THE HAZELWOOD ACADEMY LOKOGOMA

SUUMMER TERM CHEMISTRY NOTES FOR SS2

WEEK 1
ACID-BASE TITRATION
Acid-Base Titration is a quantitative analytical technique used to determine the concentration of
an acid or base solution by reacting it with a solution of known concentration. It is a
neutralization reaction between an acid and a base in the presence of an indicator to show the end
point. Titrations are fundamental in chemistry laboratories, food and beverage industries,
pharmaceutical industries, and environmental studies.

Concept of Titration
Titration involves accurately measuring a known volume of one solution (usually using a pipette) and
adding another solution of known concentration from a burette until neutralization (end point) is
reached. The reaction is typically:

The solution in the burette is called the titrant and the solution in the conical flask is the analyte.

Acid-Base Theories
1. Arrhenius Theory: Acids produce H⁺ ions in aqueous solutions, bases produce OH⁻ ions.
2. Bronsted-Lowry Theory: Acid is the Proton donor; Base is the Proton acceptor.
3. Lewis Theory: Acid: Electron-pair acceptor; Base: Electron-pair donor.

Apparatus Used in Titration

Apparatus/Material Description and Use

Burette Graduated glass tube with a tap at the bottom to deliver precise volumes
of titrant.
Pipette Used to accurately measure and transfer a fixed volume of solution (e.g.,
25 cm³).

Conical Flask Holds the solution being analyzed (analyte).

Measuring Cylinder For measuring approximate volumes of solutions.

White Tile Placed under the flask to help observe color change clearly.

Funnels Used to fill burettes safely without spillage

Indicators Chemicals that change color to indicate end point.

Wash Bottle Contains distilled water for rinsing equipment

Stand and Clamp For holding burette vertically.

Indicators in Acid-Base Titration

Indicator Acid-Base Pair Example Colour Change pH

Range

Phenolphthalein Strong acid vs strong base; weak acid Colourless → Pink 8.3 –
vs strong base 10.0

Methyl Orange Strong acid vs strong base Red → Orange → 3.1 – 4.4
Yellow

Litmus General indicator Red (acidic) → Blue ~7.0

(basic)

Procedure for Acid-Base Titration

1. Preparation of Apparatus:
i. Rinse the burette with the acid solution to be used as titrant.
ii. Rinse the pipette with the alkali/base solution.
iii. Rinse the conical flask with distilled water only.
2. Filling the burette: Fill the burette with the acid (titrant) and clamp it vertically. Record the
initial reading (at the meniscus level) to 2 decimal places.
3. Measuring the analyte: use a pipette filler to draw exactly 25.0 cm³ of the base (e.g., NaOH)
 into the conical flask.
4. Adding indicator: Add 2–3 drops of the chosen indicator (e.g., phenolphthalein).
5. Detecting endpoint: The endpoint is reached when the indicator changes color (e.g., colorless to
faint pink).
6. Repeat for accuracy: Perform 2–3 concordant titres (titres within 0.1 cm³ of each other).
Calculate the average titre value.

Calculation Involved in Titration

Practical Applications of Titration

1. Determining acidity of vinegar and soft drinks.

2. Quality control in pharmaceutical industries.

3. Estimating alkalinity of water in environmental monitoring.

4. Food processing (acidity and alkalinity regulation).

5. Used in fertilizer and chemical manufacturing to determine chemical purity.

Precautionary Measures

1. Rinse all apparatus with appropriate solutions before use.

2. Read burette values at eye level to avoid parallax error.

 3. Add titrant slowly near endpoint.

4. Ensure concordant titres (repeat titration).

5. Use appropriate indicators for accurate detection.

6. Work in a well-lit lab with white tile to observe color change clearly.

WEEK 2
NON-METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS

General Properties of Non-metals

1. Non-metals are found on the right side of the periodic table (except hydrogen).
2. They usually form anions (negative ions) by gaining electrons, or they share electrons to form
covalent bonds.
3. Non-metals are electronegative (tend to attract electrons)
4. Unlike metals, they do not exhibit metallic luster, malleability, or ductility.
5. They exist in various physical states:
Solids: sulphur (S), phosphorus (P), carbon (C).
Liquids: bromine (Br₂).
Gases: hydrogen (H₂), oxygen (O₂), nitrogen (N₂), chlorine (Cl₂).
General Characteristics of Non-metals
1. Poor conductors of electricity (except graphite).

2. Low melting and boiling points (except diamond and graphite).

3. Form acidic oxides (CO₂, SO₂, P₂O₅).

4. React with hydrogen to form volatile covalent compounds (HCl, NH₃).

5. Have variable oxidation states.

HYDROGEN (H2)
Occurrence
1. Most abundant element in the universe (~70% of universe’s mass).

2. Occurs combined in:

i. Water (H₂O)

ii. Hydrocarbons (CH₄, C₂H₆, etc.)

iii. Acids (HCl, H₂SO₄)

iv. Organic compounds (proteins, carbohydrates, fats).

Laboratory Preparation
1. Action of Dilute Acids on Reactive Metals (Zn + HCl):

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

o Apparatus: flask, thistle funnel, delivery tube, gas jar over water.

o Drying agent: calcium chloride.

2. Action of Water on Alkali Metals (e.g., Na +

H₂O): 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Physical Properties
1. Colourless, odourless, tasteless gas.

2. Lightest element (density = 0.069 relative to air).

3. Slightly soluble in water (collected by downward displacement of water).

4. Neutral to litmus paper.

Chemical Properties
1. Combustion: Burns in oxygen with a pale blue flame to form water.

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
 2. Reaction with Halogens: Explosively combines with chlorine in sunlight.

H2+Cl2 → 2HCl

3. Reducing Agent: Reduces metal oxides to metals.

CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
4. Synthesis Reactions:
o With nitrogen to form ammonia:

N2+3H2→Fe catalyst, 450∘C, 200atm

o With unsaturated oils (hydrogenation):

C2H4 + H2 → NiC2H6

Uses of Hydrogen
1. Production of ammonia (Haber process).

2. Hydrogenation of vegetable oils into margarine.

3. Used as rocket fuel (liquid H₂ + liquid O₂).

4. Welding (oxy-hydrogen flame).

5. As a reducing agent in metallurgy.

OXYGEN (O2)

Occurrence
 Constitutes 21% of atmospheric air.

 Present in water and oxides.

 Found in minerals (silicates, carbonates, sulphates).

Physical Properties
1. Colourless, odourless, tasteless gas.

2. Slightly soluble in water.

3. Denser than air.

4. Neutral to litmus.

Chemical Properties
1. Supports Combustion: Candle burns brighter in oxygen.
2. Reaction with metals:
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
3. Reaction with non-metals:
C + O2 → CO2 S

+ O2 → SO2

4. Formation of Oxides: Basic oxides (Na₂O), acidic oxides (SO₂), amphoteric oxides
(ZnO).
Uses of Oxygen
1. Essential for respiration and combustion.

2. Used in hospitals for patients.

3. Oxy-acetylene flame for welding.

4. Steel manufacturing (Bessemer process).

 5. Rocket fuel oxidant.

NITROGEN (N2)
Occurrence
 Constitutes ~78% of atmospheric air.

 Found in nitrates (KNO₃, NaNO₃), proteins, fertilizers.

Laboratory Preparation
 By removing oxygen from air using alkaline pyrogallol.

 Industrially obtained by fractional distillation of liquid air.

Physical Properties
a. Colourless, odourless, tasteless gas.

b. Very inert at room temperature (strong triple bond, N≡N).

c. Slightly soluble in water.

d. Lighter than air.

Chemical Properties
1. Inertness: Does not react easily at room temperature.
2. Reactions at high temperature/pressure:

Uses of Nitrogen
a. Production of ammonia and fertilizers.

b. Manufacture of nitric acid (via Ostwald process).

 c. Liquid nitrogen used as a coolant.

d. Provides inert atmosphere in food preservation and light bulbs.

e. Manufacture of explosives (TNT, nitroglycerin).

Comparative Summary of Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen

Property Hydrogen (H₂) Oxygen (O₂) Nitrogen (N₂)

% in air 0.01% 21% 78%

Density Lightest gas Heavier than air Slightly lighter than air

Reactivity Moderate, reducing Strong oxidizing Very inert at room

agent agent temp

Solubility in Slightly soluble Slightly soluble Slightly soluble

water

Industrial use Haber process, welding Respiration, welding Fertilizers, preservation

Assignment
1. Compare the reactivity of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, explaining why nitrogen is
inert at room temperature.

2. (a) Explain the role of iron catalyst in the Haber process.

(b) Why are high pressure and moderate temperature used in the process?

3. Write balanced equations for the reactions of oxygen with:

(i) magnesium, (ii) carbon, (iii) sulphur.

4. Describe one industrial use each of liquid hydrogen, liquid oxygen, and liquid nitrogen.

WEEK 3
SULPHUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Sulphur (S) is a yellow, brittle, non-metallic element with atomic number 16 and atomic mass 32.06 g/mol.
Native sulphur deposits: Found in volcanic regions (e.g., Sicily, USA).

Combined forms
Combined forms present in minerals are:

1. Iron pyrites (FeS₂)

2. Galena (PbS)

3. Zinc blende (ZnS)

4. Copper pyrites (CuFeS₂)

5. Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O)

Allotropes of Sulphur
1. Rhombic sulphur: Stable at room temperature; yellow crystals; melts at 114 °C; density
= 2.06 g/cm³.

2. Monoclinic sulphur: Stable above 96 °C; needle-like crystals; melts at 119 °C; less
dense than rhombic sulphur.
General Properties of Sulphur
- Yellow solid, brittle, and odourless.
- Insoluble in water; soluble in carbon disulphide (CS₂).
- Burns with a blue flame to produce sulphur dioxide (SO₂).

COMPOUNDS OF SULPHUR
A. Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂)
Laboratory Preparation

Industrial preparation
Roasting of sulphide ores

Physical Properties
- Colourless gas with a pungent, choking odour.

- Denser than air (density ~2.26 kg/m³).

- Soluble in water to form sulphurous acid (H₂SO₃):

Chemical Properties
1. As an acidic oxide:

o Reacts with bases to form salts (sulphites and bisulphites):

2. As a reducing agent:

 Reduces ferric ions to ferrous ions:

 Reduces iodine to hydrogen iodide:

3. Bleaching action: Bleaches wool, silk, and paper temporarily due to reduction of coloured
compounds.

Uses of Sulphur Dioxide

1. Bleaching agent in paper and textile industries.

2. Preservative for dried fruits and wine.

3. Raw material in the manufacture of sulphuric acid (Contact Process).

4. Fumigant and disinfectant in food and agriculture.

SULPHURIC ACID (H₂SO₄)

Industrial Preparation
1. Burning sulphur:
 2. Catalytic oxidation:

3. Absorption in concentrated H₂SO₄ (oleum formation):

4. Dilution to form concentrated H₂SO₄:

Note: Sulphuric acid is highly exothermic when mixed with water; always add acid to water,
not water to acid.

Physical Properties
1. Colourless, viscous, oily liquid.

2. Density: 1.84 g/cm³; boiling point: 338 °C.

3. Miscible with water; very hygroscopic.

4. Highly corrosive to skin and metals.

Chemical Properties
1. As a strong acid:

2. As a dehydrating agent:
 Dehydrates carbohydrates to carbon and water:

3. As an oxidizing agent (concentrated H₂SO₄)

4. Formation of salts:

 Reacts with metals, bases, and metal oxides to form sulphates.

Uses of Sulphuric Acid
1. Manufacture of fertilizers: ammonium sulphate, superphosphate.

2. Petroleum refining and manufacture of detergents.

3. Electrolyte in lead-acid batteries

4. Production of dyes, paints, drugs, and explosives.

5. Laboratory reagent for dehydration, oxidation, and sulphonation reactions.

Environmental and Safety Considerations

 Sulphur dioxide is a major air pollutant, causing acid rain: SO2

+ H2O + 12O2 → H2SO4

 Sulphuric acid is corrosive; can cause burns, blindness, and environmental hazards if
spilled.
 Adequate ventilation, protective clothing, and neutralization procedures are necessary when
handling these compounds.
Comparative Overview

Property / Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂) Sulphuric Acid (H₂SO₄)

Feature

Physical State Colourless gas Colourless, viscous liquid

Odour Pungent, choking Odourless (fuming in concentrated

form)

Solubility Soluble in water → H₂SO₃ Highly soluble, hygroscopic

Chemical Nature Acidic oxide, reducing agent Strong acid, oxidizing & dehydrating
agent

Uses Bleaching, preservative, acid Fertilizers, batteries, industrial reagent

manufacture
 Hazards Irritates respiratory tract Corrosive, causes burns, environmental
hazard

WEEK 4
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Carbon (C) is a nonmetallic, tetravalent chemical element (atomic number 6) found in all living organisms and
forming more compounds than any other element. It exists in various allotropes, ranging from soft graphite to
diamond, and forms the structural backbone of organic life, essential for proteins, fats, and DNA.
 Electronic Configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p²

 Valency: 4 (tetravalent – can form 4 covalent bonds).

Allotropes of Carbon
a. Crystalline – Diamond, Graphite.

Feature Diamond Graphite

Structure Rigid tetrahedral 3D lattice Hexagonal layered structure
Hybridization Sp3 Sp2
Bonding 4 covalent bonds per carbon 3 covalent bonds + weak Van der Waals forces
Hardness Hardest natural substance Soft and slippery
Density High (~3.51g/cm3) Low ((~2.26g/cm3)
Conductivity Insulator (no free electrons) Conductor (delocalized electrons)
Appearance Transparent/brilliant sparkle Opaque/shiny black
Use Jewelry, cutting tools Lubricant, pencil lead

b. Amorphous – Coal, Charcoal, Coke.

Form Source/Preparation Properties Key Uses

Wood Heating wood in limited air Porous, light, black, Fuel, adsorption,
Charcoal (distillation) high surface area gunpowder, gas
masks

Animal Distillation of bones in Contains ~10-12% Decolorizing sugar,

Charcoal limited air carbon, high Calcium purification
 Phosphate content

Sugar Dehydration/heating of sugar Purest form of Laboratory,

Charcoal in limited air amorphous carbon adsorption,
decolorizing

Carbon Incomplete combustion of Extremely fine powder, Rubber

Black natural gas/petroleum intense black reinforcement
(tyres), inks, paints

Lamp Black Burning vegetable oils or Silky powder, finer and Printing ink, carbon
resins in limited air less oily than carbon paper, shoe polish
black

Coke Destructive distillation of Hard, porous, metallic Reducing agent in

coal luster metallurgy, fuel

Coal Natural carbonization of Contains 94-95% Fuel, industrial use

(Anthracite) wood over millions of years carbon, harder than
other coal types

Activated Further processing of Extremely high Air/water

Carbon charcoal with steam/acids porosity and surface purification,
area medicine, gas mask

Unique Properties of Carbon

1. Catenation: the unique ability of carbon atoms to link together via strong covalent bonds to form
long chains, branched structures, and rings.
2. Tetravalency: the property of a carbon atom to form four covalent bonds with other atoms to
achieve a stable electronic configuration.
3. Formation of multiple bonds: Carbon’s ability to form multiple bonds (double or triple bonds) is a
key property arising from its small atomic size, tetravalency, and ability to undergo hybridization.
This allows carbon to share more than one pair of electrons with itself or other electronegative atoms
like oxygen and nitrogen to achieve a stable octet.
4. Isomerism: Isomerism is a fundamental property of carbon where compounds share the same
molecular formula (identical numbers and types of atoms) but possess different structural
arrangements or spatial orientations. This phenomenon allows carbon to form a vast variety of
molecules with distinct physical and chemical properties from the same building blocks.
Oxides of Carbon
1. Carbon (II) oxide (CO)
a. Nature: Colourless, odourless, toxic gas.
 b. Preparation:
o By incomplete combustion of carbon: 2C

+ O₂ ⟶ 2CO

o By dehydration of formic acid with conc. H₂SO₄:

c. Properties
A. Combustible, burns with blue flame:

2CO + O₂ ⟶ 2CO₂

B. Powerful reducing agent:

Fe₂O₃ + 3CO ⟶ 2Fe + 3CO₂

d. Uses
- As a reducing agent in metallurgy (extraction of iron).

- Manufacture of methanol and synthetic fuels.

e. Hazard
- Toxic – forms carboxyhaemoglobin with blood, blocking oxygen transport → suffocation.
2. Carbon (IV) Oxide (CO₂)
a. Nature: Colourless, odourless, slightly acidic, heavier than air.

b. Preparation
i. By decomposition of carbonates:

CaCO₃ → Δ CaO + CO₂

ii. By acid + carbonate reaction:

CaCO₃ + 2HCl ⟶ CaCl₂ + H₂O + CO₂

c. Properties
i. Non-flammable, extinguishes fire.

ii. Slightly soluble in water → carbonic acid (H₂CO₃).

iii. Turns limewater milky:

 Ca(OH)₂ + CO₂ ⟶ CaCO₃

+ H₂O

d. Uses
i. Fire extinguishers.

ii. Carbonated drinks.

iii. Refrigerant (dry ice).

iv. Photosynthesis by plants.

Comparative Table: CO vs CO₂

Feature CO CO₂
Colour & Smell Colourless, odourless Colourless, odourless
Combustibility Combustible Non-combustible
Toxicity Highly poisonous Non-toxic (but suffocating in excess)
Reaction with Limewater No effect Turns limewater milky
Main Uses Metallurgy, methanol Fire extinguishers, drinks

Carbonates
Carbonates are a crucial class of inorganic salts and minerals characterized by the presence of the trigonal
planar carbonate ion (CO32-). Common examples include calcite/limestone (CaCO3), dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)
and soda ash/sodium carbonate (Na2 CO3).
Common Carbonates

Carbonate Formula Properties Common Uses

Name

Calcium CaCO3 White powder/crystals, Construction (cement,

Carbonate odorless. Low solubility in concrete), filler in
water. Occurs as limestone, paper/plastic/paint, antacid,
marble, and chalk. dietary supplement
 Sodium Na2CO3 Known as soda ash. White Glass manufacturing,
Carbonate crystalline solid, highly detergent production, water
soluble in water, basic, softening, paper pulp
hygroscopic

Sodium NaHCO3 Known as baking soda. Baking (leavening agent),

Bicarbonate White crystalline powder. antacid, fire extinguishers,
Slightly basic. Decomposes cleaning
on heating

Magnesium MgCO3 White powder (magnesite). Pharmaceuticals (antacids),

Carbonate Insoluble in water. Reactive cosmetic products, climbing
with acids chalk, insulating material

Potassium White salt, highly soluble in Glass making, soap

Carbonate water, forms strongly manufacturing, dutch process
K2CO3
alkaline solutions, cocoa powder
deliquescent

Lithium White salt. Sparingly soluble Treatment of bipolar disorder,

Carbonate in water, more soluble in lithium-ion battery
Li2CO3
CO₂ solutions production, glass/ceramics

Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 Rock-forming mineral Refractory bricks, source of

(calcium magnesium magnesium, fertilizer
carbonate). Crystals in component, ornamental stone
trigonal systems

Iron(II) FeCO3 Known as Siderite. Often Source of iron in metal

Carbonate brownish. Important iron ore production

Copper Cu2CO3(OH)2 Known as Malachite (green) Source of copper, pigment in

Carbonate or Azurite (blue). Basic paint, jewelry, fungicides
copper carbonate

WEEK 5
INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic Chemistry is the branch of Chemistry that deals with the study of carbon compounds, particularly those
containing carbon–hydrogen bonds (hydrocarbons) and their derivatives.
The term organic originally came from the belief that compounds from living organisms could only be formed
by a “vital force.” This was disproved in 1828 when Friedrich Wöhler accidentally synthesized urea (an organic
compound found in urine) from ammonium cyanate (an inorganic salt). This historic event marked the birth of
modern Organic Chemistry, proving that organic compounds can be synthesized artificially.
Today, Organic Chemistry is not limited to compounds from living organisms; it covers all carbon compounds,
except a few simple ones like carbon dioxide, carbonates, bicarbonates, and carbides (which are studied under
Inorganic Chemistry).
Importance of Organic Chemistry
Organic Chemistry is crucial because it influences every aspect of human life. Its importance can be
grouped as follows:
1. Everyday life:
 The food we eat (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids) is organic.

 The medicines we take (antibiotics, painkillers, vitamins, vaccines) are organic.

 Clothing materials such as cotton, wool, nylon, polyester, and rayon are organic.

 Fuels (petrol, diesel, kerosene, cooking gas, coal) are organic.

2. In industries:
 Petrochemical industries rely on hydrocarbons for fuels and raw materials.

 Pharmaceutical industries depend on organic synthesis for drug production.

 Plastic, paint, rubber, and cosmetic industries are based on organic compounds.

3. In agriculture:
 Fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and growth hormones contain organic compounds.

4. In nature:
 Life itself is built around carbon chemistry. DNA, RNA, enzymes, and hormones
are organic molecules that control heredity and metabolic processes.
General Characteristics of Organic Compounds
Organic compounds have unique properties due to the nature of carbon atoms and the types of bonds
they form. The main characteristics include:

(a) Presence of Carbon and Hydrogen

 Organic compounds always contain carbon, usually bonded with hydrogen.

 Carbon’s ability to catenate (form long chains, branched chains, and rings with itself)
makes the variety of organic compounds almost limitless.

 For example:

o Methane (CH₄) → simplest hydrocarbon.

o Hexane (C₆H₁₄) → long chain.

o Benzene (C₆H₆) → ring compound.

(b) Tetravalency of Carbon

 Carbon has an atomic number of 6, with an electronic configuration of 2, 4.

 It has 4 valence electrons and needs 4 more to complete its octet.

 Therefore, it always forms four covalent bonds with other atoms, allowing for stable
molecules.

o Example: Methane, CH₄.

(c) Covalent Bonding

 The atoms in organic compounds are linked mainly by covalent bonds (shared electron
pairs).

 This makes organic compounds generally less soluble in water and have lower
melting/boiling points compared to ionic salts.

(d) Combustibility

 Most organic compounds are combustible.

  They burn in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water, often with much heat energy.

o Example: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O + heat.

 Hydrocarbons with higher carbon content burn with a sooty flame due to incomplete
combustion.

(e) Solubility

 Organic compounds are generally insoluble in water (polar solvent) but soluble in organic
solvents such as benzene, chloroform, ethanol, and ether.

 Reason: Organic compounds are mostly non-polar or weakly polar, and solubility
depends on similarity of polarity (“like dissolves like”).

(f) Thermal Instability

 Many organic compounds decompose easily when heated strongly.

 For instance, sugar (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁) chars on strong heating to give carbon and water vapour.

(g) Slow Reaction Rate

 Organic reactions are usually slow and often require special conditions such as heat,
pressure, or catalysts (e.g., platinum, nickel).

 Example: Hydrogenation of ethene to ethane requires nickel catalyst.

(h) Formation of Isomers

 Organic compounds exhibit isomerism – the existence of two or more compounds with the
same molecular formula but different structural or spatial arrangements.

o Example: C₄H₁₀ → Butane and 2-methylpropane (isobutane).

 This greatly increases the number of possible organic compounds.

(i) Large Number of Compounds

 Over 90% of known chemical compounds are organic. This is due to:
 1. Catenation – ability of carbon to bond with itself extensively.

2. Tetravalency – carbon forms up to 4 bonds.

3. Multiple bonding – carbon forms single, double, and triple bonds.

4. Isomerism – different arrangements of the same atoms.

(j) Low Melting and Boiling Points

 Most organic compounds are liquids or gases at room temperature due to weak
intermolecular forces (Van der Waals forces).

 Solids like glucose and urea decompose before melting.

(k) Distinctive Odours

 Many organic compounds have characteristic odours.

o Esters smell fruity.

o Amines have a fishy smell.

o Aldehydes and ketones have sharp odours.

COMPARISON BETWEEN ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Feature Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds

Main elements Carbon, hydrogen (plus O, N, S, Metals, non-metals, salts, oxides

halogens, P)

Bonding Mostly covalent Mostly ionic

Melting/boiling Generally low (except network solids Generally high

points like diamond)

Solubility Insoluble in water; soluble in organic Soluble in water; insoluble in

solvents organic solvents

Combustibility Mostly combustible Few combustible (e.g., carbon,

Sources of Organic Compound

1. Natural Sources:

o Petroleum: Main source of hydrocarbons and petrochemicals.

o Coal: Source of aromatic hydrocarbons and industrial chemicals.

o Natural gas: Provides methane and other alkanes.

o Plants and animals: Sources of fats, oils, carbohydrates, proteins, alkaloids, etc.

2. Synthetic Sources:

o Laboratory and industrial synthesis of compounds (plastics, synthetic drugs,

fertilizers, etc.).

REASONS FOR THE STUDY OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

 1. To understand the chemical basis of life.

2. To explain the composition, properties, and uses of hydrocarbons and their derivatives.

3. To aid in the synthesis of new materials such as drugs, polymers, and fuels.

4. To support industries such as petrochemical, textile, pharmaceutical, plastic, and

cosmetic industries.

5. To provide solutions to problems in energy, environment, and health.

WEEK 7
PETROLEUM AND PETROCHEMICALS
Meaning of Petroleum
Petroleum is a naturally occurring, viscous, dark brown or black, flammable liquid found in
underground geological formations, often trapped in porous rocks beneath impermeable rock
layers. It is a mixture of hydrocarbons (molecules containing hydrogen and carbon) along
with impurities like sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen, and trace metals.
Origin of Petroleum
Petroleum is a fossil fuel formed from the remains of microscopic plants and marine
animals buried under sedimentary rocks 50–500 million years ago. Heat and pressure
over millions of years converted these remains into crude oil and natural gas. Petroleum
often occurs with natural gas in reservoirs capped by non-porous rock layers.
Chemical Composition of Petroleum
Petroleum contains:

1. Alkanes (Paraffins): 30–60% – Straight or branched saturated hydrocarbons. Example:

Methane, Ethane.

2. Cycloalkanes (Naphthenes): 30–40% – Saturated cyclic hydrocarbons. Example:

Cyclohexane.

3. Aromatic Hydrocarbons: 3–15% – Compounds with benzene rings. Example: Benzene,

Toluene.
4. Impurities: Sulphur compounds (H₂S), Nitrogen compounds, Oxygen compounds. Trace metals
 like Vanadium (V), Nickel (Ni).

Importance of Petroleum
1. Energy Source: Fuels like petrol, diesel, kerosene power cars, ships, aircraft, homes, and
industries.

2. Industrial Raw Material: Foundation for petrochemical industries producing plastics,

synthetic fibers, fertilizers, paints, detergents, pharmaceuticals, and more.

3. Lubricants: Petroleum lubricating oils reduce friction in machines.

4. Economic Backbone: Petroleum is Nigeria’s largest export and revenue source.

5. Asphalt and Bitumen: Road surfacing and roofing materials.

6. Electricity Generation: Heavy fuel oils power turbines in thermal plants.

Petrochemicals and their Applications

Petrochemicals are chemicals derived from petroleum or natural gas. They are building blocks for numerous
synthetic materials:

Petrochemical Source End Products

Ethylene (C₂H₄) Cracking of naphtha Polyethylene (bags, bottles), PVC, ethanol

Propylene (C₃H₆) Cracking of gas oil Polypropylene (plastic chairs, ropes),

acrylonitrile

Benzene Catalytic reforming Nylon, detergents, drugs, explosives

Toluene Catalytic reforming Paints, adhesives, explosives (TNT)

Methanol Synthesis gas Formaldehyde, resins, solvents

(CH₃OH)

Ammonia (NH₃) Natural gas (via Haber Fertilizers, nitric acid

process)

Stages of Petroleum Refining

 Petroleum refining is a multi-step industrial process that converts crude oil into usable
products.

A. Separation Stage (Fractional Distillation):

 Principle: Different hydrocarbons have different boiling points. Heating crude oil
causes components to vaporize and separate at different temperatures.

 Crude oil is first heated to ~400°C and fed into a fractionating tower.

 The column is hottest at the bottom and cooler at the top, causing vapors to condense at
different heights.

B. Conversion Processes:

To improve quality and quantity of useful products:

1. Cracking: Breaking large molecules into smaller, high-demand ones (e.g., petrol, LPG).

o Thermal cracking: High temperature, high pressure.

o Catalytic cracking: Uses zeolite catalysts.

2. Reforming: Rearranging hydrocarbons to form branched and aromatic

hydrocarbons, increasing octane number.

3. Polymerization: Small olefins (e.g., ethene, propene) combined to make large molecules.

4. Alkylation: Light hydrocarbons combined to form high-octane fuels.

C. Treatment and Blending:

 Desulphurization (removal of sulphur compounds).

 Blending different fractions to meet desired fuel specifications.

Fractional Distillation of Crude oil in Detail

Fraction Boiling Range Condensation Point in Uses

(°C) Tower
 Petroleum Gas <40°C Top of tower Cooking gas, heating,
(LPG) chemical feedstock

Petrol (Gasoline) 40–120°C Upper section Car fuel, solvents

Naphtha 120–180°C Upper-middle Petrochemicals, plastics

Kerosene 180–250°C Middle Jet fuel, lamps

Diesel Oil 250–320°C Middle-lower Lorries, generators

Lubricating Oil 320–400°C Lower Lubricants, wax, polishes

Fuel Oil 400°C+ Bottom Ships, factories

Bitumen/Residue Solid Bottom residue Road tarring, roofing

Environmental and Safety Concerns in Petroleum Industry

1. Air Pollution: Combustion releases greenhouse gases (CO₂, CO, NOₓ, SO₂).

2. Oil Spills: Devastate aquatic ecosystems (e.g., Niger Delta).

3. Resource Depletion: Petroleum is non-renewable; reserves are finite.

4. Fire Hazards: Petroleum products are highly flammable.

5. Industrial Accidents: Explosions, toxic gas leaks.

Control Measures

1. Use of renewable energy (solar, wind).

2. Improved pipeline maintenance to prevent spills.

3. Efficient refinery operations to minimize emissions.

4. Environmental laws and safety training for workers.

WEEK 8
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBONS
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed solely of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) atoms. They are the
fundamental building blocks of organic chemistry and the primary component of fossil fuels like petroleum
and natural gas.

Types of hydrocarbons
1. Saturated Hydrocarbons: Contains the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible, featuring
only single bonds (e.g., alkanes, cycloalkanes).
2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: Contains double or triple bonds and has fewer hydrogen atoms than
saturated compounds (e.g., alkenes, alkynes, benzene).

Classification of Hydrocarbons
1. Aliphatic hydrocarbons: are organic compounds composed only of carbon (C) and hydrogen
(H) atoms arranged in straight chains, branched chains, or non-aromatic rings. They do not contain a
stable, conjugated ring system. The name comes from the Greek aleiphar, meaning "fat," because
many fatty acids are aliphatic.
2. Aromatic hydrocarbons: or arenes, are a special class of cyclic, unsaturated hydrocarbons known
for their high stability, pleasant or strong odor, and unique electronic structure. They do not easily
undergo addition reactions. Instead, they often undergo substitution reactions, maintaining their
stable ring structure. Aromatic hydrocarbons are organic compounds containing benzene rings
(C6H6).

General Characteristics of Hydrocarbons

 Non-polar compounds → insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents (benzene,

ether, chloroform).

 Highly combustible → major fuels.

 Lower members are gases (C₁–C₄), middle are liquids (C₅–C₁₆), higher members are
waxes/solids

 Exhibit homologous series: each successive member differs by a –CH₂– group.

Homologous Series
A homologous series is a family of organic compounds with the same functional group and similar chemical
properties, where each successive member differs by a _CH2_ (methylene) unit.

Characteristics of Homologous Series

1. Same Functional Group: Members share identical reactive functional groups e.g. OH for alcohols.
2. Similar Chemical Properties: Because of the same functional group, they react in similar ways.
3. Gradual Physical Properties: Physical properties like density, melting point, and boiling point
change gradually as the molecular mass increases.
4. Common General Formula: All members fit the same general formula, allowing for systematic
study and prediction of properties.
5. _CH2_ Difference: Successive compounds differ by one carbon and two hydrogen atoms
Common Examples of Homologous Series

Homologous General Suffix Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

Series Formula
Alkanes CnH2n+2 -ane Methane (CH4) Ethane (C2H6) Propane (C3H8)
Alkenes CnH2n -ene Ethene (C2H4) Propene (C3H6) Butene (C4H8)
Alkynes CnH2n+2-2 -yne Ethyne (C2H2) Propyne (C3H4) Butyne (C4H6)
Alcohols -ol Methanol Ethanol Propanol
CnH2n+1OH (CH3OH) (C2H5OH) (C3H7OH)
Carboxylic -oic Methanoic acid Ethanoic acid Propanoic acid
Acids acid (HCOOH) (CH3COOH) (C2H5COOH)
CnH2n+1COOH
Aldehydes CnH2n+ICHO -al Methanal Ethanal Propanal
(HCHO) (CH3CHO) (C2H5CHO)
Ketones -one Propanone Butanone Pentan-2-one
CnH2nO (C3H6O) (C4H8O) (C5H10O)
Esters -oate Methyl Methyl Ethyl ethanoate
CnH2nO2 methanoate ethanoate (CH3COOC2H5)
(HCOOCH3) (CH3COOCH3)
Haloalkanes CnH2n+1X -ane Chloromethane Bromoethane Iodopropane
(CH3Cl) (C2H5Br) (C3H7I)
Amines - Methylamine Ethylamine Propylamine
CnH2n+1NH2 amine (CH3NH2) (C2H5NH2) (C3H7NH2)

Physical Properties of Some Homologous Series

Property Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes

State at Room C₁–C₄ gases, C₅–C₁₆ liquids, Similar trend as Similar trend as
Temperature alkanes alkanes
>C₁₆ solids

Solubility Insoluble in water, soluble in Same Same

organic solvents

Density Less dense than water Less dense than water Less dense than
water

Boiling Point Increases with molecular mass Slightly lower than Slightly higher than
alkanes alkenes
 Flame type Blue, non-sooty Smoky (due to higher Very smoky,
C:H ratio) luminous flame

Chemical Properties of Some Homologous Series

a. Combustion reaction
 Alkanes:

CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O

(Complete combustion)

2CH₄ + 3O₂ → 2CO + 4H₂O

(Incomplete combustion → carbon monoxide)

 Alkenes/Alkynes: burn with smoky flame due to high carbon

content. Example:

b. Substitution reaction (alkanes only)

 In presence of UV light or heat, halogens replace H in alkanes.

→ leads to multiple substitution products.

 c. Oxidation reactions
 Combustion already covered.

 Mild oxidation of alkenes: with acidified KMnO₄ (Baeyer’s Test) → gives diols.

 Strong oxidation breaks C=C bond into carboxylic acids or ketones.

Laboratory Tests for Hydrocarbons

1. Bromine Water Test

o Add bromine water (orange) to sample hydrocarbon.

o Shake.
 Observation
 Alkanes: no change (unless with UV).

 Alkenes/Alkynes: colour disappears → indicates unsaturation.

2. Bayer’s Test (Acidified KMnO₄ Solution)

o Add purple KMnO₄ solution to hydrocarbon.

Observation
 Alkanes: no change.

 Alkenes/Alkynes: solution decolourizes, brown MnO₂ precipitate forms.

3. Ignition Test
o Burn the hydrocarbon in a Bunsen flame.

Observation
 Alkanes: blue, clean flame.

 Alkenes: smoky flame.

 Alkynes: very sooty, luminous flame.

4. Ammoniacal Silver Nitrate Test (for terminal alkynes)

o Add sample hydrocarbon to ammoniacal AgNO₃ solution.

o Observation: White precipitate of silver acetylide forms.

Comparison Table of Hydrocarbons

Feature Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes

Bond type Single (C–C) Double (C=C) Triple (C≡C)

Formula CnH₂n+2 CnH₂n CnH₂n–2

Reactivity Least reactive Reactive Most reactive

Flame type Clean, non-sooty Smoky Very smoky, luminous

Example CH₄ (Methane) C₂H₄ (Ethene) C₂H₂ (Ethyne)

 Characteristic Substitution with Decolourizes Same as alkene + AgNO₃
Test halogen (UV) Br₂, KMnO₄ ppt for terminal

Uses of Hydrocarbons
1. Alkanes: cooking gas (butane, propane), petrol (octane), lubricants, wax.

2. Alkenes: production of plastics (polyethene, PVC), alcohols (ethanol), synthetic rubber.

3. Alkynes: oxy-acetylene welding, artificial rubber, synthesis of plastics and solvents.

Environmental Effects of Hydrocarbons

1. Air Pollution: Incomplete combustion produces carbon monoxide and soot.

2. Greenhouse Effect: CO₂ emissions from burning fuels → global warming.

3. Oil Spills: Hydrocarbons pollute water, harming aquatic life.

4. Smog Formation: Unburnt hydrocarbons + NOx gases produce photochemical smog.