Antenna and Propagation

Semester 1
2025-2026

Chapter 2: Fundamental Parameters of Antennas

Antennas have several fundamental parameters that describe their performance

characteristics. These parameters are essential for understanding how an antenna
operates in a communication system, determining its suitability for specific
applications, and optimizing its design. Here are the key fundamental parameters
of an antenna:

1. Radiation Pattern

The radiation pattern of an antenna is the graphical representation of the radiation

properties of the antenna as a function of space coordinates. In most cases, the
radiation pattern is determined in the far-field region and is represented as a
function of the directional coordinates. In Figure below, an appropriate
coordinate system is defined. It is usually more convenient to work in spherical
coordinates (r, θ, φ) rather than Cartesian coordinates. From Figure below, the
origin of the coordinate system is the point where the antenna radiates or receives
signals, z-axis is usually aligned with the main beam of the antenna and is the
axis of maximum radiation or reception, and the x-axis and y-axis lie in a plane
perpendicular to the z-axis. In spherical coordinate system, the distance between
the location of the antenna (origin) and a point in space is denoted by r, the angle
produced between the positive z-axis and the vector from the origin to the point
is the elevation angle (θ) and it ranges from 0° to 180°, and the angle between the
positive x-axis and the projection of the point onto the xy plane moving in the
direction towards the y-axis is the azimuth angle (φ) and it ranges from 0° to 360°.

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In spherical coordinate system:

• θ is used to describe the angle in the vertical plane (elevation)

• φ describes the angle in the horizontal plane (azimuth)

Figure below shows several ways of representing the radiation pattern of an

antenna as a function of angular space. Figure below (a) shows the field pattern
of an antenna which is the illustration of the magnitude of the magnetic or electric
field in linear scale. The power pattern is an illustration of the square of the
magnitude of a magnetic or electric field in linear scale, as shown in Figure below
(b). The radiation pattern can also be represented by a power pattern in decibel
(dB) which is the illustration of the magnitude of the magnetic or electric field in
dB, as shown in Figure below (c).

The points where the pattern achieves its half-power relative to the maximum
value of the pattern are as follows:

• field pattern at 0.707 of its maximum value, as shown in Figure (a).

• power pattern in a linear scale at 0.5 of its maximum value, as shown in
Figure (b).
• power pattern in dB at -3 dB of its maximum value, as shown in Figure (c).

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(a) Field pattern in linear scale

(b) Power pattern in linear scale

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(c) Power pattern in dB

➢ Radiation Pattern Lobes

Various parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as lobes which may be

classified into the followings and are illustrated in Figure below:

• Major (main) lobe: is the radiation lobe containing the direction of

maximum radiation
• Minor lobe: is any lobe except the major lobe
• Side lobe: is a radiation lobe in any direction other than the intended lobe,
usually a side lobe is adjacent to the main lobe.
• Back lobe: is a radiation lobe whose axis makes an angle of approximately
180° with respect to the beam of the antenna.

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Notes:

1. Minor lobes usually represent radiation in undesired directions, and they

should be minimized.
2. Side lobes are normally the largest of the minor lobes.
3. The ratio of the power radiated or received in the main lobe (front) direction
to the power radiated or received in the opposite (back) direction is referred to

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as the Front-to-Back Ratio (F/B ratio), and it can be expressed mathematically

as

𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡
𝐹/𝐵 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑛 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 log10 ( )
𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘

where:
𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 is the power radiated in the direction of the main lobe (usually the

direction of maximum radiation).

𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 is the power radiated in the opposite direction (180° from the main lobe).
4. The Side Lobe Level (SLL) is the ratio of the power density of the strongest
side lobe to the power density of the main lobe, and can be expressed as:

𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒
𝑆𝐿𝐿 𝑖𝑛 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 log10 ( )
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑒

➢ Beamwidth

Associated with the pattern of an antenna is a parameter designated as beamwidth.

The beamwidth of a pattern is defined as the angular separation between two
identical points on opposite side of the maximum pattern. In an antenna pattern,
there are several beamwidths as shown in Figure above, the most widely used
beamwidths are:

• Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW): is defined as "In a plane containing

the direction of the maximum of a beam, the angle between the two
directions in which the radiation intensity is one-half value of the beam".
• First-Null Beamwidth (FNBW): is the angular separation between the
first nulls of the pattern.

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➢ Directional, Omni-directional, and Isotropic Patterns

Directional, omni-directional, and isotropic radiation patterns are terms used to

describe how an antenna radiates energy in space. These patterns are essential in
understanding the performance and application of different types of antennas.

o Directional Radiation Pattern

A directional radiation pattern is one where the antenna radiates more power in
specific directions than in others, as shown in Figure above. It is used in
applications where focused energy is needed, such as radar, satellite
communication, and point-to-point communication links. Examples include
parabolic dish antennas, Yagi-Uda antennas, and horn antennas.

o Omni-directional Radiation Pattern

An omni-directional radiation pattern radiates power uniformly in one plane,

typically the horizontal plane, while the power may vary in the vertical plane, as
shown in Figure below. The omni-directional pattern is defined as one “having
an essentially nondirectional pattern in a given plane (in this case in azimuth) and
a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane (in this case in elevation). It is ideal
for applications where coverage is needed in all horizontal directions, such as
mobile communication, broadcast transmission, and Wi-Fi routers. Common
examples include dipole antennas and monopole antennas.

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An omni-directional antenna’s radiation pattern is characterized by:

• 360° Azimuth coverage: Radiates equally in all horizontal directions.

• Donut-shaped pattern: The radiation pattern resembles a donut, with the
antenna at the center.
• No back lobe: Omni-directional antenna does not have back lobe.

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o Isotropic Radiation Pattern

An isotropic radiation pattern is an idealized pattern in which the antenna radiates

equal power in all directions (spherically), with no preferential direction, as
shown in Figure below. It serves as a theoretical reference standard against which
other antennas are compared. Since it is theoretical, there are no practical
applications for an isotropic antenna.

➢ Radian and Steradian

A radian is the standard unit of angular measure in the International System of

Units (SI). It is defined as the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc
whose length is equal to the radius of the circle, as shown in Figure below (a).
Radian can be expressed mathematically as:

𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 =
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

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If the arc length is equal to the radius, the angle is 1 radian.

Since the circumference (C) of a circle is, C=2πr, one full circle corresponds to
2π radians, which is equivalent to 360°.

360° = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

360°
1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = ≈ 57.29°
2𝜋

A steradian (sr) is the SI unit of solid angle. It is analogous to the radian but in
three dimensions. A solid angle of one steradian subtends an area of a sphere
equal to the square of the sphere's radius, as shown in Figure below (b). Steradian
can be expressed mathematically as:

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 =
𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

Since the area (A) of a sphere is 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 2 = 4𝜋 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝑟

Notes:

• Radian is used primarily in trigonometry, geometry, and physics to

measure plane angles.
• Steradian is used in fields and antenna theory to measure solid angles and
describe the angular extent of 3D objects.

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2. Radiation Power Density

Radiation power density is defined as the power per unit area at a given point in
space. In mathematical form it is expressed as:

𝑃𝑟
𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 =
𝐴

Where:

𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 is the radiation power density in W/m2.

𝑃𝑟 is the total power radiated by the antenna in W.

Note:

For an isotropic radiator which radiates equally in all directions, the power
density is given by:

𝑃𝑟
𝑊0 =
4𝜋𝑟 2

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3. Radiation Intensity

Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as “the power radiated from an

antenna per unit solid angle”. The radiation intensity can be obtained by simply
multiplying the radiation density by the square of the distance. In mathematical
form it is expressed as:

𝑈 = 𝑟 2 𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑

Where:

𝑈 is the radiation intensity in W/sr.

Note:

The radiation intensity of an isotropic radiator is given by:

𝑃𝑟
𝑈0 = 𝑟 2 𝑊0 =
4𝜋

Table below summarizes the key differences between the radiation power density
and the radiation intensity in antenna theory:

Feature Radiation Power Density (𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 ) Radiation Intensity (𝑈 )

Definition Power per unit area Power per unit solid angle
Measures actual power received or Measures how power is
Purpose
transmitted through a surface distributed directionally
Units W/m2 W/sr

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4. Directivity

The directivity of an antenna is defined as “the ratio of the radiation intensity in

a given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all
directions”. The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by
the antenna divided by 4π. If the direction is not specified, the direction of
maximum radiation intensity is implied. Stated more simply, the directivity of a
non-isotropic source is equal to the ratio of its radiation intensity in a given
direction over that of an isotropic source. In mathematical form, directivity can
be written as:

𝑈 4𝜋 𝑈
𝐷= =
𝑈0 𝑃𝑟

Where:

𝐷 is directivity (dimensionless)

𝑈 is radiation intensity (W/sr)

𝑈0 is radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna (W/sr)

If the direction is not specified, it implies the direction of maximum radiation

intensity (maximum directivity) expressed as:

𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 4𝜋 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷0 = =
𝑈0 𝑃𝑟

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Notes:

• The directivity of an antenna is a crucial parameter that determines how

effectively the antenna can focus energy in a particular direction.
• The directivity of an isotropic source is unity.
• It is also common to express the directivity in decibels as:

𝐷𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 (𝐷)

Sometimes, the reference to an isotropic antenna is explicitly indicated by the unit

dBi instead of dB. Similarly, the power in decibel units referenced to 1 mW and
1 W are expressed in dBm and dBW units, respectively. The power is expressed
in dBW units using

𝑃(𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡)
𝑃(𝑑𝐵𝑊) = 10 log10 ( )
1 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡

The same can be expressed in dBm units as

𝑃(𝑚𝑤)
𝑃(𝑑𝐵𝑚) = 10 log10 ( )
1 𝑚𝑤

The relationship between dBm and dBW is:

𝑃(𝑑𝐵𝑚) = 𝑃(𝑑𝐵𝑊 ) + 30

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5. Beam Solid Angle

The beam solid angle ΩA is defined as the solid angle through which all the power
of the antenna would flow if its radiation intensity is constant and equal to the
maximum value of U for all angles within ΩA.

The beam solid angle is calculated by integrating the normalized radiation

intensity over all directions in the sphere around the antenna:

𝑈(𝜃, 𝜑)
Ω𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑Ω
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥

Where:

𝑈(𝜃, 𝜑) is the radiation intensity as a function the angles 𝜃 (elevation) and 𝜑

(azimuth).

For antennas with a narrow beamwidth, the beam solid angle can be approximated
by the product of the HPBWs in the principal planes:

Ω𝐴 ≈ Θ1𝑟 Θ2𝑟

Where:

Θ1𝑟 is the HPBW in one plane in radian

Θ2𝑟 is the HPBW in a plane at a right angle to the other in radian

Notes:

• Directivity is inversely related to the beam solid angle. The smaller the
beam solid angle, the higher the directivity of the antenna, as more
power is concentrated in a narrower region.

4𝜋 4𝜋
𝐷= ≈
Ω𝐴 Θ1𝑟 Θ2𝑟
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• If the beamwidths are known in degrees, then the above equation can be
rewritten as:
1 Rad= 57.29 degree

Perpendicular 180 2
in degrees 4𝜋 ( 𝜋 ) 41253
𝐷≈ ≈
Θ1𝑑 Θ2𝑑 Θ1𝑑 Θ2𝑑

Where:
Θ1𝑑 is the HPBW in one plane in degrees
Θ2𝑑 is the HPBW in a plane at a right angle to the other in degrees

6. Antenna Efficiency

Associated with an antenna are a number of efficiencies and can be defined using
Figure below. The total antenna efficiency 𝑒0 is used to take into account losses
at the input terminals and within the structure of the antenna. Such losses may be
due to

• Reflections because of the mismatch between the transmission line and the
antenna
• 𝐼 2 𝑅 losses (conduction and dielectric)

(a) Antenna reference terminals

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(b) Reflection, conduction, and dielectric losses

In general, the overall efficiency can be written as:

𝑒0 = 𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑐 𝑒𝑑

Where:

𝑒0 is the total efficiency (dimensionless)

𝑒𝑟 is the reflection (mismatch) efficiency (dimensionless)

𝑒𝑐 is the conduction efficiency (dimensionless)

𝑒𝑑 is the dielectric efficiency (dimensionless)

er
The reflection efficiency can be calculated using the following equation:

𝑒𝑟 = 1 − |Γ|2

Where:

Γ is the voltage reflection coefficient at the input terminals of the antenna

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Usually 𝑒𝑐 and 𝑒𝑑 are very difficult to compute, but they can be determined
experimentally. It is more convenient to write the overall efficiency as:

𝑒0 = 𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑐𝑑 = 𝑒𝑐𝑑 (1 − |Γ|2 )

Where 𝑒𝑐𝑑 is the antenna radiation efficiency and 𝑒𝑐𝑑 = 𝑒𝑐 𝑒𝑑

These efficiencies describe how different physical losses affect the overall
performance of an antenna, the key differences between them are summarized in
Table below:

Efficiency Type Symbol Loss Type Formula Units

Reflection 𝑒𝑟 Impedance 𝑒𝑟 = 1 − |Γ|2 Unitless
Efficiency mismatch
Conduction 𝑒𝑐 Resistive - Unitless
Efficiency heating
Dielectric 𝑒𝑑 Dielectric - Unitless
Efficiency heating

7. Gain

Another useful measure describing the performance of an antenna is the gain.

Although the gain of the antenna is closely related to the directivity, it is a
measure that considers the efficiency of the antenna as well as its directional
capabilities. Remember that directivity is a measure that describes only the
directional properties of the antenna, and it is therefore controlled only by the
pattern.

Gain of an antenna (in a given direction) is defined as “the ratio of the intensity,
in a given direction, to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power
accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically. The radiation intensity

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corresponding to the isotropically radiated power is equal to the power accepted

(input) by the antenna divided by 4π”. In equation form this can be expressed as:

𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑈(𝜃,𝜑)

𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 4𝜋
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
= 4𝜋
𝑃𝑖𝑛
(dimensionless)

The total radiated power 𝑃𝑟 is related to the total input power (𝑃𝑖𝑛 ) by

𝑃𝑟 = 𝑒𝑐𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑛

Where 𝑒𝑐𝑑 is the antenna radiation efficiency (dimensionless), using the above
equation

𝑈(𝜃, 𝜑)
𝐺(𝜃, 𝜑) = 𝑒𝑐𝑑 [4𝜋 ]
𝑃𝑟

Which is related to the directivity by

𝐺(𝜃, 𝜑) = 𝑒𝑐𝑑 𝐷(𝜃, 𝜑)

In a similar manner, the maximum value of the gain is related to the maximum
directivity by

𝐺0 = 𝐺(𝜃, 𝜑)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑐𝑑 𝐷(𝜃, 𝜑)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑐𝑑 𝐷0

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Example:

Calculate the directivity of an antenna, the power pattern of which is given by

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8. Input Impedance

The input impedance of an antenna is a complex quantity that characterizes how

the antenna interacts with the connected transmission line or source at the feed
point. It is defined as the ratio of the voltage to the current at a pair of terminals,
Figure below shows the antenna in transmitting mode with the input impedance
at the input terminals of the antenna (a-b), and is typically expressed as:

𝑍𝐴 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑗𝑋𝐴

Where:

𝑍𝐴 is the antenna impedance at terminals a-b in ohms

𝑅𝐴 is the antenna resistance at terminals a-b in ohms

𝑋𝐴 is the antenna reactance at terminals a-b in ohms

In general, the antenna resistance consists of two components; that is

𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿

Where

𝑅𝑟 is the radiation resistance of the antenna

𝑅𝐿 is the loss resistance of the antenna

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Assume that the antenna is attached to a generator with internal impedance

𝑍𝑔 = 𝑅𝑔 + 𝑗𝑋𝑔

Where

𝑅𝑔 is the real part, representing the resistance component

𝑋𝑔 is the imaginary part, representing the reactance component

And assume that the antenna is used in transmitting mode, we can represent the
antenna and generator by an equivalent circuit shown in Figure below

The current developed within the loop is given by

𝑉𝑔 𝑉𝑔
𝐼𝑔 = =
𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝑔 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑔 ) + 𝑗(𝑋𝐴 + 𝑋𝑔 )

And its magnitude by

|𝑉𝑔 |
|𝐼𝑔 | =
2 2
√(𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑔 ) + (𝑋𝐴 + 𝑋𝑔 )

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Where 𝑉𝑔 is the peak voltage of the generator. Vg must be PEAK

V peak = Vpeak-peak /2

The power input to the antenna is given by

1 2 1 2
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = |𝐼𝑔 | (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 ) = |𝐼𝑔 | 𝑅𝐴
2 2

The power radiated by the antenna is given by

1 2
𝑃𝑟 = |𝐼𝑔 | 𝑅𝑟
2

The power radiated by the antenna is related to the power input to the antenna by

𝑃𝑟 = 𝑒𝑐𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑛

The power dissipated as heat is given by

1 2
𝑃𝐿 = |𝐼𝑔 | 𝑅𝐿
2

The remaining power is dissipated as heat on the internal resistance 𝑅𝑔 of the

generator, and it is given by

1 2
𝑃𝑔 = |𝐼𝑔 | 𝑅𝑔
2

The real power supplied by the source (generator) is given by

1
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑅𝑒{𝑉𝑔 𝐼𝑔∗ }
2

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Note:

The maximum power delivered to the antenna occurs when we have conjugate
matching; that is when

𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑔

𝑋𝐴 = −𝑋𝑔

For this case:

2 2
|𝑉𝑔 | 𝑅𝑟 |𝑉𝑔 | 𝑅𝑟
𝑃𝑟 = [ ]= [ ]
2 4(𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 2 8 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 )2

2
|𝑉𝑔 | 𝑅𝐿
𝑃𝐿 = [ ]
8 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 )2

2 2 2
|𝑉𝑔 | 𝑅𝑔 |𝑉𝑔 | 1 |𝑉𝑔 |
𝑃𝑔 = [ ]= [ ]=
8 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 2 8 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 ) 8𝑅𝑔

It is clear that 𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑟 + 𝑃𝐿 and

2
1 ∗
1 𝑉𝑔∗ |𝑉𝑔 |
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑅𝑒{𝑉𝑔 𝐼𝑔 } = 𝑉𝑔 [ ]=
2 2 2𝑅𝑔 4𝑅𝑔

In the above figure, it is assumed that the generator is directly connected to the
antenna. If there is a transmission line between the two as shown in Figure below,
which is usually the case, then Zg represents the equivalent impedance of the
generator transferred to the input terminals of the antenna using the impedance
transfer equation. If, in addition, the transmission line is lossy, then the available
power to be radiated by the antenna will be reduced by the losses of the
transmission line.

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The general form for the input impedance of a line with length 𝑙 and
characteristic impedance 𝑍0 terminated in load 𝑍𝐴 transmitting a signal with wave
number 𝑘 as shown in Figure below is given by

𝑍𝐴 + 𝑗𝑍0 tan(𝑘𝑙 )
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑍𝐴 tan(𝑘𝑙)

Where 𝑘 is the wave number and is given by 𝑘 = 2𝜋

𝜆

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Note:

For 𝑙 = 𝜆4 , the input impedance is given by

𝑍02
𝑍𝑖𝑛 =
𝑍𝐴

Notes:

• The reflection coefficient can be calculated by

𝑍𝑖𝑛 − 𝑍0
Γ=
𝑍𝑖𝑛 + 𝑍0

Where

𝑍𝑖𝑛 is the antenna input impedance

𝑍0 is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line

• The voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is a critical parameter in

antenna systems that measures how well the antenna is matched to the
transmission line. VSWR is calculated by:

1 + |Γ|
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 = VSWR cannot be less than 1
1 − |Γ|

• Perfect impedance match occurs when 𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 = 1 which means that all the
power is transmitted to the antenna, and none is reflected.
• When 𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 > 1 indicates some impedance mismatch. A higher VSWR
means more power is reflected back towards the transmitter.

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9. Antenna Radiation Efficiency

The antenna efficiency takes into account the reflection, conduction, and
dielectric losses. The conduction and dielectric losses of an antenna are very
difficult to compute, and, in most cases, they are measured. Even with
measurements, they are difficult to separate, and they are usually lumped together
to form the 𝑒𝑐𝑑 efficiency. The resistance 𝑅𝐿 is used to represent the conduction-
dielectric losses.

The conduction-dielectric efficiency 𝑒𝑐𝑑 is defined as the ratio of the power

delivered to the radiation resistance 𝑅𝑟 to the power delivered to 𝑅𝑟 and 𝑅𝐿 .

The radiation efficiency can be written as:

𝑃𝑟 𝑅𝑟
𝑒𝑐𝑑 = =
𝑃𝑟 + 𝑃𝐿 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿

Example:

Calculate the radiation efficiency of an antenna if the input power is 100 W and
the power dissipated in it is 1W.

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Example:

A dipole antenna, with a total loss resistance of 1 ohm, is connected to a generator

whose internal impedance is 50 + j25 ohms. Assuming that the peak voltage of
the generator is 2V and the impedance of the dipole, excluding the loss resistance
is 73 + j42.5 ohms, find the followings:
Must .... ZA + 1

a) The power supplied by the source

b) The power radiated by the antenna
c) The power dissipated on the antenna
d) The power input to the antenna
e) The power dissipated on the generator

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Page29
Antenna and Propagation Purely resistive, because it did not

Semester 1 say 50 + j something .... so 50 + 0j

2025-2026 Thus Zg=Rg + 0j will be Zg=Rg

Example:

An antenna with a radiation resistance of 48 ohms, a loss resistance of 2 ohms,

and a reactance of 50 ohms is connected to a generator with open circuit voltage
of 10 V and internal impedance of 50 ohms via a 𝜆4 long transmission line with
characteristic impedance of 100 ohms. Answer the followings:

a) Draw the equivalent circuit

b) Determine the power supplied by the generator
c) Determine the power radiated by the antenna

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10. Bandwidth

The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as “the range of frequencies within which

the performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristic, conforms to
a specified standard”. The bandwidth can be considered to be the range of
frequencies, on either side of a center frequency, where the antenna
characteristics (such as input impedance, pattern, beamwidth, polarization, side
lobe level, gain, radiation efficiency) are within an acceptable value. For
broadband antennas, the bandwidth is usually expressed as the ratio of the upper-
to-lower frequencies of acceptable operation. For example, a 10:1 bandwidth
indicates that the upper frequency is 10 times greater than the lower. For
narrowband antennas, the bandwidth is expressed as a percentage of the
frequency difference (upper minus lower) over the center frequency of the
bandwidth. For example, a 5% bandwidth indicates that the frequency difference
of acceptable operation is 5% of the center frequency of the bandwidth.
Mathematically bandwidth of both antenna types is expressed as:

bandwidth
For Broadband Antennas: upper frequency limit (Highest)

𝑓𝑈
𝐵𝑊 =
𝑓𝐿
lower frequency limit (lowest)

For Narrowband Antennas:

𝑓𝑈 − 𝑓𝐿
𝐵𝑊 = × 100%
𝑓0

center frequency

(𝑓𝑈 + 𝑓𝐿 )
𝑓0 =
2

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11. Polarization

The polarization of an antenna is the polarization of the wave radiated by the

antenna in the far-field. In the far-field region of the antenna, the radiated field
essentially has a spherical wavefront with E and H fields transverse to the radial
direction, which is the direction of propagation. As the radius of curvature tends
to infinity, the wavefront can be considered as a plane wave locally and the
polarization of this plane wave is the polarization of the antenna.

Notes:

• In the far-field region, the electric field (E) and magnetic field (H) are both
transverse to the direction of wave propagation. This means that:
➢ The electric field is perpendicular to the radial direction (the direction of
propagation).
➢ The magnetic field is also perpendicular to the radial direction.
➢ The electric and magnetic fields are also perpendicular to each other.
• The direction of propagation is radial, pointing outward from the antenna.
This is often denoted as the r-direction in spherical coordinates.
• The E and H fields are related by the intrinsic impedance of the medium
through which the wave is propagating. For any medium

|𝐸| 𝜇 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
𝜂= =√ =√
intrinsic impedance |𝐻| 𝜀 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟

• In free space, 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜀𝑟 = 1 and the intrinsic impedance becomes

𝜇0
𝜂=√ = 120𝜋 ≈ 377 Ω
𝜀0

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Where:

𝜇0 is the permeability of free space (𝜇0 ≈ 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/𝑚)

YOU MUST KNOW IT YOUR-SELF

𝜀0 is the permittivity of free space (𝜀0 ≈ 8.854 × 10−12 𝐹/𝑚)

Polarization of a plane wave describes the shape, orientation, and sense of rotation
of the tip of the electric field vector as a function of time, looking in the direction
of propagation. Consider a general situation in which the radiated electric field
has both 𝜃 and 𝜑 components

𝐸 = 𝑎𝜃 𝐸𝜃 + 𝑎𝜑 𝐸𝜑

Where 𝐸𝜃 and 𝐸𝜑 are functions of (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑) and can be complex. The

instantaneous values of the electric field can be written as

𝜁(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑, 𝑡) = 𝑎𝜃 𝑅𝑒(𝐸𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝑤𝑡 ) + 𝑎𝜑 𝑅𝑒(𝐸𝜑 𝑒 𝑗𝑤𝑡 )

Let 𝐸𝜃 = 𝐴 𝑒 𝑗𝛼 and 𝐸𝜑 = 𝐵 𝑒 𝑗𝛽 , where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are the magnitudes and 𝛼 and 𝛽

are the phase angles of 𝐸𝜃 and 𝐸𝜑 respectively.

𝜁(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑, 𝑡) = 𝑎𝜃 𝐴 cos(𝑤𝑡 + 𝛼) + 𝑎𝜑 𝐵 cos(𝑤𝑡 + 𝛽)

Depending on the values of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝛼, 𝛽 , the tip of the 𝜁 field vector can trace a
straight line, a circle, or an ellipse. These three cases are termed as linear, circular,
and elliptical polarizations.

o Linear Polarization

Consider a field with 𝐵 = 0 , such an electric field has only a 𝜃 -component. Then
the tip of the electric field traces a straight line along the 𝑎𝜃 -direction. On the
other hand, if 𝐴 = 0 and 𝐵 ≠ 0 the antenna is still linearly polarized but the
orientation of the electric field is along 𝑎𝜑 . If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are not equal to zero and
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the 𝜃 and 𝜑 components of the electric field are in phase, i.e., if 𝛼 = 𝛽 the wave
is still linearly polarized but the resultant vector is tilted with respect to 𝑎𝜃 and
the angle of the tilt depends on the 𝐴/𝐵 ratio. The plane of polarization makes an
angle tan−1 (𝐵𝐴) to the 𝑎𝜃 -direction.

from here, study in the Linear Polarization PDF

o Circular Polarization

If 𝐴 = 𝐵 and 𝛽 = (𝛼 − 𝜋2), the electric field vector is given by

𝜁(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑, 𝑡) = 𝐴[𝑎𝜃 cos(𝑤𝑡 + 𝛼) + 𝑎𝜑 sin(𝑤𝑡 + 𝛼)]

As a function of time, the electric field vector traces a circle as shown in Figure
below. The direction of rotation of the tip of the electric field vector is clockwise,
looking in the direction of wave propagation, which is the positive r-direction.
This can also be represented by a right-handed screw that moves along the
direction of propagation if rotated clockwise. Such a wave is called a right

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circularly polarized (RCP) wave, and the antenna is known as an RCP antenna.
For 𝐴 = 𝐵 and 𝛽 = (𝛼 + 𝜋2), the electric field vector will still trace a circle but will
rotate anticlockwise. Such a wave is called a left circularly polarized (LCP) wave
and the antenna producing it would be an LCP antenna.

o Elliptical Polarization

In general, for 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵 ≠ 0 and 𝛼 ≠ 𝛽 , represents an elliptically polarized wave. At

any point in space, the tip of the electric field of an elliptically polarized wave
traces an ellipse as a function of time as shown in Figure 2-10. The ratio of lengths
of the major and minor axes of the ellipse is known as the axial ratio (AR).

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝐴𝑅 =
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 min 𝑜 𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

The orientation of the major axis with respect to the 𝑎𝜃 -axis is known as the tilt
angle. Linear and circular polarizations are the two special cases of elliptical
polarization with 𝐴𝑅 = ∞ and 𝐴𝑅 = 1 , respectively.

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➢ Polarization Loss Factor

The Polarization Loss Factor (PLF) is an important concept in wireless

communication and antenna theory, particularly in the context of mismatched
polarizations between transmitting and receiving antennas. It quantifies the
reduction in signal strength (or power) that occurs when the polarizations of the
antennas do not align perfectly.

Polarization Mismatch occurs when the transmitting and receiving antennas

have different polarization orientations, causing a loss in signal reception.

The PLF is defined as the square of the cosine of the angle between the
polarization vectors of the transmitting and receiving antennas:

𝑃𝐿𝐹 = |𝑒𝑇 𝑒𝑅 |2 = cos 2(𝜓)

Where:

𝑒𝑇 is the polarization vector of the transmitting antenna

𝑒𝑅 is the polarization vector of the receiving antenna

𝜓 is the angle between the two polarization vectors (also called the Polarization
mismatch angle).

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Notes:

• When the antennas are perfectly aligned (𝜓 = 0°), and PLF is 1, meaning
there is no loss due to polarization mismatch.

𝑃𝐿𝐹 = cos 2 (0) = 1

• When the antennas are completely misaligned (𝜓 = 90°), the PLF is 0,

meaning the signal cannot be received at all due to polarization mismatch.

𝑃𝐿𝐹 = cos 2(90) = 0

• For other angles, the PLF will be between 0 and 1, depending on the degree
of mismatch.

• When a circularly polarized antenna communicates with a linearly

polarized antenna, there is a polarization mismatch because the two
antennas have different polarization types. The polarization loss factor in
this case is equal to 0.5 which corresponds to 3 dB loss in power.

Example:

If a transmitting antenna is linearly polarized and the receiving antenna is linearly

polarized but oriented at 45° relative to the transmitter, the polarization loss factor
is:
2
1
𝑃𝐿𝐹 = cos 2(45) = ( ) = 0.5
√2

This means the receiver gets only 50% of the transmitted power due to the
polarization mismatch.

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12. Antenna Equivalent Areas

With each antenna, we can associate several equivalent areas. These are used to
describe the power capturing characteristics of the antenna when a wave impinges
on it. One of these equivalent areas is the effective area (aperture), which is the
area through which an antenna absorbs power from an incident plane wave. It is
mathematically defined as:

𝑃𝑇 |𝐼𝑇 |2 𝑅𝑇
𝐴𝑒 = =
𝑊𝑖 2 𝑊𝑖

Where:

𝐴𝑒 is the effective area (effective aperture) in m2

𝑃𝑇 is the power delivered to the load in W

𝑊𝑖 is the power density of the incident wave in W/m 2

Using the equivalent circuit of Figure below(b), we can write the above equation
as

a) Antenna in receiving mode

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b) Equivalent circuit

|𝑉𝑇 |2 𝑅𝑇
𝐴𝑒 = [ ]
2 𝑊𝑖 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑇 )2 + (𝑋𝐴 + 𝑋𝑇 )2

Under conditions of maximum power transfer (conjugate matching), 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇

and 𝑋𝐴 = −𝑋𝑇 , the effective area of previous equation reduces to the maximum
effective aperture given by:

|𝑉𝑇 |2 𝑅𝑇 |𝑉𝑇 |2 1
𝐴𝑒𝑚 = [ ]= [ ]
8 𝑊𝑖 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 8 𝑊𝑖 𝑅 𝑇

All of the power that is intercepted, collected, or captured by an antenna is not

delivered to the load, as we have seen using the equivalent circuit of Figure
above(b). In fact, under conjugate matching only half of the captured power is
delivered to the load; the other half is scattered and dissipated as heat. Therefore,
to account for the scattered and dissipated power we need to define, in addition
to the effective area, the scattering, loss and capture equivalent areas.

The scattering area is defined as the equivalent area when multiplied by the
incident power density is equal to the scattered or reradiated power. Under
conjugate matching this is written as:
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|𝑉𝑇 |2 𝑅𝑟
𝐴𝑠 = [ ]
8 𝑊𝑖 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 )2

Which when multiplied by the incident power density gives the scattering power.

The loss area is defined as the equivalent area, which when multiplied by the
incident power density leads to the power dissipated as heat through RL. Under
conjugate matching this is written as:

|𝑉𝑇 |2 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝐿 = [ ]
8 𝑊𝑖 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 )2

Finally, the capture area is defined as the equivalent area, which when multiplied
by the incident power density leads to the total power captured, collected, or
intercepted by the antenna. Under conjugate matching this is written as:

|𝑉𝑇 |2 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑐 = [ ]
8 𝑊𝑖 (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 )2

In general, the total capture area is equal to the sum of the other three, or

𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 + 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Now that the equivalent areas have been defined, let us introduce the aperture
efficiency 𝜖𝑎𝑝 of an antenna, which is defined as “the ratio of the maximum
effective area of the antenna to its physical area

𝐴𝑒𝑚
𝜖𝑎𝑝 =
𝐴𝑝

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13. Maximum Directivity and Maximum Effective Area

To derive the relationship between directivity and maximum effective area, the
geometrical arrangement of Figure below is chosen. Antenna 1 is used as a
transmitter and antenna 2 as a receiver. The effective areas and directivities of
each are designated as 𝐴𝑡 , 𝐴𝑟 and 𝐷𝑡 , 𝐷𝑟 . If antenna 1 was isotropic, its radiated
power density at a distance 𝑅 would be

𝑃𝑟
𝑊0 =
4𝜋𝑅 2

Where 𝑃𝑟 is the radiated power of antenna 1.

Because of the directive properties of the antenna, its actual density is

𝑃𝑟 𝐷𝑡
𝑊𝑡 = 𝑊0 𝐷𝑡 =
4𝜋𝑅2

The power collected (received) by antenna 2 and transferred to the load would be

𝑃𝑟 𝐷𝑡 𝐴𝑟
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐 = 𝑊𝑡 𝐴𝑟 =
4𝜋𝑅2

Or

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐
𝐷𝑡 𝐴𝑟 = (4𝜋𝑅2 )
𝑃𝑟

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If antenna 2 is used as a transmitter, and antenna 1 as a receiver, and the

intervening medium is linear, passive, and isotropic, we can write that

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐
𝐷𝑟 𝐴𝑡 = (4𝜋𝑅2 )
𝑃𝑟

Equating the above two equations

𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑟
=
𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑟

Increasing the directivity of an antenna increases its effective area in direct

proportion. Thus

𝐷0𝑡 𝐷0𝑟
=
𝐴𝑡𝑚 𝐴𝑟𝑚

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Where 𝐴𝑡𝑚 (𝐷0𝑡 ) and 𝐴𝑟𝑚 (𝐷0𝑟 ) are the maximum effective areas (directivities) of
antennas 1 and 2, respectively.

If antenna 1 is isotropic, then 𝐷0𝑡 = 1 and its maximum effective area can be
expressed as

𝐴𝑟𝑚
𝐴𝑡𝑚 =
𝐷0𝑟

The above equation states that the maximum effective area of an isotropic source
is equal to the ratio of the maximum effective area to the maximum directivity of
any other source. In general, the maximum effective area (𝐴𝑒𝑚 ) of any antenna is
related to its maximum directivity (𝐷0 ) by

𝜆2
𝐴𝑒𝑚 = 𝐷
4𝜋 0

Thus, when the above equation is multiplied by the power density of the incident
wave it leads to the maximum power that can be delivered to the load. This
assumes that there are no conduction-dielectric losses (radiation efficiency 𝑒𝑐𝑑 is
unity), the antenna is matched to the load (reflection efficiency 𝑒𝑟 is unity), and
polarization loss factor PLF is unity.

If there are losses associated with an antenna, its maximum effective aperture
must be modified to account for conduction-dielectric losses (radiation
efficiency), reflection efficiency, and polarization losses. Thus,

𝜆2
𝐴𝑒𝑚 = 𝑒𝑐𝑑 𝑒𝑟 ( ) 𝐷 𝑃𝐿𝐹
4𝜋 0

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Example:

An antenna has a maximum effective aperture of 2.147 m 2 at its operating

frequency of 100 MHz. It has no conduction or dielectric losses. The input
impedance of the antenna itself is 75 ohms, and it is connected to a 50-ohm
transmission line. Find the directivity of the antenna. Assume no polarization
losses.

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Example:

A small circular parabolic reflector, often referred to as dish, is now being

advertised as a TV antenna for direct broadcast. Assuming the diameter of the
antenna is 1 meter, the frequency of operation is 3 GHz, and its aperture efficiency
is 68%, determine the following:

(a) Physical area of the reflector (in m2).

(b) Maximum effective area of the antenna (in m2).
(c) Maximum directivity (dimensionless and in dB).
(d) Maximum power (in watts) that can be delivered to the TV if the power
density of the wave incident upon the antenna is 10 µwatts/m2. Assume no
losses between the incident wave and the receiver (TV).

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14. Antenna Temperature

Every object with a physical temperature above absolute zero (0 K = -273°C)

radiates energy. The amount of energy radiated is usually represented by an
equivalent temperature 𝑇𝐵 better known as brightness temperature, and it is
defined as

𝑇𝐵 (𝜃, 𝜑) = 𝜖(𝜃, 𝜑) 𝑇𝑚 = (1 − |Γ|2 ) 𝑇𝑚

Where:

𝑇𝐵 is brightness temperature in Kelvin

𝜖 is emissivity (dimensionless)

𝑇𝑚 is molecular (physical) temperature in Kelvin

Γ is reflection coefficient of the surface for the polarization of the wave

Note: emissivity is a measure of how efficiently a surface emits thermal radiation

compared to an ideal blackbody. It is a dimensionless quantity ranging from 0 to
1, where:

• Emissivity = 1: The object is a perfect blackbody, meaning it emits the

maximum possible amount of radiation at a given temperature (ideal
emitter).
• Emissivity = 0: The object does not emit any thermal radiation at all (ideal
reflector).

Assuming no losses or other contributions between the antenna and the receiver,
the noise power transferred to the receiver is given by

𝑃𝑛 = 𝑘 𝑇𝐴 Δ𝑓

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Where:

𝑃𝑛 is antenna noise power in Watt

𝑘 is Boltzmann’s constant (1.38×10-23 J/K)

𝑇𝐴 is antenna temperature in Kelvin

Δ𝑓 is bandwidth in Hz

If the antenna and transmission line are maintained at certain physical

temperatures, and the transmission line between the antenna and receiver is lossy,
the antenna temperature 𝑇𝐴 as seen by the receiver must be modified to include
the other contributions and the line losses. If the antenna itself is maintained at a
certain physical temperature 𝑇𝑝 and a transmission line of length 𝑙 , constant
physical temperature 𝑇0 throughout its length, and uniform attenuation of 𝛼
(Np/unit length) is used to connect an antenna to a receiver, as shown in Figure
below:

The effective antenna temperature at the receiver terminals is given by:

𝑇𝑎 = 𝑇𝐴 𝑒 −2𝛼𝑙 + 𝑇𝐴𝑃 𝑒 −2𝛼𝑙 + 𝑇0 (1 − 𝑒 −2𝛼𝑙 )

Where:

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1
𝑇𝐴𝑃 = ( − 1) 𝑇𝑝
𝑒𝐴

𝑇𝑎 is antenna temperature at receiver terminals in Kelvin

𝑇𝐴 is antenna noise temperature at the antenna terminals in Kelvin

𝑇𝐴𝑃 is antenna temperature at the antenna terminals due to physical temperature

in Kelvin

𝑇𝑝 is antenna physical temperature in Kelvin

𝛼 is attenuation coefficient of transmission line in Neper/meter

𝑒𝐴 is thermal efficiency of antenna (dimensionless)

𝑙 is length of transmission line in meter

𝑇0 is physical temperature of transmission line in Kelvin

The antenna noise power must also be modified and written as

𝑃𝑛 = 𝑘 𝑇𝑎 Δ𝑓

If the receiver itself has a certain noise temperature 𝑇𝑟 (due to thermal noise in the
receiver components), the system noise power at the receiver terminals is given
by

𝑃𝑠 = 𝑘(𝑇𝑎 + 𝑇𝑟 )Δ𝑓 = 𝑘 𝑇𝑠 Δ𝑓

Where:

𝑃𝑠 is the system noise power (at receiver terminals)

𝑇𝑟 is receiver noise temperature (at receiver terminals) in Kelvin

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𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑇𝑟 , 𝑇𝑠 is the effective system noise temperature (at receiver terminals) in

Kelvin

Notes:

❖ To convert Celsius to Kelvin

𝑇(𝐾) = 𝑇(℃) + 273.15

❖ To convert Fahrenheit to Kelvin

5
𝑇(𝐾) = ((𝑇(℉) − 32) × ) + 273.15
9

Example:

The effective antenna temperature of a target at the input terminals of the antenna
is 150 K. Assuming that the antenna is maintained at a thermal temperature of
300 K and has a thermal efficiency of 99% and it is connected to a receiver
through an X-band (8.2-12.4 GHz) rectangular waveguide of 10 m (loss of
waveguide = 0.13 dB/m) and at a temperature of 300 K, find the effective antenna
temperature at the receiver terminals

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15. Reciprocity Theorem

If a voltage is applied to the terminals of an antenna A and the current measured

at the terminals of another antenna B then an equal current will be obtained at
the terminals of antenna A if the same voltage is applied to the terminals of
antenna B.

Thus, in the above Figure, if 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑏 then the reciprocity theorem states that 𝐼𝑎 =
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏
𝐼𝑏 and can be extended to show that = .
𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑏

A necessary consequence of this theorem is that the antenna gain must be the
same whether used for receiving or transmitting, so all of the gain and pattern
characteristics derived so far are fully applicable in receive mode.

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