Pure Mathematics - Course Notes for

Lower Sixth

Chapter 1: Quadratic Functions and Equations

1.1 Definition and Forms of Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation is a polynomial equation of the second degree. The standard

form is:

ax2 + bx + c = 0

where a, b, and c are real numbers, and a  0.

=

There are two other important forms:

Form Equation Description

Factored a(x − r1 )(x − r2 ) =

r1 and r2 are the roots (or zeros) of the equation.
​ ​

Form 0
​ ​

(h, k) is the vertex of the corresponding

Vertex Form a(x − h)2 + k = 0
parabola.

1.2 Methods of Solving Quadratic Equations

Quadratic equations can be solved using three main methods:

A. Factoring

This method is used when the quadratic expression can be easily factored into two
linear factors. Example: Solve x2 − 5x + 6 = 0.

(x − 2)(x − 3) = 0
The solutions are x = 2 and x = 3.

B. Completing the Square

This method converts the standard form into the vertex form to isolate x. It is
2
particularly useful for deriving the quadratic formula. Example: Solve x + 6x + 5 =
0. 1. Move the constant term: x2 + 6x = −5 2. Complete the square by adding
( 62 )2 = 9 to both sides: x2 + 6x + 9 = −5 + 9 3. Factor the perfect square trinomial:
​

(x + 3)2 = 4 4. Take the square root of both sides: x + 3 = ±2 5. Solve for x: x =

−3 + 2 = −1 or x = −3 − 2 = −5.

C. The Quadratic Formula

The most general method, which works for all quadratic equations. The solutions are
given by:

Example: Solve 2x2 + 3x − 2 = 0 using the quadratic formula. Here, a = 2, b = 3,

and c = −2.

−3 ± 32 − 4(2)(−2)
x=
​

2(2)
​

−3 ± 9 + 16
x=
​

4
​

−3 ± 25
x=
​

4
​

−3 ± 5
x=
4
​

The two solutions are:

−3 + 5 2 1
x1 = = =
4 4 2
​ ​ ​ ​

−3 − 5 −8
x2 = = = −2
4 4
​ ​ ​

−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​
1.3 The Discriminant and the Nature of the Roots

The expression under the radical in the quadratic formula, Δ = b2 − 4ac, is called the
discriminant. It determines the number and type of roots:

Example: Determine the nature of the roots for the following equations: 1. x2 + 5x +
2
6 = 0: Δ = 5 − 4(1)(6) = 25 − 24 = 1. Since Δ > 0, there are two distinct real
roots. 2. x2 + 4x + 4 = 0: Δ = 42 − 4(1)(4) = 16 − 16 = 0. Since Δ = 0, there is
one repeated real root. 3. x2 + x + 1 = 0: Δ = 12 − 4(1)(1) = 1 − 4 = −3. Since
Δ < 0, there are two distinct complex roots.

Discriminant (Δ) Nature of Roots

Δ>0 Two distinct real roots

Δ=0 One repeated real root (or two equal real roots)

Δ<0 Two distinct complex (non-real) roots

1.4 Graphs of Quadratic Functions (Parabolas)

The graph of a quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c is a parabola.

Direction: If a > 0, the parabola opens upwards (minimum point). If a < 0, it

opens downwards (maximum point).

Vertex: The turning point of the parabola. The coordinates (h, k) can be found
using the vertex form or by: ```math h = -\frac{b}{2a} \quad \text{and} \quad k =
f(h)
 * **Intercepts:**
* **y-intercept:** Set $`x=0`$, which gives $`y=c`$.
* **x-intercepts (roots):** Set $`y=0`$ and solve the quadratic equation.
The number of x-intercepts is determined by the discriminant.

**Example:** Find the vertex and intercepts for $`f(x) = x^2 - 4x - 5`$.
* **Vertex:** $`h = -\frac{-4}{2(1)} = 2`$. $`k = f(2) = (2)^2 - 4(2) - 5 = 4
- 8 - 5 = -9`$. Vertex is $`(2, -9)`$.
* **y-intercept:** $`f(0) = -5`$. y-intercept is $`(0, -5)`$.
* **x-intercepts:** Solve $`x^2 - 4x - 5 = 0 \implies (x-5)(x+1) = 0`$. x-
intercepts are $`(5, 0)`$ and $`(-1, 0)`$.

***

## Chapter 2: Equations and Inequalities

### 2.1 Solving Simultaneous Equations

Simultaneous equations involve two or more equations with two or more variables
that must be solved together.

#### A. Linear and Quadratic Simultaneous Equations

When solving a system with one linear equation and one quadratic equation, the
substitution method is generally used.

**Example:** Solve the system:

1. $`y = x + 1`$ (Linear)
2. $`y = x^2 - 5`$ (Quadratic)

Substitute (1) into (2):

```math
x + 1 = x^2 - 5

0 = x^2 - x - 6

0 = (x-3)(x+2)

The x-solutions are $ x=3 $ and $ x=-2 $. Substitute these back into (1) to find $ y $: * If
$ x=3 $, $ y = 3 + 1 = 4 $. Solution: $ (3, 4) $. * If $ x=-2 $, $ y = -2 + 1 = -1 $.
Solution: $ (-2, -1) $.

2.2 Solving Inequalities

A. Linear Inequalities

These are solved similarly to linear equations, with one crucial difference:

Rule: When multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by a negative

number, you must reverse the direction of the inequality sign.
Example: Solve $ -2x + 5 \le 11 $. 1. Subtract 5: $ -2x \le 6 $ 2. Divide by -2 and
reverse the sign: $ x \ge -3 $

B. Quadratic Inequalities

These require a sign analysis, often using a sketch of the corresponding quadratic
function.

Example 1: Solve $ x^2 - x - 6 > 0 $. 1. Find the roots: Solve $ x^2 - x - 6 = 0 $.

The roots are $ x=3 $ and $ x=-2 $. 2. Sketch the graph: Since the coefficient of $ x^2 $
is positive ($ a=1 $), the parabola opens upwards. It crosses the x-axis at $ -2 $ and
$ 3 $. 3. Determine the solution: We are looking for where the function is $ > 0 $
(above the x-axis). The solution is $ x < -2 $ or $ x > 3 $.

Example 2: Solve $ 2x^2 + x - 3 \le 0 $. 1. Find the roots: Solve $ 2x^2 + x - 3 =

0 $. Using the quadratic formula, the roots are $ x=1 $ and $ x=-3/2 $. 2. Sketch the
graph: Since $ a=2 > 0 $, the parabola opens upwards. 3. Determine the solution: We
are looking for where the function is $ \le 0 $ (on or below the x-axis). The solution is
$ -\frac{3}{2} \le x \le 1 $.

2.3 Representing Solutions

Solutions to inequalities can be represented using a number line or interval notation:

Inequality Number Line Interval Notation

$x > a$ Open circle at $ a $, arrow to the right $ (a, \infty) $

$ x \le a $ Closed circle at $ a $, arrow to the left $ (-\infty, a] $

Open circles at $ a $ and $ b $, line

$a < x < b$ $ (a, b) $
segment between

$ x < a $ or $ x > Arrows pointing outwards from $ a $ $ (-\infty, a) \cup (b,

b$ and $ b $ \infty) $
Chapter 3: Graphs of Absolute Value Functions

3.1 Definition of the Absolute Value Function

The absolute value of a real number $ x $, denoted $ |x| $, is the non-negative value
of $ x $ without regard to its sign. Mathematically, it is defined as a piecewise function:

|x| = \begin{cases} x & \text{if } x \ge 0 \\ -x & \text{if } x < 0 \end{cases}

The graph of the basic absolute value function, $ y = |x| $, is a "V" shape with its
vertex at the origin $ (0, 0) $.

Example (Transformations): Describe the transformation of $ y = 2|x - 3| + 1 $

from $ y = |x| $. The function $ y = 2|x - 3| + 1 $ is the graph of $ y = |x| $: 1.
Shifted 3 units to the right ($ h=3 $). 2. Stretched vertically by a factor of 2 ($ a=2 $). 3.
Shifted 1 unit up ($ k=1 $). The vertex is at $ (3, 1) $.

3.2 Transformations of Absolute Value Graphs

The general form of a transformed absolute value function is:

y = a|x - h| + k

Parameter Effect on the Graph

Vertical Stretch/Compression and Reflection: If $ |a| > 1 $, vertical stretch. If

$a$
$ 0 < |a| < 1 $, vertical compression. If $ a < 0 $, reflection across the x-axis.

Horizontal Translation: If $ h > 0 $, shift $ h $ units to the right. If $ h < 0 $,

$h$
shift $ |h| $ units to the left.

Vertical Translation: If $ k > 0 $, shift $ k $ units up. If $ k < 0 $, shift $ |k| $

$k$
units down.

Vertex The vertex of the graph is at the point $ (h, k) $.

3.3 Solving Absolute Value Equations and Inequalities

A. Equations

To solve an equation of the form $ |f(x)| = c $, where $ c \ge 0 $, we must solve

two separate equations:

f(x) = c \quad \text{or} \quad f(x) = -c

Example: Solve $ |2x - 1| = 5 $. 1. $ 2x - 1 = 5 \implies 2x = 6 \implies x =

3 $ 2. $ 2x - 1 = -5 \implies 2x = -4 \implies x = -2 $

B. Inequalities

The rules for solving absolute value inequalities are based on distance from zero:

Inequality Equivalent Compound Inequality

$ |f(x)| < c $ $ -c < f(x) < c $

$ f(x)

Example (Inequality): Solve $ |3x + 2| \le 5 $. This is equivalent to:

-5 \le 3x + 2 \le 5

Subtract 2 from all parts:

-7 \le 3x \le 3

Divide all parts by 3:

-\frac{7}{3} \le x \le 1

In interval notation: $ [-\frac{7}{3}, 1] $.$ |

Chapter 4: Polynomials

4.1 Introduction and Terminology

A polynomial is an expression consisting of variables and coefficients, that involves

only the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and non-negative integer
exponents of variables.

The general form of a polynomial of degree $ n $ is:

P(x) = a_n x^n + a_{n-1} x^{n-1} + \dots + a_1 x + a_0

Terminology Definition

Degree The highest power of the variable ($ n $).

Leading Coefficient The coefficient of the term with the highest degree ($ a_n $).

Constant Term The term with degree zero ($ a_0 $).

Root/Zero A value $ c $ such that $ P(c) = 0 $.

4.2 Polynomial Division

Polynomial division is essential for factoring and finding roots.

A. Long Division

Similar to numerical long division, it allows us to divide a polynomial $ P(x) $ by a

divisor polynomial $ D(x) $ to get a quotient $ Q(x) $ and a remainder $ R(x) $:

\frac{P(x)}{D(x)} = Q(x) + \frac{R(x)}{D(x)} \quad \text{or} \quad P(x) =

D(x)Q(x) + R(x)

B. Synthetic Division

A shortcut method for dividing a polynomial by a linear divisor of the form $ (x-c) $.

Example (Synthetic Division): Divide $ P(x) = x^3 - 4x^2 + 2x + 5 $ by $ (x-2) $.

The root is $ c=2 $.
 2 | 1 -4 2 5
| 2 -4 -4
----------------
1 -2 -2 1

The quotient is $ Q(x) = x^2 - 2x - 2 $, and the remainder is $ R(x) = 1 $. Thus,

$ x^3 - 4x^2 + 2x + 5 = (x-2)(x^2 - 2x - 2) + 1 $.

4.3 Remainder and Factor Theorems

A. The Remainder Theorem

If a polynomial $ P(x) $ is divided by a linear factor $ (x-c) $, the remainder is

$ P(c) $. This means that to find the remainder when $ P(x) $ is divided by $ (x-3) $,
you simply calculate $ P(3) $.

B. The Factor Theorem

A linear factor $ (x-c) $ is a factor of the polynomial $ P(x) $ if and only if $ P(c) =
0 $.

Example (Factor Theorem): Show that $ (x+1) $ is a factor of $ P(x) = x^3 - 2x^2 -
5x - 2 $. The factor is $ (x - (-1)) $, so we test $ c = -1 $.

P(-1) = (-1)^3 - 2(-1)^2 - 5(-1) - 2

P(-1) = -1 - 2(1) + 5 - 2

P(-1) = -1 - 2 + 5 - 2 = 0

Since $ P(-1) = 0 $, the Factor Theorem confirms that $ (x+1) $ is a factor of $ P(x) $.
In other words, $ c $ is a root (or zero) of the polynomial if and only if $ (x-c) $ divides
$ P(x) $ exactly (with a remainder of zero).

4.4 Finding Zeros of Polynomials

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra states that a polynomial of degree $ n $ has

exactly $ n $ complex roots (counting multiplicity).
The Rational Root Theorem helps find potential rational roots $ \frac{p}{q} $ of a
polynomial with integer coefficients: * $ p $ must be a factor of the constant term
($ a_0 $). * $ q $ must be a factor of the leading coefficient ($ a_n $).

Example (Finding Zeros): Find all real zeros of $ P(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 - 4x + 12 $. 1.
List Potential Rational Roots: * Factors of the constant term $ c=12 $ (p): $ \pm 1,
\pm 2, \pm 3, \pm 4, \pm 6, \pm 12 $. * Factors of the leading coefficient $ a=1 $
(q): $ \pm 1 $. * Potential rational roots $ \frac{p}{q} $: $ \pm 1, \pm 2, \pm 3, \pm
4, \pm 6, \pm 12 $. 2. Test Roots (Factor Theorem): * $ P(1) = 1 - 3 - 4 + 12 =
6 \neq 0 $. * $ P(2) = 8 - 3(4) - 4(2) + 12 = 8 - 12 - 8 + 12 = 0 $. Since
$ P(2)=0 $, $ x=2 $ is a zero, and $ (x-2) $ is a factor. 3. Divide (Synthetic Division):
Divide $ P(x) $ by $ (x-2) $.

2 | 1 -3 -4 12
| 2 -2 -12
----------------
1 -1 -6 0

The quotient is $ Q(x) = x^2 - x - 6 $. 4. Factor the Quotient: ```math x^2 - x - 6 =

(x-3)(x+2)

5. **Final Zeros:** The zeros of $`P(x)`$ are $`x=2`$, $`x=3`$, and $`x=-2`$.

***

## Chapter 5: Rational Polynomial Functions

### 5.1 Definition and Domain

A **rational function** $`R(x)`$ is defined as the ratio of two polynomials,

$`P(x)`$ and $`Q(x)`$, where $`Q(x)`$ is not the zero polynomial:

```math
R(x) = \frac{P(x)}{Q(x)}

The domain of a rational function is all real numbers except for the values of $ x $ that
make the denominator $ Q(x) $ equal to zero.

5.2 Asymptotes

Asymptotes are lines that the graph of the function approaches but never touches.
They are crucial for sketching rational functions.
A. Vertical Asymptotes (VA)

Vertical asymptotes occur at the values of $ x $ that make the denominator $ Q(x) $
equal to zero, provided that the factor causing $ Q(x)=0 $ does not also cancel out with
a factor in the numerator $ P(x) $. If a factor cancels, there is a hole (removable
discontinuity) in the graph, not a vertical asymptote.

Example (Vertical Asymptotes and Holes): Find the VA and holes for $ R(x) =
\frac{x^2 - 1}{x^2 - x - 2} $. 1. Factor: $ R(x) = \frac{(x-1)(x+1)}{(x-2)
(x+1)} $. 2. Hole: The factor $ (x+1) $ cancels. This means there is a hole at $ x =
-1 $. The y-coordinate of the hole is $ R(-1) = \frac{-1-1}{-1-2} = \frac{-2}{-3}
= \frac{2}{3} $. Hole at $ (-1, 2/3) $. 3. Vertical Asymptote: The factor $ (x-2) $
remains in the denominator. Vertical Asymptote at $ x = 2 $.

B. Horizontal Asymptotes (HA)

The existence and location of a horizontal asymptote depend on the degrees of the
numerator $ P(x) $ (let $ n $ be the degree) and the denominator $ Q(x) $ (let $ m $ be
the degree).

Example (Horizontal Asymptotes): Find the HA for: 1. $ R_1(x) = \frac{2x + 1}

{x^2 - 4} $: Degree of numerator $ n=1 $, degree of denominator $ m=2 $. Since $ n <
m $, the HA is $ y = 0 $. 2. $ R_2(x) = \frac{3x^2 - 5x + 2}{x^2 + 1} $: Degree of
numerator $ n=2 $, degree of denominator $ m=2 $. Since $ n = m $, the HA is $ y =
\frac{3}{1} = 3 $. 3. $ R_3(x) = \frac{x^3 + 2}{x^2 - 1} $: Degree of numerator
$ n=3 $, degree of denominator $ m=2 $. Since $ n > m $, there is no HA.

Condition Horizontal Asymptote (HA)

$n < m$ $ y = 0 $ (the x-axis)

$n = m$ $ y = \frac{a_n}{b_m} $ (ratio of the leading coefficients)

$n > m$ No horizontal asymptote (there may be an oblique/slant asymptote)

C. Oblique (Slant) Asymptotes (OA)

An oblique asymptote exists if the degree of the numerator is exactly one greater than
the degree of the denominator ($ n = m + 1 $). The equation of the oblique asymptote
is found by performing polynomial long division of $ P(x) $ by $ Q(x) $. The quotient
$ Q(x) $ (excluding the remainder) is the equation of the slant asymptote.

Example (Oblique Asymptote): Find the OA for $ R(x) = \frac{x^2 + 2x + 3}{x +

1} $. Using synthetic division with $ c=-1 $:

-1 | 1 2 3
| -1 -1
----------------
1 1 2

The quotient is $ x + 1 $ with a remainder of 2.

R(x) = (x + 1) + \frac{2}{x + 1}

As $ x \to \pm\infty $, the term $ \frac{2}{x+1} \to 0 $. The Oblique Asymptote is

$ y = x + 1 $.

5.3 Graphing Rational Functions

To sketch the graph of a rational function, follow these steps: 1. Find Intercepts: * x-
intercepts (roots): Set $ P(x) = 0 $. * y-intercept: Calculate $ R(0) $. 2. Find Vertical
Asymptotes and Holes: Factor the numerator and denominator, set the denominator
to zero, and check for common factors. 3. Find Horizontal or Oblique Asymptotes:
Compare the degrees of the numerator and denominator. 4. Analyze Sign: Use a sign
chart to determine where the function is positive (above the x-axis) or negative (below
the x-axis) in the intervals defined by the roots and vertical asymptotes. 5. Sketch the
Graph: Draw the asymptotes, plot the intercepts, and use the sign analysis to sketch
the curve in each region.

End of Course Notes