a hexadecimal digit
into a decimal value.

HexDigit2Dec Run

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38
 Case Study: Revising the
Lottery Program Using Strings
A problem can be solved using many different approaches.
This section rewrites the lottery program in Listing 3.7
using strings. Using strings simplifies this program.

LotteryUsingStrings Run

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39
 Formatting Output
Use the printf statement.
[Link](format, items);
Where format is a string that may consist of substrings and
format specifiers. A format specifier specifies how an item
should be displayed. An item may be a numeric value,
character, boolean value, or a string. Each specifier begins
with a percent sign.

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 Frequently-Used Specifiers
Specifier Output Example
%b a boolean value true or false
%c a character 'a'
%d a decimal integer 200
%f a floating-point number 45.460000
%e a number in standard scientific notation 4.556000e+01
%s a string "Java is cool"

int count = 5;
items
double amount = 45.56;
[Link]("count is %d and amount is %f", count, amount);

display count is 5 and amount is 45.560000

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 FormatDemo

The example gives a program that uses printf to display a

table.

FormatDemo Run

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 Chapter 5 Loops

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1
 Motivations
Suppose that you need to print a string (e.g.,
"Welcome to Java!") a hundred times. It would be
tedious to have to write the following statement a
hundred times:

[Link]("Welcome to Java!");

So, how do you solve this problem?

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 Opening Problem
Problem:
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
100
times
…
…
…
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
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 Introducing while Loops
int count = 0;
while (count < 100) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java");
count++;
}

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 Objectives
▪ To write programs for executing statements repeatedly using a while loop
(§5.2).
▪ To follow the loop design strategy to develop loops (§§5.2.1–5.2.3).
▪ To control a loop with a sentinel value (§5.2.4).
▪ To obtain large input from a file using input redirection rather than typing
from the keyboard (§5.2.5).
▪ To write loops using do-while statements (§5.3).
▪ To write loops using for statements (§5.4).
▪ To discover the similarities and differences of three types of loop statements
(§5.5).
▪ To write nested loops (§5.6).
▪ To learn the techniques for minimizing numerical errors (§5.7).
▪ To learn loops from a variety of examples (GCD, FutureTuition,
Dec2Hex) (§5.8).
▪ To implement program control with break and continue (§5.9).
▪ To write a program that displays prime numbers (§5.11).

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5
 while Loop Flow Chart
int count = 0;
while (loop-continuation-condition) {
while (count < 100) {
// loop-body;
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
Statement(s); count++;
} }

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animation

Trace while Loop

Initialize count
int count = 0;
while (count < 2) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
count++;
}

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animation

Trace while Loop, cont.

(count < 2) is true
int count = 0;
while (count < 2) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
count++;
}

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animation

Trace while Loop, cont.

Print Welcome to Java
int count = 0;
while (count < 2) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
count++;
}

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animation

Trace while Loop, cont.

Increase count by 1
int count = 0; count is 1 now

while (count < 2) {

[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
count++;
}

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animation

Trace while Loop, cont.

(count < 2) is still true since count
int count = 0; is 1

while (count < 2) {

[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
count++;
}

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animation

Trace while Loop, cont.

Print Welcome to Java
int count = 0;
while (count < 2) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
count++;
}

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animation

Trace while Loop, cont.

Increase count by 1
int count = 0; count is 2 now

while (count < 2) {

[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
count++;
}

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animation

Trace while Loop, cont.

(count < 2) is false since count is 2
int count = 0; now

while (count < 2) {

[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
count++;
}

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animation

Trace while Loop

The loop exits. Execute the next
int count = 0; statement after the loop.

while (count < 2) {

[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
count++;
}

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15
 Problem: Repeat Addition Until Correct

Recall that Listing 3.1 [Link] gives a

program that prompts the user to enter an answer
for a question on addition of two single digits.
Using a loop, you can now rewrite the program to
let the user enter a new answer until it is correct.

IMPORTANT NOTE: If you cannot run the buttons, see

[Link]

RepeatAdditionQuiz Run

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16
 Problem: Guessing Numbers
Write a program that randomly generates an
integer between 0 and 100, inclusive. The program
prompts the user to enter a number continuously
until the number matches the randomly generated
number. For each user input, the program tells the
user whether the input is too low or too high, so
the user can choose the next input intelligently.
Here is a sample run:
GuessNumberOneTime Run

GuessNumber Run

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17
Problem: An Advanced Math Learning Tool

The Math subtraction learning tool program

generates just one question for each run. You can
use a loop to generate questions repeatedly. This
example gives a program that generates five
questions and reports the number of the correct
answers after a student answers all five questions.

SubtractionQuizLoop Run

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18
Ending a Loop with a Sentinel Value
Often the number of times a loop is executed is not
predetermined. You may use an input value to
signify the end of the loop. Such a value is known
as a sentinel value.

Write a program that reads and calculates the sum

of an unspecified number of integers. The input 0
signifies the end of the input.
SentinelValue Run

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19
 Caution
Don’t use floating-point values for equality checking in a
loop control. Since floating-point values are
approximations for some values, using them could result
in imprecise counter values and inaccurate results.
Consider the following code for computing 1 + 0.9 + 0.8
+ ... + 0.1:
double item = 1; double sum = 0;
while (item != 0) { // No guarantee item will be 0
sum += item;
item -= 0.1;
}
[Link](sum);
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 do-while Loop

The difference between a while loop and a do-

while loop is the order in which the loop
continuation-condition is evaluated and the loop
body is executed. In the case of a do-while loop,
the loop body is executed at least once.

do {
// Loop body;
Statement(s);
} while (loop-continuation-condition);

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 do-while Loop

TestDoWhile

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 for Loops
for (initial-action; loop- int i;
continuation-condition; action- for (i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
after-each-iteration) { [Link](
// loop body;
Statement(s); "Welcome to Java!");
} }

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 for Loops

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animation

Trace for Loop

Declare i
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
[Link](
"Welcome to Java!");
}

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25
animation

Trace for Loop, cont.

Execute initializer
int i; i is now 0
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
[Link](
"Welcome to Java!");
}

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animation

Trace for Loop, cont.

(i < 2) is true
int i; since i is 0
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
[Link]( "Welcome to Java!");
}

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animation

Trace for Loop, cont.

Print Welcome to Java
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}

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animation

Trace for Loop, cont.

Execute adjustment statement
int i; i now is 1
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}

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animation

Trace for Loop, cont.

(i < 2) is still true
int i; since i is 1
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}

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animation

Trace for Loop, cont.

Print Welcome to Java
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}

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animation

Trace for Loop, cont.

Execute adjustment statement
int i; i now is 2
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}

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animation

Trace for Loop, cont.

(i < 2) is false
int i; since i is 2
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}

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animation

Trace for Loop, cont.

Exit the loop. Execute the next
int i; statement after the loop
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
[Link]("Welcome to Java!");
}

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 Note
The initial-action in a for loop can be a list of zero or more
comma-separated expressions. The action-after-each-
iteration in a for loop can be a list of zero or more comma-
separated statements. Therefore, the following two for
loops are correct. They are rarely used in practice,
however.
for (int i = 1; i < 100; [Link](i++));

for (int i = 0, j = 0; (i + j < 10); i++, j++) {

// Do something
}
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 Note
If the loop-continuation-condition in a for loop is omitted,
it is implicitly true. Thus the statement given below in (a),
which is an infinite loop, is correct. Nevertheless, it is
better to use the equivalent loop in (b) to avoid confusion:

for ( ; ; ) { Equivalent while (true) {

// Do something // Do something
} }
(a) (b)

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 Caution
Adding a semicolon at the end of the for clause before
the loop body is a common mistake, as shown below:
Logic
Error

for (int i=0; i<10; i++);

{
[Link]("i is " + i);
}

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 Caution, cont.
Similarly, the following loop is also wrong:
int i=0;
while (i < 10); Logic Error
{
[Link]("i is " + i);
i++;
}
In the case of the do loop, the following semicolon is
needed to end the loop.
int i=0;
do {
[Link]("i is " + i);
i++;
} while (i<10); Correct

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 Which Loop to Use?
The three forms of loop statements, while, do-while, and for, are
expressively equivalent; that is, you can write a loop in any of these
three forms. For example, a while loop in (a) in the following figure
can always be converted into the following for loop in (b):
while (loop-continuation-condition) { Equivalent for ( ; loop-continuation-condition; )
// Loop body // Loop body
} }
(a) (b)

A for loop in (a) in the following figure can generally be converted into the
following while loop in (b) except in certain special cases (see CheckPoint
Question 5.12.2 in Section 5.12 for such a case ):
for (initial-action; initial-action;
loop-continuation-condition; Equivalent while (loop-continuation-condition) {
action-after-each-iteration) { // Loop body;
// Loop body; action-after-each-iteration;
} }
(a) (b)
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 Recommendations
Use the one that is most intuitive and comfortable for
you. In general, a for loop may be used if the number of
repetitions is known, as, for example, when you need to
print a message 100 times. A while loop may be used if
the number of repetitions is not known, as in the case of
reading the numbers until the input is 0. A do-while loop
can be used to replace a while loop if the loop body has to
be executed before testing the continuation condition.

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 Nested Loops
Problem: Write a program that uses nested for
loops to print a multiplication table.

MultiplicationTable Run

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 Minimizing Numerical Errors
Numeric errors involving floating-point
numbers are inevitable. This section discusses
how to minimize such errors through an
example.

Here is an example that sums a series that

starts with 0.01 and ends with 1.0. The
numbers in the series will increment by 0.01,
as follows: 0.01 + 0.02 + 0.03 and so on.
TestSum Run

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42
 Problem:
Finding the Greatest Common Divisor
Problem: Write a program that prompts the user to enter two positive
integers and finds their greatest common divisor.
Solution: Suppose you enter two integers 4 and 2, their greatest
common divisor is 2. Suppose you enter two integers 16 and 24, their
greatest common divisor is 8. So, how do you find the greatest common
divisor? Let the two input integers be n1 and n2. You know number 1 is
a common divisor, but it may not be the greatest commons divisor. So
you can check whether k (for k = 2, 3, 4, and so on) is a common
divisor for n1 and n2, until k is greater than n1 or n2.

GreatestCommonDivisor Run

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 Problem: Predicting the Future Tuition
Problem: Suppose that the tuition for a university is $10,000 this year
and tuition increases 7% every year. In how many years will the
tuition be doubled?

FutureTuition Run

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Problem: Predicating the Future Tuition
double tuition = 10000; int year = 0 // Year 0
tuition = tuition * 1.07; year++; // Year 1
tuition = tuition * 1.07; year++; // Year 2
tuition = tuition * 1.07; year++; // Year 3
...

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 Case Study: Converting Decimals to
Hexadecimals
Hexadecimals are often used in computer systems programming (see
Appendix F for an introduction to number systems). How do you
convert a decimal number to a hexadecimal number? To convert a
decimal number d to a hexadecimal number is to find the hexadecimal
digits hn, hn-1, hn-2, ... , h2, h1, and h0 such that

d = hn 16n + hn − 1 16n −1 + hn − 2 16n −2 + ... + h2 162 + h1 161 + h0 160

These hexadecimal digits can be found by successively dividing d by

16 until the quotient is 0. The remainders are h0, h1, h2, ... , hn-2, hn-1,
and hn.

Dec2Hex Run

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 Using break and continue
You can use break in a loop to You can use the continue
immediately terminate the loop. keyword in a loop, it ends the
current iteration and program
control goes to the end of the
loop body.

continue breaks out of an iteration

break breaks out of a loop

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 Using break and continue
Examples for using the break and continue
keywords:

[Link]
TestBreak Run

[Link]
TestContinue Run

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48
 break
public class TestBreak {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int sum = 0;
int number = 0;

while (number < 20) {

number++;
sum += number;
if (sum >= 100)
break;
}

[Link]("The number is " + number);

[Link]("The sum is " + sum);
}
}

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 continue
public class TestContinue {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int sum = 0;
int number = 0;

while (number < 20) {

number++;
if (number == 10 || number == 11)
continue;
sum += number;
}

[Link]("The sum is " + sum);

}
} The program adds integers from 1 to 20 except 10 and 11 to sum

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 Break and continue
➢ The continue statement is always inside a loop.

➢ In the while and do-while loops, the loop-continuation-

condition is evaluated immediately after the continue
statement.

➢ In the for loop, the action-after-each-iteration is

performed, then the loop-continuation-condition is
evaluated immediately after the continue statement.

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Break and continue

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 Problem: Checking Palindrome
A string is a palindrome if it reads the same forward and backward.
The words “mom,” “dad,” and “noon,” for instance, are all
palindromes.
The problem is to write a program that prompts the user to enter a
string and reports whether the string is a palindrome. One solution is
to check whether the first character in the string is the same as the last
character. If so, check whether the second character is the same as the
second-to-last character. This process continues until a mismatch is
found or all the characters in the string are checked, except for the
middle character if the string has an odd number of characters.
low high

String s a b c d e f g n h g f e d c b a

Palindrome Run

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Problem: Displaying Prime Numbers
Problem: Write a program that displays the first 50 prime numbers in
five lines, each of which contains 10 numbers. An integer greater than
1 is prime if its only positive divisor is 1 or itself. For example, 2, 3,
5, and 7 are prime numbers, but 4, 6, 8, and 9 are not.
Solution: The problem can be broken into the following tasks:
•For number = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ..., test whether the number is prime.
•Determine whether a given number is prime.
•Count the prime numbers.
•Print each prime number, and print 10 numbers per line.

PrimeNumber Run

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54
 Chapter 6 Methods

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 Opening Problem
Find the sum of integers from 1 to 10, from 20 to 30, and
from 35 to 45, respectively.

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 Problem
int sum = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++)
sum += i;
[Link]("Sum from 1 to 10 is " + sum);

sum = 0;
for (int i = 20; i <= 30; i++)
sum += i;
[Link]("Sum from 20 to 30 is " + sum);

sum = 0;
for (int i = 35; i <= 45; i++)
sum += i;
[Link]("Sum from 35 to 45 is " + sum);

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 Problem
int sum = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++)
sum += i;
[Link]("Sum from 1 to 10 is " + sum);

sum = 0;
for (int i = 20; i <= 30; i++)
sum += i;
[Link]("Sum from 20 to 30 is " + sum);

sum = 0;
for (int i = 35; i <= 45; i++)
sum += i;
[Link]("Sum from 35 to 45 is " + sum);

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 Solution
public static int sum(int i1, int i2) {
int sum = 0;
for (int i = i1; i <= i2; i++)
sum += i;
return sum;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

[Link]("Sum from 1 to 10 is " + sum(1, 10));
[Link]("Sum from 20 to 30 is " + sum(20, 30));
[Link]("Sum from 35 to 45 is " + sum(35, 45));
}
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Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Tenth Edition, (c) 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All
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 Objectives
▪ To define methods with formal parameters (§6.2).
▪ To invoke methods with actual parameters (i.e., arguments) (§6.2).
▪ To define methods with a return value (§6.3).
▪ To define methods without a return value (§6.4).
▪ To pass arguments by value (§6.5).
▪ To develop reusable code that is modular, easy to read, easy to debug, and
easy to maintain (§6.6).
▪ To write a method that converts hexadecimals to decimals (§6.7).
▪ To use method overloading and understand ambiguous overloading
(§6.8).
▪ To determine the scope of variables (§6.9).
▪ To apply the concept of method abstraction in software development
(§6.10).
▪ To design and implement methods using stepwise refinement (§6.10).

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 Defining Methods
A method is a collection of statements that are
grouped together to perform an operation.

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 Defining Methods
A method is a collection of statements that are
grouped together to perform an operation.

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 Method Signature
Method signature is the combination of the method name and the
parameter list.

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 Formal Parameters
The variables defined in the method header/declaration
are known as formal parameters.

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 Actual Parameters
When a method is invoked, you pass a value to the parameter. This
value is referred to as actual parameter or argument.

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 Return Value Type
A method may return a value. The returnValueType is the data type
of the value the method returns. If the method does not return a
value, the returnValueType is the keyword void. For example, the
returnValueType in the main method is void.

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 Calling Methods
Testing the max method
This program demonstrates calling a method max
to return the largest of the int values

Animatio
n
TestMax

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animation

Calling Methods, cont.

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animation

Trace Method Invocation

i is now 5

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animation

Trace Method Invocation

j is now 2

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animation

Trace Method Invocation

invoke max(i, j)

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animation

Trace Method Invocation

invoke max(i, j)
Pass the value of i to num1
Pass the value of j to num2

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animation

Trace Method Invocation

declare variable result

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animation

Trace Method Invocation

(num1 > num2) is true since num1
is 5 and num2 is 2

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animation

Trace Method Invocation

result is now 5

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animation

Trace Method Invocation

return result, which is 5

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animation

Trace Method Invocation

return max(i, j) and assign the
return value to k

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animation

Trace Method Invocation

Execute the print statement

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 CAUTION
A return statement is required for a value-returning method. The
method shown below in (a) is logically correct, but it has a
compilation error because the Java compiler thinks it possible that
this method does not return any value.

To fix this problem, delete if (n < 0) in (a), so that the compiler will
see a return statement to be reached regardless of how the if
statement is evaluated.
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rights reserved. 26
 Reuse Methods from Other Classes
NOTE: One of the benefits of methods is for reuse. The max
method can be invoked from any class besides TestMax. If
you create a new class Test, you can invoke the max method
using [Link] (e.g., [Link]).
Notes:
●The syntax to invoke an instance method is
[Link](arguments).
●A method may have many arguments or no arguments.
●For example, the charAt(index) method has one argument, but the
length() method has no arguments. Recall that the syntax to invoke
a static method is [Link](arguments).
●For example, the pow method in the Math class can be invoked
using [Link](2, 2.5).
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 Call Stacks

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animation

Trace Call Stack

i is declared and initialized

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animation

Trace Call Stack

j is declared and initialized

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animation

Trace Call Stack

Declare k

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animation

Trace Call Stack

Invoke max(i, j)

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animation

Trace Call Stack

pass the values of i and j to num1
and num2

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animation

Trace Call Stack

Declare result

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animation

Trace Call Stack

(num1 > num2) is true

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animation

Trace Call Stack

Assign num1 to result

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animation

Trace Call Stack

Return result and assign it to k

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animation

Trace Call Stack

Execute print statement

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 void Method Example
This type of method does not return a value. The method
performs some actions.

TestVoidMethod

TestReturnGradeMethod

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 Passing Parameters
public static void nPrintln(String message, int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
[Link](message);
}

Suppose you invoke the method using

nPrintln(“Welcome to Java”, 5);
What is the output?

Suppose you invoke the method using

nPrintln(“Computer Science”, 15);
What is the output?

Can you invoke the method using

nPrintln(15, “Computer Science”);
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 Pass by Value

This program demonstrates passing values

to the methods.

Increment

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 Pass by Value

Testing Pass by value

This program demonstrates passing values
to the methods.

TestPassByValue

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 Pass by Value, cont.

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 Modularizing Code
Methods can be used to reduce redundant coding
and enable code reuse. Methods can also be used to
modularize code and improve the quality of the
program.
GreatestCommonDivisorMethod

PrimeNumberMethod

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Case Study: Converting Hexadecimals
to Decimals
Write a method that converts a hexadecimal
number into a decimal number.
ABCD =>
A*16^3 + B*16^2 + C*16^1+ D*16^0
= ((A*16 + B)*16 + C)*16+D
= ((10*16 + 11)*16 + 12)*16+13 = ?

Hex2Dec
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 Overloading Methods
Overloading the max Method
● Overloading methods enables you to define the methods
with the same name as long as their signatures are
different.

public static double max(double num1, double

num2) {
if (num1 > num2)
return num1;
else
return num2;
}
TestMethodOverloading

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 Ambiguous Invocation
Sometimes there may be two or more possible
matches for an invocation of a method, but the
compiler cannot determine the most specific
match. This is referred to as ambiguous
invocation. Ambiguous invocation is a
compile error.

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 Ambiguous Invocation
public class AmbiguousOverloading {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link](max(1, 2));
// 1 and 2 are two int literals, so there is no
//error to use both methods
}

public static double max(int num1, double num2) {

if (num1 > num2)
return num1;
else
return num2;
}

public static double max(double num1, int num2) {

if (num1 > num2)
return num1;
else
return num2;
}
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} rights reserved. 48
 Scope of Local Variables
A local variable: a variable defined inside a
method.
Scope: the part of the program where the
variable can be referenced.
The scope of a local variable starts from its
declaration and continues to the end of the
block that contains the variable. A local
variable must be declared before it can be
used.
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 Scope of Local Variables, cont.
You can declare a local variable with the
same name multiple times in different
non-nesting blocks in a method, but you
cannot declare a local variable twice in nested
blocks.

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 Scope of Local Variables, cont.
A variable declared in the initial action part of a for loop
header has its scope in the entire loop. But a variable
declared inside a for loop body has its scope limited in the
loop body from its declaration and to the end of the block
that contains the variable.

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Scope of Local Variables, cont.

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 Scope of Local Variables, cont.
// Fine with no errors
public static void correctMethod() {
int x = 1;
int y = 1;
// i is declared
for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
x += i;
}
// i is declared again
for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
y += i;
}
}
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 Scope of Local Variables, cont.
// With errors
public static void incorrectMethod() {
int x = 1;
int y = 1;
for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
int x = 0;
x += i;
}
}

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 Method Abstraction
You can think of the method body as a black box
that contains the detailed implementation for the
method.

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 Benefits of Methods
• Write a method once and reuse it anywhere.
• Information hiding. Hide the implementation
from the user.
• Reduce complexity.

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 Case Study: Generating Random
Characters
Computer programs process numerical data and characters.
You have seen many examples that involve numerical data.
It is also important to understand characters and how to
process them.
As introduced in Section 2.9, each character has a unique
Unicode between 0 and FFFF in hexadecimal (65535 in
decimal). To generate a random character is to generate a
random integer between 0 and 65535 using the following
expression: (note that since 0 <= [Link]() < 1.0, you
have to add 1 to 65535.)
(int)([Link]() * (65535 + 1))

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 Case Study: Generating Random
Characters, cont.
Now let us consider how to generate a random
lowercase letter. The Unicode for lowercase letters
are consecutive integers starting from the Unicode
for 'a', then for 'b', 'c', ..., and 'z'. The Unicode for 'a'
is
(int)'a'
So, a random integer between (int)'a' and (int)'z' is
(int)((int)'a' + [Link]() * ((int)'z' - (int)'a' + 1)

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 Case Study: Generating Random
Characters, cont.
Now let us consider how to generate a random
lowercase letter. The Unicode for lowercase letters
are consecutive integers starting from the Unicode
for 'a', then for 'b', 'c', ..., and 'z'. The Unicode for 'a'
is
(int)'a'
So, a random integer between (int)'a' and (int)'z' is
(int)((int)'a' + [Link]() * ((int)'z' - (int)'a' + 1)

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 Case Study: Generating Random
Characters, cont.
As discussed in Chapter 2., all numeric operators
can be applied to the char operands. The char
operand is cast into a number if the other operand
is a number or a character. So, the preceding
expression can be simplified as follows:
'a' + [Link]() * ('z' - 'a' + 1)

So a random lowercase letter is

(char)('a' + [Link]() * ('z' - 'a' + 1))
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 Case Study: Generating Random
Characters, cont.
To generalize the foregoing discussion, a random character
between any two characters ch1 and ch2 with ch1 < ch2
can be generated as follows:

(char)(ch1 + [Link]() * (ch2 – ch1 + 1))

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rights reserved. 61
 The RandomCharacter Class
// [Link]: Generate random characters
public class RandomCharacter {
/** Generate a random character between ch1 and ch2 */
public static char getRandomCharacter(char ch1, char ch2) {
return (char)(ch1 + [Link]() * (ch2 - ch1 + 1));
}

/** Generate a random lowercase letter */

public static char getRandomLowerCaseLetter() {
return getRandomCharacter('a', 'z');
}

/** Generate a random uppercase letter */ RandomCharacter

public static char getRandomUpperCaseLetter() {
return getRandomCharacter('A', 'Z');
}

/** Generate a random digit character */

public static char getRandomDigitCharacter() { TestRandomCharacter
return getRandomCharacter('0', '9');
}

/** Generate a random character */

public static char getRandomCharacter() {
return getRandomCharacter('\u0000', '\uFFFF');
}
}

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 Stepwise Refinement (Optional)
The concept of method abstraction can be applied
to the process of developing programs. When
writing a large program, you can use the “divide
and conquer” strategy, also known as stepwise
refinement, to decompose it into subproblems. The
subproblems can be further decomposed into
smaller, more manageable problems.

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rights reserved. 63
 PrintCalender Case Study
Let us use the PrintCalendar example to demonstrate the
stepwise refinement approach.

PrintCalendar

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 Design Diagram

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 Design Diagram

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 Design Diagram

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 Design Diagram

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 Design Diagram

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 Design Diagram

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 Design Diagram

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 Implementation: Top-Down
Top-down approach is to implement one method in the
structure chart at a time from the top to the bottom. Stubs
can be used for the methods waiting to be implemented. A
stub is a simple but incomplete version of a method. The
use of stubs enables you to test invoking the method from
a caller. Implement the main method first and then use a
stub for the printMonth method. For example, let
printMonth display the year and the month in the stub.
Thus, your program may begin like this:

A Skeleton for printCalendar

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 Implementation: Bottom-Up
Bottom-up approach is to implement one method in the
structure chart at a time from the bottom to the top. For
each method implemented, write a test program to test it.
Both top-down and bottom-up methods are fine. Both
approaches implement the methods incrementally and
help to isolate programming errors and makes debugging
easy. Sometimes, they can be used together.

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rights reserved. 73
 Benefits of Stepwise Refinement
Simpler Program

Reusing Methods

Easier Developing, Debugging, and Testing

Better Facilitating Teamwork

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rights reserved. 74
Chapter 7 Single-Dimensional
Arrays

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 Opening Problem
Read one hundred numbers, compute their
average, and find out how many numbers are
above the average.

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rights reserved. 2
 Objectives
● To describe why arrays are necessary in programming (§7.1).
● To declare array reference variables and create arrays (§§7.2.1–7.2.2).
● To obtain array size using [Link] and know default values in an array (§7.2.3).
● To access array elements using indexes (§7.2.4).
● To declare, create, and initialize an array using an array initializer (§7.2.5).
● To program common array operations (displaying arrays, summing all elements, finding the
minimum and maximum elements, random shuffling, and shifting elements) (§7.2.6).
● To simplify programming using the foreach loops (§7.2.7).
● To apply arrays in application development (AnalyzeNumbers, DeckOfCards) (§§7.3–7.4).
● To copy contents from one array to another (§7.5).
● To develop and invoke methods with array arguments and return values (§§7.6–7.8).
● To define a method with a variable-length argument list (§7.9).
● To search elements using the linear (§7.10.1) or binary (§7.10.2) search algorithm.
● To sort an array using the selection sort approach (§7.11).
● To use the methods in the [Link] class (§7.12).
● To pass arguments to the main method from the command line (§7.13).

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 Introducing Arrays
Array is a data structure that represents a collection of the
same types of data.

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 Declaring Array Variables
● datatype[] arrayRefVar;
Example:
double[] myList;

● datatype arrayRefVar[]; // This style is

allowed, but not preferred
Example:
double myList[];

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 Creating Arrays
arrayRefVar = new datatype[arraySize];

Example:
myList = new double[10];

myList[0] references the first element in the array.

myList[9] references the last element in the array.

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 Declaring and Creating
in One Step
● datatype[] arrayRefVar = new
datatype[arraySize];
double[] myList = new double[10];

● datatype arrayRefVar[] = new

datatype[arraySize];
double myList[] = new double[10];

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rights reserved. 7
 The Length of an Array
Once an array is created, its size is fixed. It cannot be
changed. You can find its size using

[Link]

For example,

[Link] returns 10

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 Default Values
When an array is created, its elements are
assigned the default value of

0 for the numeric primitive data types,

'\u0000' for char types, and
false for boolean types.

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rights reserved. 9
 Indexed Variables
The array elements are accessed through the index. The
array indices are 0-based, i.e., it starts from 0 to
[Link]-1. In the example in Figure 6.1,
myList holds ten double values and the indices are
from 0 to 9.

Each element in the array is represented using the

following syntax, known as an indexed variable:

arrayRefVar[index];

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 Using Indexed Variables
After an array is created, an indexed variable can
be used in the same way as a regular variable.
For example, the following code adds the value
in myList[0] and myList[1] to myList[2].

myList[2] = myList[0] + myList[1];

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 Array Initializers
● Declaring, creating, initializing in one step:
double[] myList = {1.9, 2.9, 3.4, 3.5};

This shorthand syntax must be in one

statement.

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rights reserved. 12
 Declaring, creating, initializing
Using the Shorthand Notation
double[] myList = {1.9, 2.9, 3.4, 3.5};

This shorthand notation is equivalent to the

following statements:
double[] myList = new double[4];
myList[0] = 1.9;
myList[1] = 2.9;
myList[2] = 3.4;
myList[3] = 3.5;

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rights reserved. 13
 CAUTION
Using the shorthand notation, you
have to declare, create, and initialize
the array all in one statement.
Splitting it would cause a syntax
error. For example, the following is
wrong:
double[] myList;

myList = {1.9, 2.9, 3.4, 3.5};

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rights reserved. 14
animation
Trace Program with Arrays
Declare array variable values, create an
array, and assign its reference to values

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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rights reserved. 15
animation
Trace Program with Arrays
i becomes 1

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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rights reserved. 16
animation
Trace Program with Arrays
i (=1) is less than 5

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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rights reserved. 17
animation
Trace Program with Arrays
After this line is executed, value[1] is 1

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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rights reserved. 18
animation

Trace Program with Arrays

After i++, i becomes 2

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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animation
Trace Program with Arrays
i (= 2) is less than 5
public class Test {
public static void main(String[]
args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] +
values[4];
}
}

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animation
Trace Program with Arrays
After this line is executed,
values[2] is 3 (2 + 1)

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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rights reserved. 21
animation
Trace Program with Arrays
After this, i becomes 3.

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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rights reserved. 22
animation
Trace Program with Arrays
i (=3) is still less than 5.

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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rights reserved. 23
animation
Trace Program with Arrays
After this line, values[3] becomes 6 (3 + 3)

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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rights reserved. 24
animation
Trace Program with Arrays
After this, i becomes 4

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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rights reserved. 25
animation
Trace Program with Arrays
i (=4) is still less than 5

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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animation
Trace Program with Arrays
After this, values[4] becomes 10 (4 + 6)

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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animation
Trace Program with Arrays
After i++, i becomes 5

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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animation

Trace Program with Arrays

i ( =5) < 5 is false. Exit the loop

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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animation
Trace Program with Arrays
After this line, values[0] is 11 (1 + 10)

public class Test {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] values = new int[5];
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) {
values[i] = i + values[i-1];
}
values[0] = values[1] + values[4];
}
}

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 Processing Arrays
See the examples in the text.
1. (Initializing arrays with input values)
2. (Initializing arrays with random values)
3. (Printing arrays)
4. (Summing all elements)
5. (Finding the largest element)
6. (Finding the smallest index of the largest element)
7. (Random shuffling)
8. (Shifting elements)

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 Initializing arrays with input values
Double[] mylist= new double[10];
[Link] input = new [Link]([Link]);
[Link]("Enter " + [Link] + " values: ");
for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++)
{
[Link](“please enter the elements value
mylist[”+i+”]”);
myList[i] = [Link]();
}

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 Initializing arrays with random values

for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++) {

myList[i] = [Link]() * 100;
}

A+ [Link]() * b

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 Printing arrays

for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++) {

[Link](“mylist["+i+"]="
myList[i] + " ");
}

//output:
Mylist[0]=2 mylist[1]=
Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Tenth Edition, (c) 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All
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 Summing all elements

double total = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++) {
total += myList[i];
}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Tenth Edition, (c) 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All
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 Finding the largest element
double max = myList[0];
for (int i = 1; i < [Link]; i++) {
if (myList[i] > max)
max = myList[i];
}

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 Random shuffling

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 Shifting Elements

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 Enhanced for Loop (for-each loop)
JDK 1.5 introduced a new for loop that enables you to traverse the complete array
sequentially without using an index variable. For example, the following code
displays all elements in the array myList:

for (double value: myList)

[Link](value);

In general, the syntax is

for (elementType value: arrayRefVar) {

// Process the value
}

You still have to use an index variable if you wish to traverse the array in a
different order or change the elements in the array.

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 Opening Problem
Read one hundred numbers, compute their
average, and find out how many numbers are
above the average.

Animatio
n
AnalyzeNumbers

Run with prepared input

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 Problem: Deck of Cards
The problem is to write a program that picks four cards
randomly from a deck of 52 cards. All the cards can be
represented using an array named deck, filled with initial
values 0 to 51, as follows:

int[] deck = new int[52];

// Initialize cards
for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++)
deck[i] = i;

Animatio
n
DeckOfCards Run
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Problem: Deck of Cards, cont.

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 Problem: Deck of Cards, cont.

GUI Demo (picking four cards) DeckOfCards Run

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 Problem: Deck of Cards
This problem builds a foundation for future more interesting and
realistic applications:

See Exercise 22.15.

Run 24 Point Game

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Companion
Website
Problem: Lotto Numbers
Suppose you play the Pick-10 lotto. Each ticket has
10 unique numbers ranging from 1 to 99. You buy a
lot of tickets. You like to have your tickets to cover
all numbers from 1 to 99. Write a program that
reads the ticket numbers from a file and checks
whether all numbers are covered. Assume the last
number in the file is 0.

Lotto Numbers Sample Data LottoNumbers Run

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Companion
Website
Problem: Lotto Numbers

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 Copying Arrays
Often, in a program, you need to duplicate an array or a part of an array.
In such cases you could attempt to use the assignment statement (=), as
follows:

list2 = list1;

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 Copying Arrays
Using a loop:
int[] sourceArray = {2, 3, 1, 5, 10};
int[] targetArray = new
int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++)

targetArray[i] = sourceArray[i];

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 The arraycopy Utility
arraycopy(sourceArray, src_pos,
targetArray, tar_pos, length);

Example:
[Link](sourceArray, 0,
targetArray, 0, [Link]);

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 Passing Arrays to Methods
public static void printArray(int[] array) {
for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++) {
[Link](array[i] + " ");
}
}

Invoke the method

int[] list = {3, 1, 2, 6, 4, 2};

printArray(list);

Invoke the method

printArray(new int[]{3, 1, 2, 6, 4, 2});

Anonymous array

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 Anonymous Array
The statement
printArray(new int[]{3, 1, 2, 6, 4, 2});
creates an array using the following syntax:
new dataType[]{literal0, literal1, ..., literalk};
There is no explicit reference variable for the array.
Such array is called an anonymous array.

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 Pass By Value
Java uses pass by value to pass arguments to a method. There
are important differences between passing a value of variables
of primitive data types and passing arrays.

● For a parameter of a primitive type value, the actual value is

passed. Changing the value of the local parameter inside the
method does not affect the value of the variable outside the
method.

● For a parameter of an array type, the value of the parameter

contains a reference to an array; this reference is passed to the
method. Any changes to the array that occur inside the
method body will affect the original array that was passed
as the argument.
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 Simple Example
public class Test {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 1; // x represents an int value
int[] y = new int[10]; // y represents an array of int values

m(x, y); // Invoke m with arguments x and y

[Link]("x is " + x);

[Link]("y[0] is " + y[0]);
}

public static void m(int number, int[] numbers) {

number = 1001; // Assign a new value to number
numbers[0] = 5555; // Assign a new value to numbers[0]
}
}
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 Swap Methods

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 Swap Methods (Cont.)

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 Call Stack

When invoking m(x, y), the values of x and y are passed

to number and numbers. Since y contains the reference
value to the array, numbers now contains the same
reference value to the same array.
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rights reserved. 56
 Call Stack

When invoking m(x, y), the values of x and y are

passed to number and numbers. Since y contains the
reference value to the array, numbers now contains the
same reference value to the same array.
Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Tenth Edition, (c) 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All
rights reserved. 57
 Heap

The JVM stores the array in an area of memory,

called heap, which is used for dynamic memory
allocation where blocks of memory are allocated and
freed in an arbitrary order.
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 Passing Arrays as Arguments

● Objective: Demonstrate differences of

passing primitive data type variables
and array variables.

TestPassArray Run

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rights reserved. 59
 Example, cont.

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 Returning an Array from a Method
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) {
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}
list
return result;
} result

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};

int[] list2 = reverse(list1);

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animation

Trace the reverse Method

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
Declare result and create array
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) {
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 0 0 0 0

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
i = 0 and j = 5
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) {
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 0 0 0 0

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
i (= 0) is less than 6
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) {
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 0 0 0 0

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
i = 0 and j = 5
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) { Assign list[0] to result[5]
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 0 0 0 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);

After this, i becomes 1 and j

public static int[] reverse(int[] list) { becomes 4
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 0 0 0 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);

i (=1) is less than 6

public static int[] reverse(int[] list) {
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 0 0 0 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
i = 1 and j = 4
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) { Assign list[1] to result[4]
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 0 0 2 1

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Tenth Edition, (c) 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All
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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
After this, i becomes 2 and j
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) { becomes 3
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 0 0 2 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
i (=2) is still less than 6
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) {
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 0 0 2 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
i = 2 and j = 3
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) { Assign list[i] to result[j]
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 0 3 2 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
After this, i becomes 3 and j
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) { becomes 2
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 0 3 2 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
i (=3) is still less than 6
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) {
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 0 3 2 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
i = 3 and j = 2
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) { Assign list[i] to result[j]
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 4 3 2 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
After this, i becomes 4 and j
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) { becomes 1
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 4 3 2 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
i (=4) is still less than 6
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) {
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 0 4 3 2 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
i = 4 and j = 1
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) { Assign list[i] to result[j]
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 5 4 3 2 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
After this, i becomes 5 and j
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) { becomes 0
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 5 4 3 2 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
i (=5) is still less than 6
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) {
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 0 5 4 3 2 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
i = 5 and j = 0
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) { Assign list[i] to result[j]
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 6 5 4 3 2 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
After this, i becomes 6 and j
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) { becomes -1
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 6 5 4 3 2 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
i (=6) < 6 is false. So exit
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) { the loop.
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

result 6 5 4 3 2 1

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animation

Trace the reverse Method, cont.

int[] list1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6};
int[] list2 = reverse(list1);
Return result
public static int[] reverse(int[] list) {
int[] result = new int[[Link]];

for (int i = 0, j = [Link] - 1;

i < [Link]; i++, j--) {
result[j] = list[i];
}

return result;
}

list 1 2 3 4 5 6

list2
result 6 5 4 3 2 1

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rights reserved. 83
 Problem: Counting Occurrence of Each
Letter
● Generate 100 lowercase letters randomly and assign to an array of
characters.
● Count the occurrence of each letter in the array.

CountLettersInArray Run
Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Tenth Edition, (c) 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All
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 Searching Arrays
Searching is the process of looking for a specific element in
an array; for example, discovering whether a certain score is
included in a list of scores. Searching is a common task in
computer programming. There are many algorithms and data
structures devoted to searching. In this section, two
commonly used approaches are discussed, linear search and
binary search.

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rights reserved. 85
 Linear Search
The linear search approach compares the key
element, key, sequentially with each element in
the array list. The method continues to do so
until the key matches an element in the list or
the list is exhausted without a match being
found. If a match is made, the linear search
returns the index of the element in the array
that matches the key. If no match is found, the
search returns -1.

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rights reserved. 86
animation

Linear Search Animation

Key List
3 6 4 1 9 7 3 2 8

3 6 4 1 9 7 3 2 8

3 6 4 1 9 7 3 2 8

3 6 4 1 9 7 3 2 8

3 6 4 1 9 7 3 2 8

3 6 4 1 9 7 3 2 8
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rights reserved. 87
animation
Linear Search Animation
[Link]
[Link]

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Tenth Edition, (c) 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All
rights reserved. 88
 From Idea to Solution
/** The method for finding a key in the list */
public static int linearSearch(int[] list, int key) {
for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++)
if (key == list[i])
return i;
return -1;
}

Trace the method

int[] list = {1, 4, 4, 2, 5, -3, 6, 2};
int i = linearSearch(list, 4); // returns 1
int j = linearSearch(list, -4); // returns -1
int k = linearSearch(list, -3); // returns 5
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 Binary Search
For binary search to work, the elements in the
array must already be ordered. Without loss of
generality, assume that the array is in
ascending order.
e.g., 2 4 7 10 11 45 50 59 60 66 69 70 79
The binary search first compares the key with
the element in the middle of the array.

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 Binary Search, cont.
Consider the following three cases:
● If the key is less than the middle element,
you only need to search the key in the first
half of the array.
● If the key is equal to the middle element,
the search ends with a match.
● If the key is greater than the middle
element, you only need to search the key in
the second half of the array.
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animation

Binary Search

Key List

8 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9

8 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9

8 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9

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animation
Binary Search Animation
[Link]
[Link]

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 Binary Search, cont.

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 Binary Search, cont.

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 Binary Search, cont.
The binarySearch method returns the index of the
element in the list that matches the search key if it
is contained in the list. Otherwise, it returns

-insertion point - 1.

The insertion point is the point at which the key

would be inserted into the list.

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 From Idea to Soluton
/** Use binary search to find the key in the list */
public static int binarySearch(int[] list, int key) {
int low = 0;
int high = [Link] - 1;

while (high >= low) {

int mid = (low + high) / 2;
if (key == list[mid])
return mid;
else if (key < list[mid])
high = mid - 1;
else
low = mid + 1;
}

return -1 - low;
}

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 The [Link] Method
Since binary search is frequently used in programming, Java provides several
overloaded binarySearch methods for searching a key in an array of int, double,
char, short, long, and float in the [Link] class. For example, the
following code searches the keys in an array of numbers and an array of
characters.

int[] list = {2, 4, 7, 10, 11, 45, 50, 59, 60, 66, 69, 70, 79};
[Link]("Index is " +
[Link](list, 11)); Return is 4

char[] chars = {'a', 'c', 'g', 'x', 'y', 'z'};

[Link]("Index is " +
[Link](chars, 't')); Return is –4 (insertion point is
3, so return is -3-1)
For the binarySearch method to work, the array must be pre-sorted in increasing
order.

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 Sorting Arrays
Sorting, like searching, is also a common task in
computer programming. Many different algorithms
have been developed for sorting. This section
introduces a simple, intuitive sorting algorithms:
selection sort.

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 Selection Sort
Selection sort finds the smallest number in the list and places it first. It then finds
the smallest number remaining and places it second, and so on until the list
contains only a single number.

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animation
Selection Sort Animation
[Link]
[Link]

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 From Idea to Solution
for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++) {
select the smallest element in list[i..listSize-1];
swap the smallest with list[i], if necessary;
//as it may be in the right position
// list[i] is in its correct position.
// The next iteration apply on list[i..listSize-1]
}

list[0] list[1] list[2] list[3] ... list[10]

list[0] list[1] list[2] list[3] ... list[10]

list[0] list[1] list[2] list[3] ... list[10]

list[0] list[1] list[2] list[3] ... list[10]

list[0] list[1] list[2] list[3] ... list[10]

...

list[0] list[1] list[2] list[3] ... list[10]

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for (int i = 0; i < listSize; i++) {
select the smallest element in list[i..listSize-1];
swap the smallest with list[i], if necessary;
// list[i] is in its correct position.
// The next iteration apply on list[i..listSize-1]
}

Expand
double currentMin = list[i];
int currentMinIndex = i;
for (int j = i+1; j < [Link]; j++) {
if (currentMin > list[j]) {
currentMin = list[j];
currentMinIndex = j;
}
}

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for (int i = 0; i < listSize; i++) {
select the smallest element in list[i..listSize-1];
swap the smallest with list[i], if necessary;
// list[i] is in its correct position.
// The next iteration apply on list[i..listSize-1]
}

Expand
double currentMin = list[i];
int currentMinIndex = i;
for (int j = i; j < [Link]; j++) {
if (currentMin > list[j]) {
currentMin = list[j];
currentMinIndex = j;
}
}

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for (int i = 0; i < listSize; i++) {
select the smallest element in list[i..listSize-1];
swap the smallest with list[i], if necessary;
// list[i] is in its correct position.
// The next iteration apply on list[i..listSize-1]
}

Expand
if (currentMinIndex != i) {
list[currentMinIndex] = list[i];
list[i] = currentMin;
}

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 Wrap it in a Method
/** The method for sorting the numbers */
public static void selectionSort(double[] list) {
for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++) {
// Find the minimum in the list[i..[Link]-1]
double currentMin = list[i];
int currentMinIndex = i;
for (int j = i + 1; j < [Link]; j++) {
if (currentMin > list[j]) {
currentMin = list[j];
currentMinIndex = j;
}
}

// Swap list[i] with list[currentMinIndex] if necessary;

if (currentMinIndex != i) {
list[currentMinIndex] = list[i]; Invoke it
list[i] = currentMin;
}
}
selectionSort(yourList)
}

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 The [Link] Method

Since sorting is frequently used in programming, Java provides several

overloaded sort methods for sorting an array of int, double, char, short,
long, and float in the [Link] class. For example, the following
code sorts an array of numbers and an array of characters.

double[] numbers = {6.0, 4.4, 1.9, 2.9, 3.4, 3.5};

[Link](numbers);

char[] chars = {'a', 'A', '4', 'F', 'D', 'P'};

[Link](chars);
Java 8 now provides [Link](list) that utilizes the multicore
for fast sorting.

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 The [Link](list) Method
The [Link](list) method can be used to return a string
representation for the list.

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Pass Arguments to Invoke the Main
Method

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Main Method Is Just a Regular Method

You can call a regular method by passing actual

parameters. Can you pass arguments to main? Of
course, yes. For example, the main method in class
B is invoked by a method in A, as shown below:

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 Command-Line Parameters

class TestMain {
public static void main(String[] args) {
...
}
}

java TestMain arg0 arg1 arg2 ... argn

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 Processing
Command-Line Parameters
In the main method, get the arguments from
args[0], args[1], ..., args[n], which
corresponds to arg0, arg1, ..., argn in
the command line.

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 Problem: Calculator
● Objective: Write a program that will perform
binary operations on integers. The program
receives three parameters: an operator and two
integers.

java Calculator 2 + 3
Calculator java Calculator 2 - 3

Run java Calculator 2 / 3

java Calculator 2 . 3

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Chapter 8 Multidimensional Arrays

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All rights reserved. 1
 Motivations
Thus far, you have used one-dimensional arrays to model linear
collections of elements. You can use a two-dimensional array to
represent a matrix or a table. For example, the following table that
describes the distances between the cities can be represented using a
two-dimensional array.

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All rights reserved. 2
 Motivations

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All rights reserved. 3
 Objectives
❑ To give examples of representing data using two-dimensional arrays
(§8.1).
❑ To declare variables for two-dimensional arrays, create arrays, and
access array elements in a two-dimensional array using row and column
indexes (§8.2).
❑ To program common operations for two-dimensional arrays (displaying
arrays, summing all elements, finding the minimum and maximum
elements, and random shuffling) (§8.3).
❑ To pass two-dimensional arrays to methods (§8.4).
❑ To write a program for grading multiple-choice questions using
two-dimensional arrays (§8.5).
❑ To solve the closest-pair problem using two-dimensional arrays (§8.6).
❑ To check a Sudoku solution using two-dimensional arrays (§8.7).
❑ To use multidimensional arrays (§8.8).
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Declare/Create Two-dimensional Arrays
// Declare array ref var
dataType[][] refVar;

// Create array and assign its reference to variable

refVar = new dataType[10][10];

// Combine declaration and creation in one statement

dataType[][] refVar = new dataType[10][10];

// Alternative syntax
dataType refVar[][] = new dataType[10][10];

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 Declaring Variables of
Two-dimensional Arrays and Creating
Two-dimensional Arrays
int[][] matrix = new int[10][10];
or
int matrix[][] = new int[10][10];
matrix[0][0] = 3;

for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++)

for (int j = 0; j < matrix[i].length; j++)
matrix[i][j] = (int)([Link]() * 1000);

double[][] x;
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Two-dimensional Array Illustration

[Link]? 5 [Link]? 4
matrix[0].length? 5 array[0].length? 3

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 Declaring, Creating, and Initializing Using
Shorthand Notations
You can also use an array initializer to declare, create and
initialize a two-dimensional array. For example,

int[][] array = {
int[][] array = new int[4][3];
{1, 2, 3}, array[0][0] = 1; array[0][1] = 2; array[0][2] = 3;
{4, 5, 6}, Same as array[1][0] = 4; array[1][1] = 5; array[1][2] = 6;
{7, 8, 9}, array[2][0] = 7; array[2][1] = 8; array[2][2] = 9;
{10, 11, 12} array[3][0] = 10; array[3][1] = 11; array[3][2] = 12;
};

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 Lengths of Two-dimensional
Arrays
int[][] x = new int[3][4];

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 Lengths of Two-dimensional
Arrays, cont.
int[][] array = { [Link]
{1, 2, 3}, array[0].length=3
{4, 5, 6}, array[1].length=3
{7, 8, 9}, array[2].length=3
{10, 11, 12} array[3].length=3
};

array[4].length ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException

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 Ragged Arrays
Each row in a two-dimensional array is itself an array. So,
the rows can have different lengths. Such an array is
known as a ragged array. For example,
int[][] matrix = {
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, [Link] is 5
{2, 3, 4, 5}, matrix[0].length is 5
{3, 4, 5}, matrix[1].length is 4
matrix[2].length is 3
{4, 5}, matrix[3].length is 2
{5} matrix[4].length is 1
};
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 Ragged Arrays, cont.

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All rights reserved. 12
 Processing Two-Dimensional Arrays
See the examples in the text.
1. (Initializing arrays with input values)
2. (Printing arrays)
3. (Summing all elements)
4. (Summing all elements by column)
5. (Which row has the largest sum)
6. (Finding the smallest index of the largest element)
7. (Random shuffling)

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 Initializing arrays with input values
[Link] input = new Scanner([Link]);
[Link]("Enter " + [Link] + " rows and " +
matrix[0].length + " columns: ");
for (int row = 0; row < [Link]; row++) {
for (int column = 0; column < matrix[row].length; column++) {
matrix[row][column] = [Link]();
}
}

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 Initializing arrays with random values

for (int row = 0; row < [Link]; row++) {

for (int column = 0; column < matrix[row].length; column++) {
matrix[row][column] = (int)([Link]() * 100);
}
}

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 Printing arrays
for (int row = 0; row < [Link]; row++) {
for (int column = 0; column < matrix[row].length; column++) {
[Link](" matrix["+row+"]["+column+"]=“+
matrix[row][column] + " ");
}

[Link]();
}

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 Summing all elements
int total = 0;
for (int row = 0; row < [Link]; row++) {
for (int column = 0; column < matrix[row].length; column++) {
total += matrix[row][column];
}
}

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 Summing elements by column
for (int column = 0; column < matrix[0].length; column++) {
int total = 0;
for (int row = 0; row < [Link]; row++)
total += matrix[row][column];
[Link]("Sum for column " + column + " is "
+ total);
}

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 Random shuffling
for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < matrix[i].length; j++) {
int i1 = (int)([Link]() * [Link]);
int j1 = (int)([Link]() * matrix[i].length);
// Swap matrix[i][j] with matrix[i1][j1]
int temp = matrix[i][j];
matrix[i][j] = matrix[i1][j1];
matrix[i1][j1] = temp;
}
}
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Passing Tow-Dimensional Arrays to
Methods

PassTwoDimensionalArray Run

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 Problem: Grading
Multiple-Choice Test
Students’ answer Objective: write a
program that grades
multiple-choice test.

PassTwoDimensionalArray Run

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All rights reserved. 21
Problem: Grading Multiple-Choice Test

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All rights reserved. 22
Problem: Finding Two Points
Nearest to Each Other
[Link]
[Link]/dsanimation/Clos
[Link]

PassTwoDimensionalArray Run
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Problem: Finding Two Points Nearest to Each Other

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Problem: Finding Two Points Nearest to Each Other

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 What is Sudoku?

[Link]
m/dsanimation/[Link]

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All rights reserved. 26
Every row contains the numbers 1 to 9

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Every column contains the numbers 1 to 9

5 3 4 6 7 8 9 1 2
6 7 2 1 9 5 3 4 8
1 9 8 3 4 2 5 6 7
8 5 9 7 6 1 4 2 3
4 2 6 8 5 3 7 9 1
7 1 3 9 2 4 8 5 6
9 6 1 5 3 7 2 8 4
2 8 7 4 1 9 6 3 5
3 4 5 2 8 6 1 7 9

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Every 3×3 box contains the numbers 1 to 9

5 3 4 6 7 8 9 1 2
6 7 2 1 9 5 3 4 8
1 9 8 3 4 2 5 6 7
8 5 9 7 6 1 4 2 3
4 2 6 8 5 3 7 9 1
7 1 3 9 2 4 8 5 6
9 6 1 5 3 7 2 8 4
2 8 7 4 1 9 6 3 5
3 4 5 2 8 6 1 7 9

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Checking Whether a Solution Is Correct

CheckSudokuSolution Run

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 Sudoku

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 Sudoku

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 Multidimensional Arrays
Occasionally, you will need to represent
n-dimensional data structures. In Java, you can
create n-dimensional arrays for any integer n.

The way to declare two-dimensional array variables

and create two-dimensional arrays can be
generalized to declare n-dimensional array
variables and create n-dimensional arrays for n >=
3.

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All rights reserved. 33
 Multidimensional Arrays
double[][][] scores = {
{{7.5, 20.5}, {9.0, 22.5}, {15, 33.5}, {13, 21.5}, {15, 2.5}},
{{4.5, 21.5}, {9.0, 22.5}, {15, 34.5}, {12, 20.5}, {14, 9.5}},
{{6.5, 30.5}, {9.4, 10.5}, {11, 33.5}, {11, 23.5}, {10, 2.5}},
{{6.5, 23.5}, {9.4, 32.5}, {13, 34.5}, {11, 20.5}, {16, 7.5}},
{{8.5, 26.5}, {9.4, 52.5}, {13, 36.5}, {13, 24.5}, {16, 2.5}},
{{9.5, 20.5}, {9.4, 42.5}, {13, 31.5}, {12, 20.5}, {16, 6.5}}
};

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 Multidimensional Arrays
A two-dimensional array consists of an array of one-dimensional arrays.

A three dimensional array consists of an array of two-dimensional arrays.

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 Problem: Calculating Total Scores
Objective: write a program that calculates the total score for students
in a class. Suppose the scores are stored in a three-dimensional array
named scores. The first index in scores refers to a student, the second
refers to an exam, and the third refers to the part of the exam. Suppose
there are 7 students, 5 exams, and each exam has two parts--the
multiple-choice part and the programming part. So, scores[i][j][0]
represents the score on the multiple-choice part for the i’s student on
the j’s exam. Your program displays the total score for each student.

TotalScore Run

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 Problem: Weather Information
Suppose a meteorology station records the temperature
and humidity at each hour of every day and stores the
data for the past ten days in a text file named
[Link]. Each line of the file consists of four
numbers that indicate the day, hour, temperature, and
humidity. Your task is to write a program that calculates
the average daily temperature and humidity for the 10
days.

Weather Run

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 Problem: Guessing Birthday
Listing 4.3, [Link], gives a program
that guesses a birthday. The program can be
simplified by storing the numbers in five sets in
a three-dimensional array, and it prompts the
user for the answers using a loop.

GuessBirthdayUsingArray Run

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All rights reserved. 38
 Chapter 18 Recursion

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All rights reserved. 1
 Motivations
Suppose you want to find all the files under a
directory that contains a particular word. How do
you solve this problem? There are several ways to
solve this problem. An intuitive solution is to use
recursion by searching the files in the
subdirectories recursively.

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All rights reserved. 2
 Motivations
H-trees, depicted in Figure 18.1, are used in a very
large-scale integration (VLSI) design as a clock
distribution network for routing timing signals to all parts
of a chip with equal propagation delays. How do you write
a program to display H-trees? A good approach is to use
recursion.

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All rights reserved. 3
 Objectives
❑ To describe what a recursive method is and the benefits of using recursion
(§18.1).
❑ To develop recursive methods for recursive mathematical functions
(§§18.2–18.3).
❑ To explain how recursive method calls are handled in a call stack (§§18.2–18.3).
❑ To solve problems using recursion (§18.4).
❑ To use an overloaded helper method to derive a recursive method (§18.5).
❑ To implement a selection sort using recursion (§18.5.1).
❑ To implement a binary search using recursion (§18.5.2).
❑ To get the directory size using recursion (§18.6).
❑ To solve the Tower of Hanoi problem using recursion (§18.7).
❑ To draw fractals using recursion (§18.8).
❑ To discover the relationship and difference between recursion and iteration
(§18.9).
❑ To know tail-recursive methods and why they are desirable (§18.10).

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 Computing Factorial
factorial(0) = 1;
factorial(n) = n*factorial(n-1);

n! = n * (n-1)!
0! = 1

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 Computing Factorial
class FactorialExample2
static int factorial(int n){
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return(n * factorial(n-1));
}
public static void main(String args[]){
int i,fact=1;
int number=4;//It is the number to calculate factori
al
fact = factorial(number);
[Link]("Factorial of "+number+" is: "+
fact);
}
} Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved. 6
animation

Computing Factorial
factorial(0) = 1;
factorial(n) = n*factorial(n-1);
factorial(4)

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animation

Computing Factorial
factorial(0) = 1;
factorial(n) = n*factorial(n-1);
factorial(4) = 4 * factorial(3)

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animation

Computing Factorial
factorial(0) = 1;
factorial(n) = n*factorial(n-1);
factorial(4) = 4 * factorial(3)
= 4 * 3 * factorial(2)

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animation

Computing Factorial
factorial(0) = 1;
factorial(n) = n*factorial(n-1);
factorial(4) = 4 * factorial(3)
= 4 * 3 * factorial(2)
= 4 * 3 * (2 * factorial(1))

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animation

Computing Factorial
factorial(0) = 1;
factorial(n) = n*factorial(n-1);
factorial(4) = 4 * factorial(3)
= 4 * 3 * factorial(2)
= 4 * 3 * (2 * factorial(1))
= 4 * 3 * ( 2 * (1 * factorial(0)))

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animation

Computing Factorial
factorial(0) = 1;
factorial(n) = n*factorial(n-1);
factorial(4) = 4 * factorial(3)
= 4 * 3 * factorial(2)
= 4 * 3 * (2 * factorial(1))
= 4 * 3 * ( 2 * (1 * factorial(0)))
= 4 * 3 * ( 2 * ( 1 * 1)))

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animation

Computing Factorial
factorial(0) = 1;
factorial(n) = n*factorial(n-1);
factorial(4) = 4 * factorial(3)
= 4 * 3 * factorial(2)
= 4 * 3 * (2 * factorial(1))
= 4 * 3 * ( 2 * (1 * factorial(0)))
= 4 * 3 * ( 2 * ( 1 * 1)))
= 4 * 3 * ( 2 * 1)

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animation

Computing Factorial
factorial(0) = 1;
factorial(n) = n*factorial(n-1);
factorial(4) = 4 * factorial(3)
= 4 * 3 * factorial(2)
= 4 * 3 * (2 * factorial(1))
= 4 * 3 * ( 2 * (1 * factorial(0)))
= 4 * 3 * ( 2 * ( 1 * 1)))
= 4 * 3 * ( 2 * 1)
=4*3*2

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animation

Computing Factorial
factorial(0) = 1;
factorial(n) = n*factorial(n-1);
factorial(4) = 4 * factorial(3)
= 4 * (3 * factorial(2))
= 4 * (3 * (2 * factorial(1)))
= 4 * (3 * ( 2 * (1 * factorial(0))))
= 4 * (3 * ( 2 * ( 1 * 1))))
= 4 * (3 * ( 2 * 1))
= 4 * (3 * 2)
= 4 * (6)

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animation

Computing Factorial
factorial(0) = 1;
factorial(n) = n*factorial(n-1);
factorial(4) = 4 * factorial(3)
= 4 * (3 * factorial(2))
= 4 * (3 * (2 * factorial(1)))
= 4 * (3 * ( 2 * (1 * factorial(0))))
= 4 * (3 * ( 2 * ( 1 * 1))))
= 4 * (3 * ( 2 * 1))
= 4 * (3 * 2)
= 4 * (6)
= 24
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animation

Trace Recursive factorial

Executes factorial(4)

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animation

Trace Recursive factorial

Executes factorial(3)

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animation

Trace Recursive factorial

Executes factorial(2)

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animation

Trace Recursive factorial

Executes factorial(1)

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animation

Trace Recursive factorial

Executes factorial(0)

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animation

Trace Recursive factorial

returns 1

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animation

Trace Recursive factorial

returns factorial(0)

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animation

Trace Recursive factorial

returns factorial(1)

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animation

Trace Recursive factorial

returns factorial(2)

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animation

Trace Recursive factorial

returns factorial(3)

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animation

Trace Recursive factorial

returns factorial(4)

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 factorial(4) Stack Trace

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 Other Examples, Fibonacci Numbers

f(0) = 0;
f(n) = f(n-1)+ f(n-2);

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 Fibonacci Numbers
Fibonacci series: 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89…
indices: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
fib(0) = 0;
fib(1) = 1;
fib(index) = fib(index -1) + fib(index -2); index >=2

fib(3) = fib(2) + fib(1) = (fib(1) + fib(0)) + fib(1) = (1 + 0)

+fib(1) = 1 + fib(1) = 1 + 1 = 2

ComputeFibonacci Run

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 Computing Fibonacci Numbers
class Fibonacci{
static int fib(int n){
if (n == 0)
return 0;
else if (n == 1)
return 1;
else
return( fib(n-1)+fib(n-2));
}
public static void main(String args[]){
int i,f=1;
int number=4; //It is the index to calculate its
fibonacci
f = fib(number);
[Link]("Fibonacci of"+number+" is: "+f);

} Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
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Fibonnaci Numbers, cont.

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 Characteristics of Recursion
All recursive methods have the following characteristics:

– One or more base cases (the simplest case) are used to stop
recursion.
– Every recursive call reduces the original problem, bringing it
increasingly closer to a base case until it becomes that case.

In general, to solve a problem using recursion, you break it

into subproblems. If a subproblem resembles the original
problem, you can apply the same approach to solve the
subproblem recursively. This subproblem is almost the
same as the original problem in nature with a smaller size.

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 Problem Solving Using Recursion
Let us consider a simple problem of printing a message for
n times. You can break the problem into two subproblems:
one is to print the message one time and the other is to print
the message for n-1 times. The second problem is the same
as the original problem with a smaller size. The base case
for the problem is n==0. You can solve this problem using
recursion as follows:
nPrintln(“Welcome”, 5);
public static void nPrintln(String message, int times) {
if (times >= 1) {
[Link](message);
nPrintln(message, times - 1);
} // The base case is times == 0
}
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 Problem Solving Using Recursion
public class Main {
public static void nPrintln(String message, int times) {
if (times >= 1) {
[Link](message);
nPrintln(message, times - 1);
}
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

int t=4;
nPrintln("hello",t);
}
}

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 Think Recursively
Many of the problems presented in the early chapters can
be solved using recursion if you think recursively. For
example, the palindrome problem can be solved recursively
as follows:
public static boolean isPalindrome(String s) {
if ([Link]() <= 1) // Base case
return true;
else if ([Link](0) != [Link]([Link]() - 1)) // Base case
return false;
else
return isPalindrome([Link](1, [Link]() - 1));
}
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 Recursive Helper Methods
The preceding recursive isPalindrome method is not
efficient, because it creates a new string for every recursive
call. To avoid creating new strings, use a helper method:
public static boolean isPalindrome(String s) {
return isPalindrome(s, 0, [Link]() - 1);
}
public static boolean isPalindrome(String s, int low, int high) {
if (high <= low) // Base case
return true;
else if ([Link](low) != [Link](high)) // Base case
return false;
else
return isPalindrome(s, low + 1, high - 1);
}
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 Recursive Selection Sort
1. Find the smallest number in the list and swaps it
with the first number.
2. Ignore the first number and sort the remaining
smaller list recursively.

RecursiveSelectionSort

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Recursive Selection Sort

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 Recursive Binary Search
1. Case 1: If the key is less than the middle element,
recursively search the key in the first half of the array.
2. Case 2: If the key is equal to the middle element, the
search ends with a match.
3. Case 3: If the key is greater than the middle element,
recursively search the key in the second half of the
array.

RecursiveBinarySearch

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 Recursive Implementation
/** Use binary search to find the key in the list */
public static int recursiveBinarySearch(int[] list, int key) {
int low = 0;
int high = [Link] - 1;
return recursiveBinarySearch(list, key, low, high);
}

/** Use binary search to find the key in the list between
list[low] list[high] */
public static int recursiveBinarySearch(int[] list, int key,
int low, int high) {
if (low > high) // The list has been exhausted without a match
return -low - 1;

int mid = (low + high) / 2;

if (key < list[mid])
return recursiveBinarySearch(list, key, low, mid - 1);
else if (key == list[mid])
return mid;
else
return recursiveBinarySearch(list, key, mid + 1, high);
}
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 Directory Size
The preceding examples can easily be solved without using
recursion. This section presents a problem that is
difficult to solve without using recursion. The problem is
to find the size of a directory. The size of a directory is
the sum of the sizes of all files in the directory. A
directory may contain subdirectories. Suppose a
directory contains files , , ..., , and subdirectories , , ..., ,
as shown below.

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 Directory Size
The size of the directory can be defined recursively as
follows:

DirectorySize Run

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 Tower of Hanoi
▪ There are n disks labeled 1, 2, 3, . . ., n, and three
towers labeled A, B, and C.
▪ No disk can be on top of a smaller disk at any
time.
▪ All the disks are initially placed on tower A.
▪ Only one disk can be moved at a time, and it must
be the top disk on the tower.

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Tower of Hanoi, cont.

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 Solution to Tower of Hanoi
The Tower of Hanoi problem can be decomposed into three
subproblems.

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 Solution to Tower of Hanoi
❑ Move the first n - 1 disks from A to C with the assistance of tower
B.
❑ Move disk n from A to B.
❑ Move n - 1 disks from C to B with the assistance of tower A.

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Solution to Tower of Hanoi

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 Exercise 18.3 GCD
gcd(2, 3) = 1
gcd(2, 10) = 2
gcd(25, 35) = 5
gcd(205, 301) = 5
gcd(m, n)
Approach 1: Brute-force, start from min(n, m) down to 1,
to check if a number is common divisor for both m and
n, if so, it is the greatest common divisor.
Approach 2: Euclid’s algorithm
Approach 3: Recursive method
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 Approach 2: Euclid’s algorithm
// Get absolute value of m and n;
t1 = [Link](m); t2 = [Link](n);
// r is the remainder of t1 divided by t2;
r = t1 % t2;
while (r != 0) {
t1 = t2;
t2 = r;
r = t1 % t2;
}

// When r is 0, t2 is the greatest common

// divisor between t1 and t2
return t2;

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Approach 3: Recursive Method
gcd(m, n) = n if m % n = 0;
gcd(m, n) = gcd(n, m % n); otherwise;

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 Fractals?
A fractal is a geometrical figure just like
triangles, circles, and rectangles, but fractals
can be divided into parts, each of which is a
reduced-size copy of the whole. There are
many interesting examples of fractals. This
section introduces a simple fractal, called
Sierpinski triangle, named after a famous
Polish mathematician.

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 Sierpinski Triangle
1. It begins with an equilateral triangle, which is considered to be
the Sierpinski fractal of order (or level) 0, as shown in Figure
(a).
2. Connect the midpoints of the sides of the triangle of order 0 to
create a Sierpinski triangle of order 1, as shown in Figure (b).
3. Leave the center triangle intact. Connect the midpoints of the
sides of the three other triangles to create a Sierpinski of order
2, as shown in Figure (c).
4. You can repeat the same process recursively to create a
Sierpinski triangle of order 3, 4, ..., and so on, as shown in
Figure (d).

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Sierpinski Triangle Solution

SierpinskiTriangle Run

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 Recursion vs. Iteration
Advantage:
Recursion is an alternative form of program
control. It is essentially repetition without a loop.
Disadvantage:
Recursion bears substantial overhead. Each time the
program calls a method, the system must assign
space for all of the method’s local variables and
parameters. This can consume considerable
memory and requires extra time to manage the
additional space.
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 Advantages of Using Recursion
Recursion is good for solving the problems that are
inherently recursive.

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 Tail Recursion
A recursive method is said to be tail recursive if
there are no pending operations to be performed on
return from a recursive call.

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Computing Tail Recursive Factorial

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