 Probability Sampling

 Non-probability Sampling
Introduction

An element is the entity on which data are collected.

A population is the set of all the elements of interest.

A sample is a subset of the population.

A frame is a list of the elements that the sample will

be selected from.

The reason we select a sample is to collect data to

answer a research question about a population.
Introduction

The sample results provide only estimates of the

values of the population characteristics.

The reason is simply that the sample contains only a

portion of the population.

With proper sampling methods, the sample results

can provide “good” estimates of the population
characteristics.
Three Criteria in Determining the Sample Size

Level of precision - used to estimate the true value of a population. It is also

known as sampling error. Most of the time, the level of precision is expressed as
percentage points.

Level of confidence - also known as the risk level, is the probability that the
sample obtained is representative of the true population value.

Degree of variability - is the distribution of attributes in the

population. The more heterogeneous a population is, the larger the
sample size needed to obtain a specific level of precision.
A proportion of 50% has a greater degree of variability than either 30%
or 70% as it is the maximum variability in a population.
Slovin’s Formula

𝑁𝑁
𝑛𝑛 =
1 + 𝑁𝑁𝑒𝑒 2

Where,

n = the number of samples

N = the number of population
e = the margin of error (level of precision)

After obtaining the sample size, we can employ different procedure

to obtain the samples. Each sample can be chosen randomly or
specifically.

Video Tutorial: [Link]

Example 1
How many samples are required in a study of the learning styles of
students if 5,000 students in Hogwarts are to be considered using a 5%
margin of error?

𝑁𝑁
𝑛𝑛 =
1 + 𝑁𝑁𝑒𝑒 2

Where,

𝑁𝑁 = 5000
𝑒𝑒 = .05

Solution:

5000
𝑛𝑛 =
1 + 5000 (0.05)2

5000
𝑛𝑛 =
13.5
= 370.37 = 370 samples
Example 2

How many samples are required in a study of the learning styles of

students if 5,000 students in Hogwarts are to be considered using 97%
precision?
𝑁𝑁
𝑛𝑛 =
1 + 𝑁𝑁𝑒𝑒 2

𝑒𝑒 = 100% − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 confidence level

𝑒𝑒 = 100% − 97%

𝒆𝒆 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑 or .03
Example 2

How many samples are required in a study of the learning styles of

students if 5,000 students in Hogwarts are to be considered using 97%
precision?
𝑁𝑁
𝑛𝑛 =
1 + 𝑁𝑁𝑒𝑒 2

Where,

𝑁𝑁 = 5000
𝑒𝑒 = .03

Solution:

5000
𝑛𝑛 =
1 + 5000 (0.03)2

𝑛𝑛 =
5000
5.5
= 909.09 = 909 samples
Probability Sampling

The sampling procedure where every element of a population is given an equal chance
of being selected is called a probability sampling.

Simple random sampling – this is the most basic and widely used sampling
plans. This can be done by drawing lots or using the random function of a
scientific calculator. Every element of the population has the same chance of
being selected.

Systematic random sampling – this involves the random selection of one of

the first k elements in an ordered population and the systematic selection of
every kth element thereafter.
Probability Sampling

Stratified random sampling – this involves selecting a simple random

sample from each of a given number of subpopulations or strata. The
grouping may be done in different ways such as income grouping, gender,
educational attainment, race, age, and others.

Cluster sampling – this involves performing a sampling method to a smaller

area if the population is too big. The population may be divided by regions,
divisions, or districts.
Selecting a Sample

 Sampling from a Finite Population

 Sampling from a Process
 Finite populations are often defined by lists such as:
• Organization membership roster
• Credit card account numbers
• Inventory product numbers

 A simple random sample of size n from a finite

population of size N is a sample selected such that each
possible sample of size n has the same probability of
being selected.
 Replacing each sampled element before selecting
subsequent elements is called sampling with
replacement.
 Sampling without replacement is the procedure
used most often.
 In large sampling projects, computer-generated
random numbers are often used to automate the
sample selection process.
Sampling from a Finite Population

 Example: St. Andrew’s College

St. Andrew’s College received 900 applications for
admission in the upcoming year from prospective
students. The applicants were numbered, from 1 to
900, as their applications arrived. The Director of
Admissions would like to select a simple random
sample of 30 applicants.
Sampling from a Finite Population Using Excel

 Example: St. Andrew’s College

Step 1: Assign a random number to each of the 900
applicants.

Excel’s RAND function generates

random numbers between 0 and 1

Step 2: Select the 30 applicants corresponding to the

30 smallest random numbers.
Sampling from a Finite Population Using Excel

 Excel Formula Worksheet

A B
Applicant Random
1 Number Number
2 1 =RAND()
3 2 =RAND()
4 3 =RAND()
5 4 =RAND()
6 5 =RAND()
7 6 =RAND()
8 7 =RAND()
9 8 =RAND()
Note: Rows 10-901 are not shown.
Sampling from a Finite Population Using Excel

 Excel Value Worksheet

A B
Applicant Random
1 Number Number
2 1 0.61021
3 2 0.83762
4 3 0.58935
5 4 0.19934
6 5 0.86658
7 6 0.60579
8 7 0.80960
9 8 0.33224
Note: Rows 10-901 are not shown.
Sampling from a Finite Population Using Excel

 Put Random Numbers in Ascending Order

Step 1 Select any cell in the range B2:B901
Step 2 Click the Home tab on the Ribbon
Step 3 In the Editing group, click Sort & Filter
Step 4 Choose Sort Smallest to Largest
Sampling from a Finite Population Using Excel

 Excel Value Worksheet (Sorted)

A B
Applicant Random
1 Number Number
2 12 0.00027
3 773 0.00192
4 408 0.00303
5 58 0.00481
6 116 0.00538
7 185 0.00583
8 510 0.00649
9 394 0.00667
Note: Rows 10-901 are not shown.
Video Tutorial: [Link]
Sampling from a Process

 Populations are often defined by an ongoing process

whereby the elements of the population consist of
items generated as though the process would operate
indefinitely.
 Some examples of on-going processes, with infinite
populations, are:
• parts being manufactured on a production line
• transactions occurring at a bank
• telephone calls arriving at a technical help desk
• customers entering a store
Sampling from a Process

 In the case of infinite populations, it is impossible to

obtain a list of all elements in the population.
 The sampled population is such that a frame cannot
be constructed.
 The random number selection procedure cannot be
used for infinite populations.
 A random sample from an infinite population is a
sample selected such that the following conditions
are satisfied.
• Each of the sampled elements is independent.
• Each of the sampled elements follows the same
probability distribution as the elements in the
population.
Practical Advice

The target population is the population we want to

make inferences about.

The sampled population is the population from

which the sample is actually taken.

Whenever a sample is used to make inferences about

a population, we should make sure that the targeted
population and the sampled population are in close
agreement.
Systematic Sampling

If a sample size of n is desired from a population

containing N elements, we might sample one
element for every n/N elements in the population.

We randomly select one of the first n/N elements

from the population list.

We then select every n/Nth element that follows in

the population list.
Systematic Sampling

This method has the properties of a simple random

sample, especially if the list of the population
elements is a random ordering.

Advantage: The sample usually will be easier to

identify than it would be if simple random sampling
were used.

Example: Selecting every 100th listing in a telephone

book after the first randomly selected listing

Video Tutorial: [Link]

Stratified Random Sampling

The population is first divided into groups of

elements called strata.

Each element in the population belongs to one and

only one stratum.

Best results are obtained when the elements within

each stratum are as much alike as possible
(i.e. a homogeneous group).
Stratified Random Sampling

A simple random sample is taken from each stratum.

Formulas are available for combining the stratum

sample results into one population parameter
estimate.

Advantage: If strata are homogeneous, this method

is as “precise” as simple random sampling but with
a smaller total sample size.

Example: The basis for forming the strata might be

department, location, age, industry type, and so on.

Video Tutorial: [Link]

Cluster Sampling

The population is first divided into separate groups

of elements called clusters.

Ideally, each cluster is a representative small-scale

version of the population (i.e. heterogeneous group).

A simple random sample of the clusters is then taken.

All elements within each sampled (chosen) cluster

form the sample.
Cluster Sampling

Example: A primary application is area sampling,

where clusters are city blocks or other well-defined
areas.

Advantage: The close proximity of elements can be

cost effective (i.e. many sample observations can be
obtained in a short time).

Disadvantage: This method generally requires a

larger total sample size than simple or stratified
random sampling.

Video Tutorial: [Link]

Non-probability Sampling

In non-probability sampling (also known as non-random sampling) not

all members of the population have a chance to participate in the study.
In other words, this method is based on non-random selection criteria.

Sampling can rely on the subjective judgment of the researcher.

Video Tutorial: [Link]

Convenience Sampling

It is a nonprobability sampling technique. Items are

included in the sample without known probabilities
of being selected.

The sample is identified primarily by convenience.

Example: A professor conducting research might use

student volunteers to constitute a sample.
Convenience Sampling

Advantage: Sample selection and data collection are

relatively easy.

Disadvantage: It is impossible to determine how

representative of the population the sample is.
Judgment Sampling

The person most knowledgeable on the subject of the

study selects elements of the population that he or
she feels are most representative of the population.

It is a nonprobability sampling technique.

Example: A reporter might sample three or four

senators, judging them as reflecting the general
opinion of the senate.
Judgment Sampling

Advantage: It is a relatively easy way of selecting a

sample.

Disadvantage: The quality of the sample results

depends on the judgment of the person selecting the
sample.
Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is a sampling methodology wherein data are collected

from a homogeneous group.

It involves a two-step process where two variables can be used to filter

information from the population. It can easily be administered and helps
in quick comparison.
Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is one of the most popular methods of sampling in

qualitative research, central to which are the characteristics of the
networking and referral.

The researchers usually start with a small number of initial contacts

(seeds) who fit the research criteria and are invited to become
participants within the research.