ARISTO PUBLIC SCHOOL

APS Avenue, Gadilam By-Pass Road, Thirupathiripuliyur, Cuddalore

Senior Secondary School, Affiliated to CBSE, New Delhi
Grade-XI CHEMISTRY (043) – Introduction

Unit-1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Importance of Chemistry
Quick Notes:

 Chemistry is the central science, linking physics, biology, and applied fields.
 It studies the composition, structure, properties, and changes of matter.
 Plays a vital role in medicine, agriculture, industry, environment, and materials.
 Chemistry is key to solving global challenges like pollution, health crises, and energy
demand.
 Green chemistry focuses on sustainable, low-waste solutions for the future.

Full Notes:
What is Chemistry?

Chemistry is the scientific study of matter, including its composition, structure, properties,
and the changes it undergoes. It helps explain the substances around us and how they
interact in both natural and artificial systems.

Chemistry as the Central Science

Chemistry connects the principles of physics with the complexity of biological systems and is
often called the central science. It is foundational to fields such as:

 Medicine – understanding biochemical reactions and drug development.

 Agriculture – improving crop productivity and pest control.
 Environmental science – monitoring pollution and managing waste.
 Material science – developing alloys, polymers, and new functional materials.
 Energy – creating fuels, batteries, and renewable technologies.

Examples of Chemistry in Everyday Life

 Food: Preservatives, flavors, and nutrition enhancement.

 Hygiene: Soaps, disinfectants, and cleaning agents.
 Health: Antibiotics, vaccines, and diagnostics.
 Transportation: Fuels, lubricants, and synthetic materials in vehicles.
 Electronics: Semiconductors and display technologies.

The Future Role of Chemistry

Chemistry will continue to be essential in addressing:

 Climate change – through carbon capture, clean energy, and sustainable chemistry.
 Resource management – by recycling and reducing waste.
 Public health – by advancing drug delivery and diagnostics.
 Industrial safety – by minimizing toxic by-products and energy usage.

Summary

 Chemistry is the central science that explains matter and its changes.
 It underpins medicine, agriculture, environment, materials, and energy.
 Everyday life relies on chemistry from food and hygiene to electronics and transport.
 Future challenges like climate change and public health will be addressed using green
and sustainable chemistry.

Nature of Matter
Quick Notes:

 Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

 Exists in three states: solid, liquid, gas.
o Solids: Fixed shape and volume, tightly packed particles, incompressible.
o Liquids: Fixed volume, no fixed shape, flow easily, low compressibility.
o Gases: No fixed shape or volume, compressible, particles far apart.
 Changes of state:

o Melting: Solid →Liquid (heating)

o Freezing: Liquid →Solid (cooling)
o Boiling: Liquid →Gas (heating)
o Condensation: Gas →Liquid (cooling)
o Sublimation: Solid ↔Gas (e.g. iodine, camphor)
 Classification by composition:

o Pure Substances: Constant composition (Elements or Compounds)

o Mixtures: Variable composition (Homogeneous or Heterogeneous)
 Mixtures can be separated by physical methods; compounds cannot.

Full Notes:
States of Matter
The Three States
Matter commonly exists in three physical states under ordinary conditions:
 Solids: Have definite volume and definite shape. Tightly packed particles, cannot be
compressed, do not flow.

Liquids: Have definite volume and do not have definite shape. Flow easily, take shape of
container, low compressibility.

Gases: No definite volume nor definite shape. Expand freely, fill container, highly compressible.

Interconversion of States

These changes are physical – no new substance is formed – and usually reversible.
Classification of Matter

Matter is also categorised based on composition, leading to a chemical understanding of

substances.

Pure Substances

Pure substances have a definite composition and distinct chemical properties. Cannot be
separated by physical means.

Elements

Made of only one kind of atom. Cannot be broken down chemically. May exist as atoms (He)
or molecules (O2).

Example: Copper solid is made up of only one type of atom, meaning it is an element.

Compounds
Chemically combined in fixed ratio. Have properties different from constituent elements.
Can be broken down only chemically.

Example: Water is made up of molecules of hydrogen and oxygen bonded together, meaning
it is a compound.

Mixtures

Mixtures contain two or more substances mixed physically. There are two types of mixture,
homogeneous and heterogeneous.

Homogeneous Mixtures

 Uniform throughout
 Also called solutions
 Cannot see components separately

Example: Water and ethanol mix uniformly to create a homogeneous mixture.

Common Examples: Air, vinegar, salt water

Heterogeneous Mixtures

 Non-uniform
 components visible
 Particles may settle or be distinct

Example: Water and oil don’t mix uniformly and create a heterogeneous mixture with two
layers of liquid.
Summary

 Matter exists mainly as solids, liquids, and gases with distinct particle arrangements
and properties.
 Changes of state like melting, freezing, and condensation are physical and reversible.
 Pure substances have fixed composition; mixtures have variable composition.
 Homogeneous mixtures are uniform; heterogeneous mixtures are not.
 Elements contain one type of atom; compounds have atoms chemically bonded in fixed
ratios.

Properties of Matter and Their Measurement

Quick Notes:

 Properties of matter can be physical (observed without changing identity)

or chemical (observed only during a chemical reaction).
 Physical properties include colour, mass, melting point, boiling point, etc.
 Measurement of physical quantities requires a defined unit and a measuring
instrument.
o The International System of Units (SI) is the globally accepted standard.
o Base SI units: mass (kg), length (m), time (s), temperature (K), amount of
substance (mol), electric current (A), luminous intensity (cd).
 Mass is the quantity of matter; weight is the force due to gravity.
 Volume = space occupied and its standard SI unit = m³ (also cm³, dm³, L).
 Density = mass ÷ volume and its standard units = kg m⁻ ³ or g cm⁻ ³.
 Temperature measures thermal energy; common units: °C, K, °F.

Full Notes:
Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical Properties:

 Measurable without changing the composition of the substance.

 Include: colour, odour, density, melting point, boiling point, solubility, hardness, etc.
Examples: Water boils at 373 K. Copper is reddish-brown and conducts electricity.

Chemical Properties:

 Observed when a substance undergoes a chemical change.

 Relate to how a substance reacts with other substances.

Examples: Iron reacts with oxygen and moisture to form rust. Sodium reacts vigorously
with water.

NCERT Distinction: Physical changes do not produce new substances; chemical changes do.

Measurement of Physical Properties

Measurement requires two essential components:

 Unit – A standard of comparison.

 Instrument – A tool that provides numerical value.

Physical quantities must be measured accurately to ensure consistent scientific

communication.

Example: Length can be measured in metres using a ruler or tape.

The International System of Units (SI)

The SI system is the modern form of the metric system and is used worldwide in science
and engineering.

Seven Base Units

Mass and Weight

Mass:

 Amount of matter in an object.

 SI unit: kilogram (kg).
 Remains constant, regardless of location.
 Measured using a balance.

Weight:

 The force exerted by gravity on an object.

 Depends on local gravitational field.
 Measured using a spring balance.
 SI unit: newton (N).
 Weight (W) = Mass (m) × Acceleration due to gravity (g)
  On Earth: g ≈ 9.8 m/s².

Example: Your mass remains the same on Moon and Earth, but your weight changes because
gravity is different.

Volume

Volume = space occupied by matter.

 SI unit: cubic metre (m³).

 Common lab units: cm³ or mL (1 cm³ = 1 mL), dm³ or L (1 dm³ = 1 L = 1000 cm³).
 Often measured using a measuring cylinder, burette, or pipette.

Example: A 250 mL beaker holds 250 cm³ of liquid.

Density

Density = mass per unit volume.

Formula: ρ = m / V

 SI unit: kg m⁻ ³.
 Commonly used unit: g cm⁻ ³.
 Examples: Water ≈ 1.00 g cm⁻ ³; Gold ≈ 19.3 g cm⁻ ³.

Tip: Density remains constant for a pure substance at a given temperature and pressure.

Temperature

Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles.

 SI unit: Kelvin (K).

 Other units: Degree Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F).

Conversions:
  K = °C + 273.15
 °C = (°F – 32) × 5/9

NCERT Conversion Highlight:

 0°C = 273.15 K
 Normal body temperature: 37°C = 310.15 K

Important: In scientific calculations, Kelvin is always used.

Summary

 Physical properties can be measured without changing substance composition; chemical

properties describe reactions.
 Accurate measurement requires defined units and instruments.
 SI system has seven base units for fundamental quantities.
 Mass is constant; weight depends on gravity.
 Volume and density describe matter’s size and compactness.
 Kelvin is the SI temperature scale used in scientific work.

Uncertainty in Measurement
Quick Notes:

 All measurements have uncertainty – due to instrument limitations and human

estimation.
 Large and small numbers are written using scientific notation: N × 10n, where 1 ≤ N <
10.
 Significant figures are all meaningful digits: known + one estimated.
 Rules for significant figures:
o All non-zero digits →significant.
o Zeros between non-zero digits →significant.
o Leading zeros →not significant.
o Trailing zeros →significant if there’s a decimal.
 In multiplication/division the final answer = least number of significant figures.
 In addition/subtraction the final answer = least number of decimal places.
 Dimensional analysis is used to convert units using relationships like: 1 inch = 2.54 cm,
1 foot = 12 inches, etc.
 Conversion factors are treated as fractions equal to 1 and used to cancel units.

Full Notes:
Scientific Notation

In chemistry, we often work with extremely large or small numbers.

For example:
  One mole of particles = 602000000000000000000000
 Radius of a hydrogen atom = 0.000000000052 m

Writing these repeatedly is impractical. So, scientists use scientific notation, which
expresses numbers as: N × 10n, where N is a decimal number between 1 and 10, and n is an
integer.

Examples:

 602000000000000000000000 = 6.022 × 10 23
 0.000000000052 = 5.2 × 10−11

The exponent n is:

 Positive for large numbers (move decimal left)

 Negative for small numbers (move decimal right)

Why use it?

Scientific notation shortens calculations, improves clarity, and reduces error in lab work and
data analysis. It's particularly useful in expressing atomic and molecular quantities.

Significant Figures

Every measurement contains some degree of uncertainty. This is why scientists do not just
record any number of digits — they carefully report significant figures, which include:

 All digits known with certainty, plus

 One digit that is estimated

This estimated digit is where uncertainty lies — and it limits the reliability of any calculated
result.

Rules for Counting Significant Figures (NCERT Rules)

1. All non-zero digits are significant

285 cm has 3 significant figures
2. Zeros between non-zero digits are significant
5.007 g has 4 significant figures
3. Leading zeros (before the first non-zero digit) are not significant
0.00016 m has 2 significant figures
4. Trailing zeros:

 Are significant if there is a decimal point

3.00 has 3 significant figures
 Are not significant without a decimal 4000 has 1 significant figure
 5. Exact numbers (from counting objects or defined relationships) have infinite
significant figures
1 litre = 1000 mL (exactly)

Tip: Use scientific notation to make significant figures explicit.

E.g. 4000 =
4 × 103 to 1 sig. fig.
4.0 × 10 3 to 2 sig. figs.
4.00 × 103 t- 3 sig. figs.

Rounding Off Rules

 If the digit dropped is < 5, the preceding digit remains unchanged

 If the digit dropped is ≥ 5, the preceding digit is increased by 1

Rules for Calculations

 Multiplication/Division: Round to least number of significant figures

2.5 × 1.25 = 3.125 →3.1 (2 sig. figs.)
 Addition/Subtraction: Round to least number of decimal places
12.11 + 18.0 = 30.11 →30.1

Accuracy vs Precision (Now Included)

Apart from the number of digits, NCERT introduces two very important terms:

 Precision refers to how close repeated measurements are to each other.

 Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value.

To illustrate this, NCERT gives the following example:

 If the true value of a substance’s mass is 2.00 g:

o Student A measures: 1.95 g and 1.93 g

These are precise (close to each other) but not accurate.
o Student B measures: 1.94 g and 2.05 g
These are neither precise nor accurate .
o Student C measures: 2.01 g and 1.99 g
These are both precise and accurate.
Why This Matters
Understanding the difference between precision and accuracy is critical in real lab work. A
set of results can seem reliable because they are close together, but still be wrong.
Likewise, results might be close to the correct value but vary too much to be trusted. This
concept is tested often in conceptual MCQs, especially in NEET and Olympiad settings.

Dimensional Analysis

This is a method used to convert one unit to another by applying unit relationships as
conversion factors.

These relationships are treated as fractions equal to 1, so they can be multiplied without
changing the value.

Example Convert 2.5 m to cm

2.5 m × (100 cm / 1 m) = 250 cm

The unit ‘m’ cancels out, leaving the result in cm.

Example Combined Conversion: Convert 2.0 inches to feet

Step 1: Use known conversion factors

1 inch = 2.54 cm
100 cm = 1 m
1 m = 3.281 feet

Step 2: Multiply stepwise

2.0 inch × (2.54 cm / 1 inch) × (1 m / 100 cm) × (3.281 ft / 1 m) = 0.167 ft

NCERT Emphasis: Use dimensional consistency – all units must cancel correctly. This is key
to ensuring correct results in chemistry formulas and reactions.

Summary
  Every measurement has uncertainty and should be recorded with correct significant
figures.
 Scientific notation expresses very large or small numbers compactly.
 Rounding rules depend on operation type and should be applied only at the end.
 Accuracy is closeness to true value; precision is closeness of repeated results.
 Dimensional analysis converts units using cancellation with exact conversion factors.

Laws of Chemical Combinations

Quick Notes:
Chemical reactions follow fixed laws known as the Laws of Chemical Combinations.
 Law of Conservation of Mass: Matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction.
 Law of Definite Proportions: A given compound always contains the same elements in
the same fixed ratio by mass.
 Law of Multiple Proportions: When two elements form more than one compound, the
ratio of masses of one element combining with a fixed mass of the other is a simple
whole number.
 Gay Lussac’s Law: Gases react in simple volume ratios under the same temperature
and pressure.
 Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure
contain an equal number of molecules.

Full Notes:
1. Law of Conservation of Mass
This was one of the first laws established in chemistry, based on the work of Antoine
Lavoisier in 1789.
Statement of the Law:
“Matter can neither be created nor destroyed.”
In other words, during any chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants equals the
total mass of the products.
Example:
BaCl 2 + H2SO4 →BaSO4 + 2HCl
If we weigh the total mass before and after the reaction (in a closed system), it remains
exactly the same.
This law applies strictly only to ordinary chemical changes, not to nuclear reactions where
mass-energy conversions occur.

[Link] of Definite Proportions

Also known as Proust’s Law, after Joseph Proust (1799).
Statement of the Law:
“A given compound always contains the same elements in the same proportion by mass.”
This law tells us that no matter how a compound is prepared, or from where it is obtained,
the ratio of the masses of its elements remains constant.
Example:

Two samples of pure water – collected from different sources – both contain hydrogen and
oxygen in the mass ratio of 1:8.
18 g of water →2 g hydrogen, 16 g oxygen
This 1:8 ratio is constant, no matter the source.
Proust demonstrated this using compounds like copper carbonate, showing consistent mass
proportions regardless of source.
Note: This law is not valid for non-stoichiometric compounds like FeO, which may vary in
composition due to defects in structure.

[Link] of Multiple Proportions

Formulated by John Dalton in 1803, this law extends the idea of definite proportions to
situations where two elements form more than one compound.
Statement of the Law:
“If two elements combine to form more than one compound, the different masses of one
element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole
numbers.”
Example:
Carbon forms two oxides:
  CO (carbon monoxide): 12 g carbon combines with 16 g oxygen
 CO2 (carbon dioxide): 12 g carbon combines with 32 g oxygen
The mass of oxygen combining with a fixed mass of carbon (12 g) is in a simple ratio: 16:32 =
1:2
This law strongly supports the atomic theory, since atoms combine in simple whole number
ratios.

[Link] Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes

Proposed by Joseph Louis Gay Lussac in 1808, this law deals specifically with gaseous
reactions.
Statement of the Law:
“When gases react together, they do so in volumes which bear a simple whole number ratio
to each other and to the volumes of the products (if gaseous), all measured under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure.”
Example:

2 volumes of hydrogen + 1 volume of oxygen →2 volumes of water vapour

(Measured at same T and P)
The volume ratio is 2:1:2, which is a simple whole number ratio.
This observation was crucial in supporting the idea of discrete, countable molecules.
However, this law could not be explained by Dalton’s atomic theory at the time, since it
implied division of atoms, which Dalton’s model didn’t allow. The explanation came later
through Avogadro’s hypothesis.
[Link]’s Law
Proposed by Amedeo Avogadro in 1811, this law resolved the issues that Dalton’s theory
couldn’t explain – especially Gay Lussac’s volume observations.
Statement of the Law:
“Equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of
molecules.”
Molecules could be diatomic (like H 2, O2), which wasn’t considered in Dalton’s atomic theory.

Using this law, Avogadro concluded that:

 1 molecule of oxygen must split and combine with 2 molecules of hydrogen
So water is formed as: 2H2 + O2 →2H2O
This supports both the volume ratio and the molecular model
This idea became foundational in determining molecular formulas and in the development of
Avogadro’s number (6.022 × 10 23) later on.

Summary
 Conservation of mass states total mass remains constant in chemical reactions.
 Definite proportions fix element mass ratios in a compound regardless of source.
 Multiple proportions give simple whole number mass ratios across related compounds.
 Gay Lussac’s law gives simple whole number volume ratios for reacting gases.
 Avogadro’s law links equal gas volumes to equal molecule numbers at the same
conditions.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Quick Notes:

 Proposed by John Dalton in 1808.

 Dalton’s theory explained the laws of chemical combinations using the concept of
atoms.
 Key ideas:
o All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
o Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.
o Atoms of different elements are different in mass and properties.
o Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds.
o Atoms can’t be created or destroyed in chemical reactions — only rearranged.
  Dalton’s model laid the foundation for modern atomic theory, though some postulates
were later modified.

Full Notes:
Who Was John Dalton?

John Dalton was an English scientist who, in 1808, proposed a scientific explanation for the
laws of chemical combinations. His atomic theory was the first to describe matter in terms
of atoms — indivisible building blocks.

Dalton’s Postulates (Key Statements)

1. All matter is made up of indivisible atoms.

Atoms are the smallest units of matter and cannot be broken down by chemical means.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.
Example: Every oxygen atom behaves the same as another oxygen atom.
3. Atoms of different elements have different masses and properties.
Example: A hydrogen atom is fundamentally different from a carbon or nitrogen
atom.
4. Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds.
Example: H2O is formed by combining 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom (not
fractions).
5. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms, not their destruction or
creation.

Significance of Dalton’s Theory

Dalton’s theory:

 Gave a scientific explanation for the laws of conservation of mass and definite
proportions.
 Introduced the idea that chemical reactions are just rearrangements of atoms.
  Formed the starting point for the development of the modern atomic model.

Limitations of Dalton’s Theory

Although groundbreaking at the time, some of Dalton’s postulates were later revised:

 Atoms are divisible – they contain protons, neutrons, and electrons.

 Atoms of the same element can differ in mass due to isotopes.
 Atoms can be converted to energy in nuclear reactions.

These limitations were resolved with the discovery of subatomic particles and advances in
quantum theory.

Summary

 Dalton proposed atoms as indivisible building blocks of matter.

 His postulates explained the laws of chemical combination scientifically.
 Later discoveries of subatomic particles modified some of his ideas.
 The concept of atoms combining in whole-number ratios remains central to modern
chemistry.

Atomic and Molecular Masses

Quick Notes:

 Atomic mass is the mass of a single atom, expressed in atomic mass units (amu).
 1 amu = 1/12 the mass of one carbon-12 atom.
 Most elements have isotopes, so we use average atomic mass based on relative
abundance.
 Molecular mass = sum of atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule (used for covalent
compounds such as H 2O, CO2).
 Formula mass is used for ionic compounds like NaCl, since they don’t form molecules.
 All masses are relative to the carbon-12 standard.

Full Notes:
Atomic Mass

Atoms are extremely small and their actual masses in grams are minuscule. For example, one
atom of hydrogen has a mass of approximately 1.6736 × 10⁻ ²⁴ g.

To simplify calculations, scientists use a relative scale to compare atomic masses.

Definition:
The mass of an atom is expressed in atomic mass units (amu), where:
1 amu = (1/12) × mass of one carbon-12 atom
1 amu therefore equals approximately the mass of one atom of H-1 (which is 1/12
mass of a C-12 atom).

This is the international standard, chosen because the carbon-12 isotope is stable and easily
measurable.

Examples:

 Hydrogen = 1.008 amu

 Carbon = 12.00 amu
 Oxygen = 16.00 amu

These values are determined using mass spectrometry, which gives highly accurate ratios.

Note: 1 amu ≈ 1.66056 × 10⁻ ²⁴ g

Average Atomic Mass

Most elements exist as a mixture of isotopes. The atomic mass listed on the periodic table is
not for a single atom, but the weighted average of all naturally occurring isotopes.

Formula:
Average atomic mass
= (% of isotope A × mass of A) + (% of isotope B × mass of B) + …

Example Chlorine
³⁵Cl (75.77%) →34.9689 amu
³⁷Cl (24.23%) →36.9659 amu
Average atomic mass = (75.77 × 34.9689 + 24.23 × 36.9659) / 100 = 35.5 amu
This is the value shown for chlorine on the periodic table.

Molecular Mass

This refers to the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule.

Formula:
Molecular mass = Σ (atomic mass of each atom in the molecule)

Example Water (H₂O)

= 2 × H (1.008) + 1 × O (16.00)
= 2.016 + 16.00 = 18.02 amu

This method applies to covalent compounds, where molecules exist as discrete units.

Formula Mass

Some compounds, especially ionic compounds, do not exist as individual molecules. Instead,
they form three-dimensional lattice structures made of ions.

So instead of molecular mass, we calculate the formula mass, based on the simplest
repeating formula unit.

Definition:
Formula mass = Sum of atomic masses of ions present in a formula unit.

Example Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Na = 22.99 amu
Cl = 35.45 amu
Formula mass = 22.99 + 35.45 = 58.44 amu

Even though NaCl does not exist as molecules, we can still use its chemical formula to
calculate mass for stoichiometric purposes.

Summary
  Atomic mass is expressed in amu based on the carbon-12 scale.
 Average atomic mass accounts for natural isotopic abundance.
 Molecular mass applies to covalent compounds with discrete molecules.
 Formula mass is used for ionic compounds forming lattice structures.
 Mass spectrometry determines atomic and molecular masses precisely.

Mole Concept and Molar Masses

Quick Notes:

 A mole is the amount of substance that contains 6.022 × 1023 particles (Avogadro’s
number).
 These particles may be atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons.
 Molar mass = mass of 1 mole of a substance (same as molecular/formula mass in
grams).
 Key relationships:
o 1 mole = molar mass (g)
o 1 mole = 6.022 × 1023 entities
o For gases at STP: 1 mole = 22.4 L
 Use mole concept to calculate:

o Mass from moles

o Number of particles from moles
o Volume of gas at STP

Full Notes:
What is a Mole?

In chemistry, substances are made up of atoms, molecules, or ions. Since these particles are
extremely small, we use the concept of the mole to count them in practical amounts.

Definition:
A mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many entities as there are atoms in
exactly 12 grams of carbon-12.

That number is known as Avogadro’s number:

NA = 6.022 × 1023 entities/mol

These entities can be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, etc.

This standardised “counting unit” allows chemists to compare and measure substances
reliably in chemical reactions.

Molar Mass

The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole of that substance. It is expressed in
grams per mole (g/mol).

Numerically, molar mass is equal to:

 The atomic mass (for atoms)

 The molecular mass (for molecules)
 The formula mass (for ionic compounds)

But instead of being in amu, it's expressed in grams.

Relationship Between Moles, Mass, and Number of Entities

We can use the mole concept to interconvert between:

 Mass ↔Moles
 Number of particles ↔Moles
 Gas volume at STP ↔Moles

Key formulas:

Moles = Mass (g) / Molar mass (g/mol)

Entities = Moles × Avogadro’s number

Application in Stoichiometry

In chemical equations, coefficients represent moles of substances.

Example:2H2 + O2 →2H2O

This means:

 2 moles of hydrogen gas react with 1 mole of oxygen gas to produce 2 moles of water.

By using molar masses and Avogadro’s number, we can:

 Calculate the mass of reactants and products

 Determine the volume of gases involved
 Find the number of atoms or molecules

Summary

 1 mole contains 6.022 × 10 23 entities (Avogadro’s number).

 Molar mass in g/mol equals the relative atomic or molecular mass in amu.
 Relationships connect moles with mass, gas volume, and particle number.
 Mole concept is the foundation for stoichiometric calculations.

Percentage Composition
Quick Notes:

 Percentage composition = % by mass of each element in a compound.

 Formula: % Element = (Mass of element in 1 mol of compound / Molar mass of
compound) × 100
 Empirical formula shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms.
 Molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms.
 To find empirical formula:
1. Convert % to grams
2. Convert grams to moles
3. Divide by smallest mole value
4. Adjust to smallest whole number ratio
 Molecular formula = (Empirical formula) × n, where n = (Molar mass / Empirical
formula mass)

Full Notes:
What is Percentage Composition?

Percentage composition refers to the percentage by mass of each element in a compound. It

tells us how much of each element is present in a 100 g sample of the compound.

This is especially useful for:

 Determining chemical formulae

 Verifying compound purity
 Carrying out stoichiometric calculations

Formula for Percentage Composition

To calculate the % of an element:

% Element =
(Total mass of element in 1 mole of compound / Molar mass of compound) × 100

Example Calculate % composition of H₂SO₄

Molar mass of H₂SO₄ = 98.08 g/mol

H: 2 × 1.008 = 2.016
S: 1 × 32.06 = 32.06
O: 4 × 16.00 = 64.00
Total = 98.08 g
% H = (2.016 / 98.08) × 100 = 2.06%
% S = (32.06 / 98.08) × 100 = 32.68%
% O = (64.00 / 98.08) × 100 = 65.26%
Total = 100% (confirming accuracy)

Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula

Empirical Formula

This is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of different elements in a compound.

It gives only the relative proportions, not the actual number of atoms.

Molecular Formula

This represents the actual number of atoms of each element in one molecule of the
compound.
It is a whole number multiple of the empirical formula.

Relationship Between the Two

Molecular formula = (Empirical formula) × n

Where n = (Molar mass of compound / Empirical formula mass)

Steps to Calculate Empirical Formula (NCERT Method)

To Calculate Empirical Formula using the NCERT Method:

1. Convert % composition to grams →Assume 100 g sample →% becomes g

2. Convert grams to moles →Moles = Mass / Atomic mass
3. Divide all mole values by the smallest →This gives relative atom ratio
4. Round to nearest whole numbers →If needed, multiply all values by 2, 3 etc. to get
integers

Example Finding Empirical and Molecular Formula

A compound has: C = 40%, H = 6.7%, O = 53.3%

Step 1: Assume 100 g sample →40 g C, 6.7 g H, 53.3 g O

Step 2: Convert to moles
C: 40 / 12.01 = 3.33 mol
H: 6.7 / 1.008 = 6.65 mol
O: 53.3 / 16.00 = 3.33 mol

Step 3: Divide by smallest

C: 3.33 / 3.33 = 1
H: 6.65 / 3.33 ≈ 2
O: 3.33 / 3.33 = 1
Empirical formula = CH₂O

Step 4: Given molar mass = 180 g/mol

Empirical formula mass = 30 g/mol
n = 180 / 30 = 6
Molecular formula = (CH₂O) × 6 = C₆H₁₂O₆

Summary

 Percentage composition gives the mass percentage of each element in a compound.

 Empirical formula gives the simplest ratio of atoms.
 Molecular formula shows actual atom numbers and equals the empirical formula
multiplied by n.
 Use given molar mass to find n and confirm correct molecular formula.
 Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations
Quick Notes:

 Stoichiometry involves quantitative relationships between reactants and products in a

balanced chemical equation.
 We can use the mole ratio from the balanced equation to calculate required/reacted
amounts.
 Limiting reagent: The reactant that gets consumed first and limits the amount of
product formed.
 In solutions, concentration is expressed using:
o Mass % = (Mass of solute / Mass of solution) × 100
o Mole fraction = moles of component / total moles
o Molarity (M) = moles of solute / volume of solution in litres
o Molality (m) = moles of solute / mass of solvent in kg

Full Notes:
What is Stoichiometry?

Stoichiometry is the calculation of the quantities of substances involved in a chemical

reaction, based on the balanced chemical equation.

A balanced equation tells us:

 Which reactants and products are involved

 How many moles of each substance react or are formed

Example:

For the reaction: H2 + Cl2 →2HCl

 1 mole of H2 reacts with 1 mole of Cl 2 to form 2 moles of HCl

 If you have 2 moles of H2, you’d need 2 moles of Cl 2 to produce 4 moles of HCl

General Steps in Stoichiometric Calculations

1. Write the balanced chemical equation

2. Convert given data into moles
3. Use mole ratios to relate substances
4. Convert moles into mass, volume, or particles, as required

Limiting Reagent

In most reactions, one reactant may be in excess, while the other is completely consumed
first — this is called the limiting reagent.
Definition: The limiting reagent is the reactant that gets consumed first and thus limits the
amount of product formed. The other reactant is said to be in excess.

Example:2H2 + O2 →2H2O

 Suppose you have 2 moles of H 2 and 1 mole of O2

then both are completely used, no limiting reagent
 If you have 2 moles of H 2 and 2 moles of O 2,
then only 1 mole of O2 is used. H2 is limiting reagent, O 2 is in excess

Steps to find limiting reagent:

1. Convert mass to moles

2. Compare the mole ratio of available reactants to the stoichiometric ratio
3. The reactant that gives less product is the limiting reagent

Reactions in Solutions

When reactions occur in solution, it is important to know how much solute is dissolved and
how to express concentration.

Mass Percent (% by Mass)

Mass % = (Mass of solute / Mass of solution) × 100

Example: 10 g NaCl in 90 g water , solution = 100 g

Mass % of NaCl = (10 / 100) × 100 = 10%

Mole Fraction (χ)

  Mole fraction is the ratio of moles of one component to the total moles in the solution.
 Properties: Mole fraction is unitless. For a binary mixture A + B: χA + χB = 1.

Molarity (M)

Molarity (M) = moles of solute / volume of solution (L)

Example: 5.8 g NaCl (M = 58.44 g/mol) in 500 mL solution:

Moles = 5.8 / 58.44 = 0.0992 mol
Volume = 0.500 L
Molarity = 0.0992 / 0.500 = 0.198 M

Note: Molarity changes with temperature, because volume changes with temperature.

Molality (m)

Molality (m) = moles of solute / mass of solvent (kg)

Example: 5.4 g glucose (M = 180 g/mol) in 100 g water

Moles = 5.4 / 180 = 0.03 mol
Solvent = 0.100 kg
Molality = 0.03 / 0.100 = 0.3 m

Note: Molality is independent of temperature, since mass does not change with
temperature.

NCERT Summary of Units

Summary

 Stoichiometry uses balanced equations and mole ratios to quantify reactants and
products.
 Limiting reagent determines the maximum amount of product formed.
 Solution concentration can be expressed as mass %, mole fraction, molarity, or
molality.
 Molarity is temperature dependent; molality is not.
 Systematic steps (to moles →ratio →back to required units) prevent calculation
errors.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………