ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD

Chapter 2 Electrostatic Potential and capacitance

Electrostatic Potential
It determines the direction of flow of charge between two charged bodies placed
in contact with each other. The charge always flows from a body at higher
potential to another body at lower potential. The flow of charge stops as soon as
the potential of the two bodies equal. Hence electrical potential is a scalar physical
quantity which governs/determines the flow of charge from one body to another
body.
Electric potential is the amount of work done in carrying a
unit positive charge from infinity to any point in the electric field without
𝑊
acceleration against the electrostatic force of the electric field . 𝑉 =
𝑞0

Electric potential is a scalar quantity . its unit is volt.

Electric Potential Difference: - Electric potential difference is the amount of work
done in carrying a unit positive charge from a point to other point in the electric
field.
𝑊 𝐵→ →
= VB - VA= − ∫𝐴 = potential difference between two points A to B.
𝑞0 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙
Electric Potential Due to a Single Point Charge:
Consider a point charge +q at O . We have to calculate
electric potential at point P which is r distance away
from O.
Small amount of work done in moving a unit positive
charge from A to B
dW = F dx Cos180 = −𝐸 𝑑𝑥 (F
𝑊
= qoE, qo=1) (V= )
𝑞0

Total workdone in moving unit +ve charge from ∞ to the point P

𝑃 𝑃 𝑑𝑊
∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫∞ 𝑑𝑉 = − ∫∞ 𝐸𝑑𝑥 ( = 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸 𝑑𝑥 )
𝑞0
𝑃 𝑞 1 𝑞
⇒ 𝑉 = − ∫∞ 𝑑𝑥 [∵ 𝐸 = ]
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑥2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2

𝑞 𝑃 1 −𝑞 −1 𝑟
⇒𝑉=− ∫∞ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝜋𝜖 [ 𝑥 ] ∞
4𝜋𝜖0 0

𝑞 1 1
⇒𝑉= [ − ]
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 ∞
 𝑞 1
⇒𝑉= ……… (2) ∵ [ = 0]
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 ∞
𝑞
Electric potential is zero at infinity: - From eqn (2), as 𝑟 → ∞ ⇒ 𝑉 = =0
∞

Electric Potential Gradient: - (Relation between Electric field & potential)

Elecric pot. gradient means change in the electric pot. with distance.
𝑑𝑊
= 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸 𝑑𝑥 ……... (1)
𝑞0

𝑑𝑉
⇒ 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝐸 = − ……… (2)
𝑑𝑥

This is known as electric potential gradient. It is defined as the ratio of change in

potential w.r.t. distance .The negative sign indicates that electic field intensity is in
the direction of decreasing electric pot. [Link] is a vector quantity.
Potential at Any Point Due to an Electric Dipole: -
Let us consider an electric dipole [Link] have to calculate ele. Potential
at any point P which is r distance away from the center O of the dipole. Let AP=r1,
BP=r2
Electrostatic pot. at P due to –q charge at A
𝑘𝑞
V1 = ……..(1)
𝑟1

Electrostatic pot. at P due to +q charge at B

𝑘𝑞
V2 = ……..(2)
𝑟2

Total potential at point ‘p’ due to the dipole

𝑞 1 1
𝑉= [ − ] ……. (1)
4𝜋∈0 𝑟2 𝑟1

Now r1=AP≈CP=OP+OC= r+OC = 𝑟 +

𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐶
𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, ( 𝐼𝑛 ∆ 𝐴𝑂𝐶, 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = = )
𝑂𝐴 𝑎

𝑟2 = 𝐵𝑃 ≈ 𝐷𝑃 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑟 − 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑂𝐷 𝑂𝐷
( In ∆ 𝐵𝑂𝐷, 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = = )
𝑂𝐵 𝑎

Putting the value of r1 & r2 in eqn (1), we have

𝑞 1 1
𝑉= [ − ]
4𝜋 ∈0 𝑟 − 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑟 + 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑞 𝑟 + 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑟 + 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉= [ ]
4𝜋 ∈0 𝑟 2 −𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝑞 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
or 𝑉= [ ] as P=q×2a
4𝜋∈0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)
, so this eqn becomes
 𝑘 𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉= ……. (3)
(𝑟 2 −𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)

𝑘 𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑘 𝑃⃗ . ̂𝑟
For short dipole r>>>>>>a so V = in vector form V =
𝑟2 𝑟2

Special Cases: 1) When the point ‘P’ lies on the Axial Line of the dipole, then 𝜃 =
𝑘𝑃
00 , so eqn (2) becomes, 𝑉𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = …… (4)
𝑟2

2) When the point P lies on the Equatorial Line of the dipole, then 𝜃 = 900 , so eqn
(2) becomes VEquatorial = 0 …… (5) (but E ≠ 0 )
Electric Potential Energy of a System of Two Point Charge: -
Proof: Let us consider a point charge ‘q1’ is placed at a point ‘A’ with position
vector (r1) we have another point charge ‘q2’ which is placed at infinity from point
charge ‘q1’. This point charge ‘q2’ is to be brought to the position B with position
vector (r2). Here A=r12. Now, electric potential at ‘B’ due to charge ‘q1’ at ‘A’ is
k q1
V1 = ……… (1)
𝑟12

Work done in carrying a charge ‘q2’ from ‘∞’ to B

work (W) = potential (V1) × charge (q2)
𝑊
 W = V1 ×q2 (∵𝑉 =
𝑞
)

By using eqn (1), above eqn becomes

𝑘 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑊= …….. (2)
𝑟12

This is stored in the form of potential energy ,

𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑊=𝑈=
𝑟12

Equipotential surface: -
A surface is said to be equipotential surface in which the
potential at every point on the surface is same.
(1). No work is done in moving the test charge from one point to other point on
the equipotential surface-
Let us consider two points A & B on an equipotential surface .
By definition, the potential difference between two points
𝑊𝐴𝐵 𝐵→ →
= VB - VA=− ∫𝐴 ………. (1)
𝑞0 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙
On the equipotential surface VA=VB, so eqn (1) become
𝑊𝐴𝐵 𝐵→→
= 0 ⇒ 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 0 ⇒ ∫𝐴 =0
𝑞0 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙
(2) .The electric field is perpendicular to the equipotential surface –
 → →
As 𝑑𝑊 = = 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ……… (2)
𝐸. 𝑑𝑙
As work done on the equipotential surface is zero. Hence eqn (2) becomes.

𝐸 𝑑𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝜃 = 900 Hence 𝐸⃗ ⊥ ⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑙
(3).Two equipot. Surfaces can not intersect – If two equipot. surfaces intersect ,
then at the points of intersection , there will be two values of the electric pot. due
to a point charge. This is not possible .
(4). Equipot. Surfaces indicate regions of strong or weak electric fields-
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝐸=− or 𝑑𝑙 = − since dV is constant on equipotential surface ,
𝑑𝑙 𝐸
1
so 𝑑𝑙  , If E is stronger dl will be small i.e. separation of equipot. surface will
𝐸
be smaller . Thus , equipot. surfaces are closer in the region of strong electric field
and farther apart in the region of weak electric field .

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE : POINT CHARGE

 EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES: DIPOLE

Pair of two positive charges

For uniform electric field

CONDUCTORS INSULATORS DIELECTRIC
They are those They are those They are those
materials which materials which do insulating materials
have free electrons not have free which transmit
& allow the current electrons & also do electric effect
to pass through not allow the without
them. current to through conducting. Also,
them. “The non
conducting
materials in which
induce charge are
produced on their
surface when
external electric
field is applied, are
known as
dielectrics.
Example: Silver, Example: Glass, Examples: Air, H2
copper, iron, rubber, plastic, gas, glass, mica
aluminum, mercury wood etc paraffin wax,
etc. transformers oil.

Properties of Conductor:-
1) Total electric field inside a conductor is zero: Let us consider a conductor PQRS is held
in an external electric field of intensity E0. Here free electrons in the conductor moves from
PQ to RS. As a result, some net -ve charge appears on RS & an equal +ve charge appears on
PQ. These are called induced charges.
They produce an induced electric field intensity EP. This opposes the flow of
electrons from PQ to RS. The flow, therefore, stop as soon as EP becomes equal
to E0. As the applied field & induced electric field inside the conductor is equal
& opposite, therefore net electric field in the interior at the conductor is zero.
(E=Eext – E ind.) inside the conductor will be zero.
2) Electric field just outside the charged conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the
conductor:
In electrostatics, once the charges on a conductor are
rearranged, the flow of charges stops. Therefore the
component of electric field along the tangent to the
surface of the conductor must be zero,i.e., EcosƟ=0 ;
CosƟ=0 ; Ɵ=900 (Eǂ0) Hence the field is perpendicular
to the surface of a conductor at every point.
3)Net charge in the interior of a conductor:
→ →
According to Gauss's Theorem, ∅ = ∮ . = q/Є0 .........(1)
𝐸 𝑑𝑠
since E = 0 , in the interior of a conductor. Hence from eqn (1) q=0
(4) Charge always resides on the surface of a conductor.
(5) Electric potential is constant for the entire conductor: The electric pot. gradient is
given by the relation E = -dV/dr , as E = 0 inside a conductor
So 0 = -dV/dr V = constant , V is constant within and on the surface.
(6) Electric field at the surface of charged conductor-
→ →
∮ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑠 = q/Є0 or ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 cos 0 = q/Є0
𝜎
or E ∮ 𝑑𝑆 = q/Є0 or E × 𝑑𝑆 = 𝜎 dS /Є0 or E=
Є0

*Electrostatic shielding – The phenomena of making a region free from any electric field

Electrcal Capacitance :
Capacity (or Electrical Capacitance) of a Conductor/Capacitor:- A capacitor
is an arrangement for storing large amount of charge & hence electrical energy in
small space. The capacity of a conductor /capacitor is ability to store the electric
charge.
When some charge (q) is given to a conductor, its potential (V) increases to some
extent. More is the charge , higher is the potential of the conductor & vise versa.
Mathematically,
𝑞
q ∝ V => CV or C= .......... (1) Where C = constant,
𝑉
known as capacity or electrical capacitance of a conductor/ capacitor.
The unit of capacity in S.I. system is Farad. 1 Farad = 1 coulomb/ 1 volt
Capacity of an isolated spherical conductor:-
Let us consider an isolated spherical conductor of radius 'r' in space. Let a charge
'q' be given the sphere which is assumed to be concentrated at the centre 'O' of the
sphere.
The potential at any point on the surface of the sphere
𝑞
V= ..............(1)
4πЄo r
𝑞
Capacitance of the isolated sphere C=
V

=> C = 4πЄo r Hence C ∝ r ..............(2)

Dielectric constant (k) :-
"Dielectric constant in case of capacitor is defined as the ratio of capacity of a
conductor in some medium to the free surface"
As we know that the term dielectric constant or relative permittivity is given by the
relation.
K= F0/Fm = Єm / Єo ......... (1)
The capacity of a spherical conductor in free space
C0 = 4πЄo r ..........(2)
Also in some medium Cm = 4πЄo r ......... (3)
On dividing (3) by (2), we have Cm / C0 = Єm / Єo i.e.,
K = F0/Fm = Єm / Єo = Cm / C0 .........(4)
K= Cm / C0 => Cm = KC0 ..........(5) capacity increase
Hence, capacity of a spherical conductor in some medium is K times the capacity
of a spherical conductor in free space.
Capacitor (Condenser) & its Principle :-
A capacitor is a device used to store a large amount of electric charge (& also
electrical energy) in a small space.
Let us consider a positively charged conducting plate 'A'. Bring an uncharged
conducting plate 'B' closer to plate 'A'. Due to this, -ve charge is induced on nearer
face of plate 'B' where as farther face will have equal positive charge. The induced
negative charge on plate 'B' tends to decrease the potential of plate 'A' while the
induced positive charge tends to increase the pot of plate 'A'. As the induced
negative charge is closer to 'A', it is more effective. This will reduce the overall
potential of 'A'. To increase the pot of 'A', small amount of +ive charge is given to
the plate A. Hence "The capacitance of a conductor increases by a small amount
when another unchanged conductor is placed near it" (C = q/V)
Now connect the plate 'B' to earth. The induced +ive charge on B flows to the earth
& the induced -ve charge , however stays on it due to the attraction of +ve charge.
Due to the induced -ve charge on 'B', potential of 'A' is greatly reduced. To
increase the pot of 'A', a large amount of +ive charge is given to the plate A.
Hence, from above, we conclude that, "The capacity of a conductor is greatly
increased by bringing near it an uncharged conductor connected to earth." "Such
an arrangement of two conductors separated by dielectric medium is known as a
capacitor"

Capacity of Parallel Plate Capacitor :- Consider a parallel

plate capacitor in which two parallel plates are separated by
d. Due to '+q' charge on one plate, '-q' charge is induced on
the other plate of the capacitor.
An electric field E0 is set up between two plates which is
given by the relation
σ σ
E0 = ..........(1) inside [ E= +
Єo 2Єo
σ σ
= ]
2Єo Єo
q
Eo = ……… (2) (surface charge density σ =
AЄo
charge/ area = q/A )
Potential difference between two plates
V
V = Eo d ………(3) ( Eo = )
d

By putting the value of E0 from eqn (2) to (3) , we have

qd
V= ……….. (4)
AЄo
q
Now capacitance of the capacitor C =
V
Єo A
C= ……….. (5)
d

Here εo = absolute electrical permittivity in free space. Hence this is also known as
capacity of a parallel plate capacitor in free space denoted by Co. so
 Єo A ϵm A
C = Co = ………(6) for medium Cm =
d d

Special cases :- As we know that dielectric constant ‘K’ is given by

K = Cm/Co & Cm = K C0 ….….. (7) increase K times
By putting the value of equation (6) in (7), we have
Єo A
Cm = K ……. (8)
d

Capacity of a parallel plate capacitor with a conducting slab :-

if V is applied potential difference between two plates & d is separation between
two plates , then the dielectric field is given by the relation
V
Eo= or V = Eo d …. (1)
d

If t is the thickness of the conducting slab inside the parallel

plates of a capacitor , then the new value of potential will be
V = Eo (d-t) + Em (t) ……. (2)
Here Em is the electric field inside a conducting slab of
thickness t
As we know that electric field inside a conductor of thickness t
is zero (Em=0). Hence eqn(i) becomes
σ
V = Eo (d-t) or V= (d-t)
Єo

q
Now capacitance of the capacitor C =
V

ЄoA
C= …..(3) Hence capacity of a parallel plate
(d−t)
capacitor increases when a slab is placed between it. Because from eqn (3) , C ∝
1/d-t

Capacity of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric slab :-

As we know that if V = applied potential difference between two plates & ‘d’ =
separation between two plates then the electric field is given by the relation
V
Eo = or V = Eo d …..(1)
d

If t is the thickness of the dielectric slab placed inside two parallel plates of a
capacitor then the new value of potential will be

V = Eo (d-t) + Em (t) ….(2)

Here Em is the electric field inside a dielectric slab of thickness t.

Also from the definition of dielectric constant (k) in terms of electric field ,we know
that
E0 E0
K= or Em =
Em K

With that eqn(2) becomes

E0
V =Eo (d-t) + (t)
K

t
or V = Eo [ d-t+ ]
K

q [ d−t+ t/k]
or V = …….(2)
A ϵ0

q
Now capacitance of the capacitor C =
V

ϵ0 A
C= t
[ d−t+ ]
K

ϵ0 A
C= 1 …….(3) Hence the capacity of a parallel plate
[( d−t)(1+ )
K
capacitor also increases when a dielectric slab is placed between it. From eqn (iii) ,
C∝ 1/d-t

Relation between electric susceptibility and dielectric constant :-

When a non polar dielectric is held in an electric field i.e. Eo , charges of the non
polar dielectrics are separated & a tiny dipole moment is produced. They set up an
external field opposite to Eo known as Polarized electric field i.e. Ep. Hence
effective electric field E in a polarized electric field is

E= Eo-EP ……(i)

From the above theory, we can say that polarization remains until have some net
value of dielectric field i.e. electric polarization or polarized density (P) is directly
proportional to the reduced value of electric field (E). mathematically,

P∝E

Or P = εo χ E ……(ii)

Where εo = absolute permittivity in free space & χ = constant , known as electric

susceptibility of the dielectric which tell us the electric nature of a dielectric .
P εo χ E
As E = Eo – EP = Eo - = Eo - = Eo – χE
εo εo

Eo =χE+ E or Eo =E(χ + 1)
 E0
=χ+1
E

K= χ + 1

χ =K – 1 here K=E0/E is a constant known as dielectric constant.

Energy Stored in a Capacitor:-

Consider a capacitor having capacitance C and +q & -q charges are lie on two
plates of it.

Some work must be done to charge a capacitor . This work done is stored in the
form of electrostatic energy in the capacitor.

Small amount of work done for transferring small amount of charge(dq) from one
plate to another plate of capacitor
q
dW = V × dq …….(i) [ q= CV or V = ]
C

q
dW= × dq
C

Total work done in transferring a charge q from one plate to another plate
𝑞 q 1 q2 𝑞2
∫ dW = ∫0 C
dq = [
C 2
]=
2C
……(ii)

This work is stored in the form of electrostatic potential energy (U) of the capacitor.
𝑞2
Hence, above eqn becomes U= ……. (iii)
2C

q qV
(i) Put C= in eqn , we have U = …..…(iv)
V 2

1
(ii) Put q= CV in eqn , we have U = CV2 ……….(v)
2

1
*Energy stored in capacitor = area under V-q graph =
2
1 𝑞 𝑞2
base height = q  =
2 𝐶 2C

1 1 Єo A
𝑈 CV2 ( ) (Ed)2
Energy density (Ud) = = 2
= 2 d
=
𝐴𝑑 𝐴𝑑 𝐴𝑑
1
εo E2 i.e. energy stored per unit volume of the
2
space between the plates of the capacitor is known as energy density.

Combination of Capacitors –

(1).Series combination of capacitors :- The arrangement of three capacitors

having capacities C1,C2,C3 respectively arranged in series .Let V is applied
 potential difference across the combination.

Let ‘+q’ charge is given to the left plate C1, a charge –q appears on the inner side
of the plate C1 due to induction . Similar arguments for capacitors C2 & C3. Thus
each capacitor receives same charge of magnitude ‘q’ in series combination.
Charge on each capacitor connected in series is same .

Hence net potential

V = V1+V2+V3 …….(i) (C
q q
= or V = )
V C

q q q q 1 1 1 1
= + + = + +
C 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 C 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
……(ii)
1 1
& for n capacitors = ∑ni=1
Cs Ci

(2). Parallel combination of capacitors :- The arrangement of three capacitors

having capacities C1,C2,C3 respectively arranged parallel & V is the potential
difference applied across the combination.

In parallel combination of capacitors , the pot. difference across each capacitor is

same.

q =q1+q2+q3 ………..(i) (q =CV)

CV= C1V1+ C2V2+ C3V3

C = C1+ C2+ C3 ………..(ii)

For n capacitors Cp = ∑i=1n ci

Extra knowledge –

Energy Loss When Two Capacitors Share Their Charge:-

Proof:- Let C1 ,C2 = capacities of two capacitors and V1 ,V2=respective potentials

of two capacitors.

Before Connection:-

Total charge q = q1 + q2 = C1V1+ C2V2

Total [Link] of the two capacitors
 1 1
U=U1 +U2= C1V12 + C2V22 ---------(1)
2 2

During Connection:- Total charge on the capacitors during sharing is

q, =q1, + q2, = C1V+ C2V --------(2)

Total capacitance on the capacitors during sharing is

C= C1+C2 --------(3)

When these capacitors are connected together with a wire , charge flows from the
capacitor at higher pot. to the capacitor at lower pot. till the pot. of both the
capacitors become equal , called common pot. (V).

i.e. q = q, or C1V1+ C2V2 = C1V+ C2V

C1 V1 + C2 V2 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
V= = --------(4)
C1 +C2 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

After Connection:- Total energy (U’)of the two capacitors becomes

1 1 1 1 C1 V1 + C2 V2
U’= C1V2 + C2V2 = (C1 + C2 )V2 = (C1 + C2 ) [ ]2 ……(5)
2 2 2 2 C1 +C2

1 1 1 C1 V1 + C2 V2
U- U’= C1V12 + C2V22 - (C1 + C2 ) [ ]2
2 2 2 C1 +C2

1
U- U’= [(C1V12 + C2V22 ) (C1 + C2 ) - ( C1V1+ C2V2 )2 ]
2 (C1 + C2 )

1 C1 C2
U- U’= = (V12+ V22 - 2V1V2)
2 (C1 + C2 )

1 C1 C2
U- U’= = (V1 - V2)2 ,which is positive
2 (C1 + C2 )

U- U’> 0 or U> U’

This proves that energy after connection is somewhat less

than that before connection. Hence we have a loss of
energy when two capacitors share their [Link] loss of
energy appears as heat & electromagnetic radiation.

[Link] dielectric of dielectric constant k is

introduced between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor

(A) battery remains connected across the capacitor

(i) charge increase Q = KQ0 (ii) capacitance increase C = K C0

𝐸0
(iii) [Link]. remains same V = V0 (iv) electric field decrease E=
𝐾
 𝑄0 2 𝑄0 2 𝑈0
(v) energy decrease U = = =
2C 2KC0 𝐾

(B) battery is disconnected

(i) charge remainssame Q = Q0 (ii) capacitance increase C = K C0

𝑄 Q0 𝑉0 𝑉 𝑉0 𝐸0
(iii) [Link]. decrease V = = = (iv) electric field decrease E= = =
𝐶 𝐾𝐶0 𝐾 𝑑 𝐾𝑑 𝐾
2
𝑄0 2 𝐾 2 𝑄0
(v) energy increase U = = = KU0
2C0 2KC0