Chemical Engineering equipment Design

(Mechanical aspects)
Overview
 • WHAT IS MED
• WHAT IS PED
• The basic data needed
• Vessel function.
• Process materials and services.
PROCESS • Operating and design temperature
and pressure.
• Materials of construction.
EQUIPMENT • Vessel dimensions and orientation.
• Type of vessel heads to be used.
DESIGN • Openings and connections
required.
• Specification of heating and cooling
jackets or coils.
• Type of agitator.
• Specification of internal fittings.
 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN PROCESS
EQUIPMENT DESIGN: General procedure

•Selection of type of vessel

•Optimum processing condition
•Material of construction (moc) selection
•Strength of component
•Ease of maintenance and repair
•Ease of operation and control
•Fabrication method
•Economic considerations
•Safety requirement
 EQUIPMENT CLASSIFICATION
Classification of chemical equipment is generally base on the
particular type of the unit operation or unit processes Such
classification leads to three groups

EQUIPMENT CLASSIFICATION

Groups involving
Pressure vessel
Structural group rotational
group
motion
Pressure vessel group:
This group of equipment has a cylindrical or spherical
vessel as the main component , which has to
withstand variation of pressure and temp, in addition
to other loading conditions

Cylindrical vessel spherical vessel

Structural group
This group consists of equipment or components, which are
stationary and have to sustain not only dead loads but also natural
phenomena like earthquakes. they are generally made up of
structural sections and must satisfy condition of elastic and
structural stability

Groups involving rotational motion

This groups covers equipment or components where rotational
motion is necessary process requirement. drive system and power
supply are the essential features. Consideration of torque, dynamic
stress, apart from other loading condition forms the basis of design
Selection of vessel
The two basic requirements that affect the selection of vessel are
safety and economics.

The most usual material for vessel is carbon steel. Many other
specialized material also being used for corrosion resistance

For those vessels that will operate in climates, where low

temperatures are encountered or that contain fluid operating at low
temperatures, special care must be taken to ensure impact
resistance of the material at low temperature.

To obtain this property, the vessel may require a special high-alloy

steel, non-ferrous materials, or some special heat treatment
Codes And Standards
The terms, code and standard, are used interchangeably, though ‘code’ should
really be reserved for a code of practice covering say, a recommended design or
operating procedure; and ‘standard’ for preferred size, composition etc.

Codes are a set of rule, established to protect the public interest and are evolved
in the course of time. It does not directly concern with the economic designs of the
equipment. They are the guidelines for safety design prescribing detailed rule for
the design and operation of equipment to ensure that the required service will be
provided in safe manner.
Codes are usually prepared by committees of experts representing manufactures,
users, regulators etc.

Standards define minimum quality level for materials and equipments. They are
similar to code. In short, standards recommend procedure for design, installation,
operation, repair and replacement.

Some of standard are

IS – Indian Standard
BS- British standard
TEMA – tubular exchanger manufacture association
ASME- American society of mechanical engineering
GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Design pressure
Design temperature
Materials
Design stress
design stress factor (factor of safety)
Welded joint efficiency
Corrosion allowance: 2 mm, 4mm, 1mm
Design loads
Design Prelimineries
Design pressure
Vessel must be design to withstand maximum operating pressure and
temperature
The design pressure always higher than working pressure
Vessel under internal pressure (IP>EP) design pressure is 10% more
For external pressure (EP>IP) design pressure is based on the differential
pressure occurred during the service.

Design temperature
The strength of metal decreases with increasing temperature, so the
maximum allowable
for body parts, heated by means of steam, hot water, or similar heating
media; 10c higher than the maximum temperature
Design stress and Factor of safety
Design stress is based on ultimate tensile stress, the yield stress or the
0.2%proof stress or creep properties.

The design stress determined by applying a suitable factor of safety

The factor of safety allows for any uncertainty in the design method, loading
conditions, the quality of material and the workmanship.

Design Stress calculated by:

1. For ductile material

Design stress=(Yield stress/factor of safety)

2. For brittle material

Design stress=(Ultimate stress/factor of safety)

 factor of safety value for different
materials are as follows:
factor of safety property Material ( factor of
load Ductile Brittle(U. Ductile
safety )
(U.S.) S.) (Y.S.)
Low High Non-
1. Dead Alloy Alloy ferrou
3-4 5-6 1.5-2
Load Steel Steel s
metal
2. Repeat Yield 1.5 1.5 1.5
ed 6 7-8 3 stress
Load Ultimate 3.0 2.5 4.0
3. Load stress
Shock 10-15 15-20 5-7 creep 1.5 1.5 1.0
 Design Loads:
Safe design of any process vessel must resist gross plastic deformation and
collapse under all the conditions of loading along with the design pressure

The loads to which a process vessel are classified

Major load must always be considered in vessel design.

All subsidiary loads are not coming in the picture all the time and relevant
load are to be considered in particular service condition.

Stress analysis to determine the effects of the subsidiary loads is only

required in case where it is do not possible to demonstrate the adequacy of
the proposed design
Design loads
Major loads
Design pressure: including any significant static head of liquid.
Maximum weight of the vessel and contents, under operating conditions.
Maximum weight of the vessel and contents under the hydraulic test conditions.
Wind loads.
Earthquake (seismic) loads.
Loads supported by, or reacting on, the vessel.

Subsidiary loads
Local stresses caused by supports, internal structures and connecting pipes.
Shock loads caused by water hammer, or by surging of the vessel contents.
Bending moments caused by eccentricity of the centre of the working pressure relative to the neutral
axis of the vessel.
Stresses due to temperature differences and differences in the coefficient expansionof materials.
Loads caused by fluctuations in temperature and pressure.
DESIGN OF VESSELS SUBJECT TO COMBINED LOADING
Pressure,
Dead weight of vessel and contents.
Wind.
Earthquake (seismic).
External loads imposed by piping and attached equipment.
Weight loads
The vessel shell.
The vessel fittings: man ways, nozzles.
Internal fittings: plates (plus the fluid on the plates); heating and cooling coils.
External fittings: ladders, platforms, piping.
Auxiliary equipment which is not self-supported; condensers, agitators.
Insulation.
The weight of liquid to fill the vessel. The vessel will be filled with water for the hydraulic pressure
test;
Wind loads (tall vessels) : wind pressure
Earthquake loading
Eccentric loads (tall vessels): bending moment due to external attachments to the vessel

Torque
Classification of pressure vessels
pressure vessels are sub-divided into two classes
ratio of the wall thickness to vessel diameter:
thin-walled vessels, with ratio of less than I : 10;
 thick-walled above this ratio

Principal stresses
PRESSURE VESSEL CODES AND
STANDARDS

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND

EQUATIONS
Principal stresses
Theories of failure
Maximum principal stress
theory
Maximum shear stress theory
Maximum strain energy theoty;
Distortion energy theory

Elastic stability: failure of a structure can

occur not through gross yielding or plastic
failure
Buckling results in a gross and sudden
change of shape of the structure
Minimum
practical
wall
thickness
 STRESS , TYPES OF STRESS ,
THEORIES OF FAILURES.
Stress is the Physical Quantity.
Internal restoring force developed per unit area within the body to oppose the
deformation when external force acts on it is termed to be as Stress.
 Types Of Stress :
[Link] Stress.
[Link] Stress.
[Link] Stress.
 Stressess Due To Tension:
Under Applied load When Body Tends To Elongate then Stress developed is called Tensile
Stress.
For Materials, Tensile Stress is Calculated as :
Ft = W/A.
Unit : N/mm^2.

Stressess Due To Compression:

Under Applied load When Body Tends To Compress then Stress developed is called
Compressive Stress.
For Materials, Compressive Stress is Calculated as :
Fc = W/A.
Unit : N/mm^2.
Stressess Due To Bending:

Produced Due to Forces acting Normal to axis of material.

Along Cross section, Distribution of Stress is Not Uniform.
Relation Between Bending moment and stress is :
M/I = F/Y = E/R.
 Stressess Due To Torsion:

Component subjected to equal and opposite couples cause Torsional Stress.

Maximum at outer surface and zero at centroidal axis.
Relation Bet. T &Fs is

T/Ip = fs/r =GƟ/L.

 Principal Stressess:

Maximum and minimum values of normal

stressess is called principal stressess .
Shown in fig:

Perpendicular planes having no shear stress

called principal plane.

Plane on which maximum shear stress act

called maximum shear.
 Theories Of Failure:
[Link] Theory.
[Link]’s Theory.
[Link] Venant’s Theory.
[Link]’s Theory.
[Link] and Von Mises Theory.
 [Link] Theory.
Also Called “Maximum Normal Stress Theory”.
Failure of component subject to biaxial load occur when
fRN =fy or fRN =fu
where;
fy =yield stress in simple tension test.

fu= ultimate stress.

It is not used for ductile material

[Link]’s Theory.
Also Called “Maximum Shear Stress Theory”.
Failure of component subject to biaxial load occur when,
fRS=fy/2.
Where;
fRS=max resultant shear stress.
fy=shear stress.
This theory mostly used for ductile material.
[Link] Venant’s Theory.
Also Called “Maximum Principal Strain Theory”.
Failure of component subject to biaxial load occur when,
Max resultant strain created due to combined stressess,reaches strain at yield point in simple
tension test.
It gives reliable results in particular cases . It is not used in general.

[Link]’s Theory.
Also Called “Maximum Strain Energy Theory”.
Failure of component subject to biaxial load occur when,
Strain energy stored per unit volume due to combined stressess,reaches strain energy at yield
point in simple tension test.
This theory may be used for ductile material.

[Link] and Von Mises Theory.

Also Called “Distortion Energy Theory”.
Failure of component subject to biaxial load occur when,
Strain energy of distortion per unit volume becomes equal to strain energy of distortion per
unit volume at yield point in simple tension test.
This Theory is most suitable for ductile material than any other theory of failure.
 Pressure vessel
Part of pressure vessel:
Shell
Head (Headside and shellside)
Nozzle (Headside and shellside)
Flanged joint (Flange, gasket, bolt)

Types of pressure vessel:

Internal pressure vessels

External pressure vessels

Thin walled vessels

Thick walled vessels

Pressure vessels
High pressure vessels
DESIGN OF THIN-WALLED VESSELS
UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE

Heads and closures

Flat plates and formed flat heads
Hemispherical heads
Ellipsoidal heads
Torispherical heads
Conical heads

OPENINGS and COMPENSATION (Nozzles ands reinforcement)

Out of roundness (for external pressure vessel)

stiffness rings
 Dished Ends

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 Types of Ends

• Flanged

• Ellipsoidal

• Torispherical

• Hemispherical

• Conical

• Toriconical
Tori-spherical Ellipsoidal
Diffuser Head
Nozzles attachment to shell/head
 Orientation of Compensation

Openings are divided into two broad

classifications: radial or non-radial.

The best way to depict the various

orientations is through the nozzle diagrams
below. Nozzle is the term given by tank and
pressure vessel designers to the connecting
appurtenance which generally projects
beyond the vessel’s surface.

Types of nozzle:
Integral nozzles
Fabricated nozzles
Formed nozzles
 Reinforcement of Openings

• Openings must be reinforced to account for metal removed.

• Metal used to replace that removed must be equivalent in metal
area
Flanged Joints
A flange joint consists of a pair of flanges, one each attached to the two components to be joined,
held securely together by a series of bolts. A gasket is interposed between two adjoining flange
faces. The joint must have structural integrity with negligible leakage during service.
 Types of Flanges

• Slip-on raised face

• Welding neck
• Lap-joint
• Stub-end
• Screwed
 Types of Flanges

1. Welding-neck flanges

2. Slip-on flanges, hub and plate types

3. Lap-joint flanges 5. Blank, or blind flanges

4. Screwed flanges

5
Welding-neck flanges

Types of Flanges

Welding-neck flanges have a long tapered hub between the flange ring and the
welded joint. This gradual transition of the section reduces the discontinuity
stresses between the flange and branch, and increases the strength of the
flange assembly. Welding-neck flanges are suitable for extreme service
conditions, where the flange is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear,
6

and vibration loads.

Socket Weld Flange
This flange is counter bored to accept the pipe before being fillet
welded. The bore of the pipe and flange are both the same. It
gives good flow characteristics.

8
 Slip-on flanges slip over the pipe or nozzle and
are welded externally. The end of the pipe is set
back from 0 to 2.0mm. The strength of a slip-on
Slip-on Flanges
 Types of Flanges
Lap joint Flanges

Lap-joint flanges are used for pipe work. They are economical when used with
expensive alloy pipe, such as stainless steel, as the flange can be made from in
expensive carbon steel. Usually a short lapped nozzle is welded to the pipe.
Lap-joint flanges are sometimes known as “Van-stone flanges.”
Screwed or Threaded flanges

Screwed flanges are used to connect screwed fittings to flanges. They are
also sometimes used for alloy pipe that is difficult to weld satisfactorily.

14
Blind flanges

Blind flanges (blank flanges) are flat plates, used to blank off flange
connections, and as covers for manholes and inspection ports.

16
 Facing of Flanges

Narrow-Faced Flanges
Narrow-Faced Flanges - These are flanges where all
the face contact area lies inside the circle enclosed
by the bolt holes.
Wide-Faced Flanges
Wide-face flanges in which the joint ring or gasket
extends over the full width of the flange face. These
are suitable only when used with comparatively soft
gaskets. It is recommended that full-face joint flanges
should not be used for pressures exceeding 20
kgf/cm2 or temperatures exceeding 250C.
19
FLANGE FACINGS (Narrow-faced)
Types of flange faces are decided from the point of gasket application and
construction of the faces.

The Flat Face flange has a

Flat face (Plain face) gasket surface in the same
plane as the bolting circle
face.
Simple in construction and
inexpensive
There is a danger of gasket
blow out.
Good for low pressure
service.
FLANGE FACINGS (Narrow-faced)
Raised face
The Raised Face flange is the most
common type used in process plant
applications. It is referred to as a raised
face because the gasket surfaces are
raised above the bolting circle face.

Ring type face

This is a method of e nsuring leak proof
flange connection at hi gh pressures. A
metal ring is compres sed into a groove
on the face of the flange to make the seal.
Used in high pressure and/or high
temperature services a bove 427°C.
FLANGE FACINGS (Narrow-faced)
Male and female
One face is raised and the other one
has depth. This type is more
expensive than raise face. This type is
suitable for high pressure operation
as blow out of gasket is prevented.
But at high vacuum or large external
pressure, gasket may be squeezed
into the inner diameter of the vessel.
FLANGE FACINGS (Narrow-faced)
Tongue-and-Groove (T&G)
The Tongue and Groove
faces of this flanges must be
matched. One flange face
has a raised ring (Tongue)
while the mating flange has
a matching depression
(Groove).

These are commonly found on pump covers.

Tongue-and-groove joints also have an
advantage in that they are self-aligning and
act as a reservoir for the adhesive.
 Gasket and Its Selection
Temperature, Pressure, Commonly used gasket materials
C MN/m2
< 80 <1 Asbestos, fibre, or rubber sheet
≤ 250 ≤2 Compressed asbestos sheet and various
metallic reinforced asbestos sheets and
cloths
≤ 400 ≤2 Corrugated metal-asbestos gaskets and plain
iron, aluminium, copper sheet gaskets
> 400 >2 Plain metal gaskets
Thickness (mm) Width (mm)
3 ≤ 20
4 > 20 and ≤ 30
5 > 30
29
 Gasket and Its Selection

The forces which work on a gasket are

• Compression load
• Fluid pressure
• Hydrostatic end thrust
Gasket Dimensions

Actual gasket outsi de diameter: (do) = di +2N

Basic gasket seatin g width (bo) = bo = N/2
Effective gasket wi th (b)
b = bo if bo ≤ 6.3mm
b = 2.5  bo if bo > 6. 3 mm
Diameter at locatio n of gasket load reaction (G)
G = di + N if bo ≤ 6.3 mm
G = do – 2b if bo > 6. 3 mm
Type of flange facing Basic gasket seating width, bo Effective gasket
seating width, b
Plain face dN/2, (N=actual gasket width)
Raised face N/2 b=bo if bo  6.3 mm
Male & Female N/2
b=2.5 (bo)1/2 if bo > 6.3
Tongue and groove (N+W)/4, (W=width of tongue, mm
N=width of groove)
Ring type W/8, (W=width of ring gasket)
 Flange Design
The thickness of flanges shall be determined as the greater required either by :
(A) Operating Condition and (B) Bolting-up Condition

Operating condition
The operating conditions are the conditions required to resist the
hydrostatic end force of the design pressure tending to part the joint, and to
maintain on the gasket or joint-contact surface sufficient compression to
assure a tight joint, all at the design temperature.

Bolting-up condition
The bolting-up conditions are the conditions existing when the gasket or
joint-contact surface is seated by applying an initial load with the bolts when
assembling the joint, at atmospheric temperature and pressure.
 Bolts & Nuts
• Specification: Mx (in units
of millimeters)

• Preferred sizes: M2 2.5 3

4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 30
36 42
Welded Joints
 Riveted Joints

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Supports to Process Vessels
 Types of Supports

• Leg support

• Lug support

• Saddle support

• Skirt support
 Leg support
• Small vertical pressure vessel leg at the bottom of the
shell.
• Ring reinforcement pad to provide additional
reinforcement of local and load distribution, where
the local stresses that occur
• The sum of the leg is needed depends on size and
weight received vessel.
• Support leg is also commonly used in pressurized
spherical storage vessels.
• Spherical storage vessels
typically supported on legs.

• Cross-bracing typically used

to absorb wind and
earthquake loads.
 Lug Support
• Vessel size limits for lug supports:
1 – 10 ft diameter
2:1 to 5:1 height/diameter ratio
• Lugs bolted to horizontal structure.
• Bolt holes are often given the gap to
provide radial thermal expansion of
freedom in the vessel.
Saddle Support
• Saddle supports used for horizontal drums
– Spreads load over shell.
– One support fixed, other slides.
 Skirt Support
• Skirt supports typically used for tall vertical
vessels

• Designed for weight, wind, earthquake. Pressure

not a factor.
 Pressure Vessel Design
• ASME Section VIII is most widely used Code.
• Assures safe design.

• Plate Materials:
– Mild Steel: A-36, A-516 Gr 60, 70,
– Stainless Steel: 304, 316, 304L, 316L

• Pipe Materials – A106,

• Forgings – A105,
Thickness of Pressure Vessels
 Design Pressure

• May have internal of external

pressure, or both at different
times.

• Must have margin between

maximum operating pressure
at top of vessel and design
pressure.

• Hydrostatic pressure of
operating liquid (if present)
must be considered at
corresponding vessel
elevation.

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 Design Pressure

• For vessels under internal pressure, the design pressure is

normally taken as the pressure at which the relief device is set.
This will normally be 5 to 10 per cent above the normal working
pressure, to avoid spurious operation during minor process
upsets.
• Vessels subject to external pressure should be designed to resist
the maximum differential pressure that is likely to occur in
service.
 Additional Loadings

Loadings other than pressure and temperature:

• Weight of vessel and normal contents under operating or test
conditions
• Superimposed static reactions from weight of attached items
(e.g., motors, machinery, other vessels, piping, linings,
insulation)
• Loads at attached internal components or vessel supports
• Wind, snow, seismic reactions
 Joint Efficiency

• 1, 0.85, 0.7
 Corrosion Allowance

• The corrosion allowance must be added to the calculated

thickness.
 Design for External Pressure and
Compressive Stresses
• Compressive forces caused by dead weight, wind, earthquake,
internal vacuum

• Can cause elastic instability (buckling)

• Vessel must have adequate stiffness

– Extra thickness
– Circumferential stiffening rings
Stiffener Rings
 Design Codes

• Pressure Vessels: ASME Sec VIII, IS 2825

• Storage Tank: API 650, IS 803

STORAGE
VESSELS
 INTRODUCTION
Found in many industries.
Stores organic liquids, non organic liquids, vapours, etc.
Different sizes, ranging from 2 to 60 m diameter or more.
Generally installed inside containment basins.
Commonly employed by petroleum producing and refining,
petrochemical and chemical manufacturing, bulk storage and transfer
operations, other industries consuming or producing liquids and
vapours.
 CLASSIFICATION OF VESSEL
Based on pressure inside the vessel
- Atmospheric vessels
- Low pressure vessels
- High pressure vessels
Based on the fluid stored
- Volatile liquid
- Non-volatile liquid
- Gases
TYPES OF STORAGE VESSELS
Fixed-roof tanks
External floating roof tanks
Internal floating roof tanks
Domed external floating roof tanks
Horizontal tanks
Pressure tanks
Variable vapour space tanks
 Fixed-roof tanks
Least expensive to construct
Minimum acceptable equipment for storing liquids
A typical fixed-roof tank consists of
- cylindrical steel shell
- cone- or dome-shaped roof
Is permanently affixed to the tank shell
usually fully welded
designed for both liquid and vapour tight.
older tanks have a riveted or bolted construction, not vapour
tight.
A breather valve (pressure-vacuum valve) is present.
This valve prevents the release of vapours during only very
small changes in temperature, barometric pressure, or liquid
level,
The emissions from a fixed-roof tank can be appreciable
Gauge hatches/sample wells, float gauges, and roof
manholes provide accessibility to these tanks and also serve
as potential sources of volatile emissions.
 External floating roof tanks
Consists of an open-topped cylindrical steel shell with a roof that floats on the
surface of the stored liquid.
Roof rising and falling with the liquid level
Roof is comprised of a deck, fittings, and rim seal system
Deck constructed of welded steel plates and are of three general types: pan,
pontoon, and double deck.
Tailored to emphasize particular features
features as full liquid contact, load-carrying capacity, roof stability, or
pontoon arrangement
The liquid surface is covered by the floating deck, except in the small annular space
between the deck and the shell
The deck may contact the liquid or float directly above the surface on pontoons.
Rim seal system is attached to the roof perimeter and contacts the tank wall
The rim seal system slides against the tank wall as the roof is raised and lowered
The floating deck is also equipped with fittings that penetrate the deck and serve
operational functions. The external floating roof design is such that evaporative
losses from the stored liquid are limited to losses from the rim seal system and deck
fittings (standing storage loss) and any exposed liquid on the tank walls (withdrawal
loss).
 Internal floating roof tanks
That tanks has both, a permanent fixed roof and a floating roof inside.
Two basic types
- Fixed roof is supported by vertical columns within the tank
- Tanks with a self supporting fixed roof and no internal support
columns
The fixed roof is not necessarily free of openings but does span the
entire open plan area of the vessel.
Fixed roof tanks that have been retrofitted to employ an internal
floating roof are typically of the first type
External floating roof tanks that have been converted to an
internal floating roof tank typically have a self-supporting roof.
Roof floats on the liquid surface (contact deck) or is supported on
pontoons several inches above the liquid surface (noncontact
deck).
The internal floating roof rises and falls with the liquid level.
 Domed external floating roof tanks
They have heavier type of deck as well as a fixed roof at the top.
Result from retrofitting an external floating roof tank with a fixed roof.
The function of the fixed roof is not to act as a vapour barrier, but to
block the wind.
The type of fixed roof most commonly used is a self supporting
aluminium dome roof, which is of bolted construction. These tanks are
freely vented by circulation vents at the top of the fixed roof.
The deck fittings and rim seals are identical to those on external
floating roof tanks
 Horizontal tanks
Horizontal tanks are constructed for both above-ground and underground
service.
Horizontal tanks are usually constructed of steel, steel with a fiberglass
overlay, or fiberglass-reinforced polyester.
Horizontal tanks are generally small storage tanks.
The length of the tank is not greater than six times the diameter. Horizontal
tanks are usually equipped with pressure-vacuum vents, gauge hatches and sample wells, and
manholes to provide accessibility to these tanks.
Underground tanks may be cathodically protected
Cathodic protection is accomplished by placing sacrificial anodes in the tank that are connected to
an impressed current system or by using galvanic anodes in the tank.
 Pressure tanks
Gases are usually stored in high pressure tanks
This tanks are usually spherical to provide structural integrity.
it can be cylindrical or conical.
storage vessels for liquified gases such as ammonia,
chlorine, propane, butane and LPG.
 Variable vapour space tanks
Tanks are equipped with expandable vapour reservoirs
Thus accommodate vapour volume fluctuations attributable to
temperature and barometric pressure changes.
Although variable vapour space tanks are sometimes used
independently, they are normally connected to the vapour spaces of
one or more fixed roof tanks.
The two most common types of variable vapour space tanks are
lifter roof tanks and flexible diaphragm tanks.
Lifter roof tanks have a telescoping roof that fits loosely around the
outside of the main tank wall.
The space between the roof and the wall is closed by either a wet
seal, which is a trough filled with liquid, or a dry seal, which uses a
flexible coated fabric.
Flexible diaphragm tanks use flexible membranes to provide
expandable volume.
They may be either separate gasholder units or integral units
mounted atop fixed roof tanks.
 TYPES OF LOSSES
Breathing Loss
Boiling Loss
Clingage Loss
Filling Loss
 BREATHING LOSSES
Breathing losses occur because differences in temperature
Such as changes between day and night temperatures affect
the vapor space pressure inside storage tanks.
Vapors expand with an increase in temperature and contract
with a decrease in temperature.
In addition, the saturated vapor concentration of a substance in
air increases with increasing temperature and viceversa.
As the outside temperature rises during the day, the pressure
inside a tank increases and air will be expelled from the tank.
As the temperature falls during the night, pressure in the tank
decreases and fresh air flows into the tank.
 BOILING LOSSES
When the vapour pressure of the liquid stored is higher than the
atmospheric pressure, it boils and the vapour thus produced is lost.
In such cases, the liquid should be stored in a vessel operating
under a pressure not less than the vapour pressure of the liquid at
the maximum temperature of storage.

CLINGAGE LOSSES
The liquid, that once comes in contact with wall, tries to adhere to it,
vaporises when exposed to atmosphere resulting in an evaporative loss.
This is called as clingage loss.

FILLING LOSSES
When the liquid from storage tank discharge the entire volume of
the tank will be filled up by air vapour mixture.
When the tank is refilled, these vapours are vented from the top of
tank.
These losses can be considerably high, if frequency of operation is
more.
 TYPES OF ROOFS

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROOFS

ARE
- FIXED ROOF
- FLOATING ROOF
a) Pan
b) Pontoon
c) Double-deck
PAN roof
It is provided with an upstanding rim at the periphery which
gives it floating characteristics.
It is the cheapest
The pan is a single deck roof and it has no buoyancy of other
than that provided by the deck and rim an unchecked leak
through this deck will eventually cause it to sink.

PONTOON ROOF
In these roofs, buoyancy and stability is more compared to pan
type roof
Also liquid is more properly protected from sun rays
Pontoons roof are widely used for corrosive and non corrosive
liquids in both cold and hot climate.
REACTION VESSELS
 INTRODUCTION
Are vessels designed to contain chemical reactions
Not only used to carry out unit processes but also unit operations
Due to its own operation it is under pressure or may be subjected to
external pressure of utility
Hence, called as “pressure vessel”
Its components are-
Reactor vessel body
Reactor vessel head
Fuel assembly/ heating systems
Flanges, nozzles, bolts, gaskets
Jackets
 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
Commonly used are low carbon steel, stainless steel & hastealloy
For special cases- Copper, nickel, titanium
At moderate pressure- Glass reinforced polyesters, furons,
polypropylene
Economical- Fabricating from low cast material and then cladding with
SS, nickel,etc
 CLASSIFICATION
Mainly classified as-
1. Batch reactors
2. Continuous flow reactors
3. Semi batch reactors
Other types are- Plug flow reactor,
catalytic reactor
 BATCH REACTOR
Exclusively used for liquid phase reactions
Reactants are added to empty vessel
Temperature, pressure & composition may vary with time

CONTINUOUS FLOW REACTORS

Reactants flow continuously into reactor & products flow out
continuously
Uniform concentration is maintained with help of agitated
system

SEMI BATCH REACTORS

One of the reactants is charged batchwise & other reactant is fed
continuously
Usually used when 1 reactant is liquid and the other is gas
 HEATING SYSTEMS
Two types of heating systems- Direct or indirect
Use of heating system depend upon type of reaction carried out in
vessel, physical properties of reactants
 DIRECT TYPE HEATING
Are various electrical methods; mostly resistance heating & induction
heating
Low overall efficiency
High operating costs

INDIRECT TYPE OF HEATING

Heat is received from steam, hot oil, hot water, fine gas, special
organic compounds
With high boiling point materials, heat transfer system can be
operated at low pressures
Fluid is either supplied in jacket or internal equipments – coils,
baffles.
Jacket is used to supply heat
Coil is used to remove heat
Cooling coils are- non removable, have large thermal expansion
Jacket is placed with a narrow distance between vessel wall &
jacket shell
 TYPES OF JACKETS
Types are- Half pipe coil jackets- Pipes are length
Plain, wise then wound around vessel
Channel Dimple jackets
Tube - A thin external shell is affixed to vessel
Tube with copper strip support shell with spot weld
Half coil(Limpet) - Imparts turbulence
Overlapped cut coil Plain jacket- Used for steam
Dimpled construction
Channel jacket- A channel instead of half
cut pipe coil is welded
MoC Classifcation
Engineering
Materials

Metals Non-Metals

Ferrous Non- Rubber

Ferrous

Iron Copper & Plastics

Alloys
Pig iron
Aluminium Resin

Cast iron
Zinc
Wrought
iron
Tin
Steel

Lead
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
The mechanical properties of materials define the behaviour of materials under the action of external forces called
loads. There are a measure of strength and lasting characteristics of the material in service and are of good importance
in the design of tools, machines, and structures.

The mechanical properties of metals are determined by the range of usefulness of the metal and establish the service
that is expected. Mechanical properties are also useful for help to specify and identify the metals. And the most
common properties considered are strength, hardness, ductility, brittleness, toughness, stiffness and impact resistance.

List of Mechanical Properties of Materials

The following are the mechanical properties of materials.

1. Strength
2. Elasticity
3. Plasticity
4. Hardness
5. Toughness
6. Brittleness
7. Stiffness
8. Ductility
9. Malleability
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 Strength is the mechanical property that enables a metal to resist deformation load.
 The strength of a material is its capacity to withstand destruction under the action of external loads.
 The stronger the materials the greater the load it can withstand.

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  According to dictionary elasticity is the ability of an object or material to resume its normal shape
after being stretched or compressed.
 When a material has a load applied to it, the load causes the material to deform.
 The elasticity of a material is its power of coming back to its original position after deformation when
the stress or load is released.
 Heat-treated springs, rubber etc are good examples of elastic materials.

3. Plasticity

 The plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some permanent deformation without
rupture(brittle).
 Plastic deformation will take place only after the elastic range has been exceeded.
 Pieces of evidence of plastic action in structural materials are called yield, plastic flow and
creep.
 Materials such as clay, lead etc are plastic at room temperature, and steel plastic when at
bright red-heat.

4. Hardness

 The resistance of a material to force penetration or bending is hardness.

 The hardness is the ability of a material to resist scratching, abrasion, cutting or
penetration.
 Hardness indicates the degree of hardness of a material that can be imparted particularly
steel by the process of hardening.
 It determines the depth and distribution of hardness is introduce by the quenching process.

5. Toughness

 It is the property of a material which enables it to withstand shock or impact.

 Toughness is the opposite condition of brittleness.
 The toughness is may be considering the combination of strength and plasticity.
 Manganese steel, wrought iron, mild steel etc are examples of toughness materials.
6. Brittleness

 The brittleness of a property of a material which enables it to withstand permanent

deformation.
 Cast iron, glass are examples of brittle materials.
 They will break rather than bend under shock or impact.
 Generally, the brittle metals have high compressive strength but low in tensile strength.

7. Stiffness

 It is a mechanical property.
 The stiffness is the resistance of a material to elastic deformation or deflection.
 In stiffness, a material which suffers light deformation under load has a high degree of
stiffness.
 The stiffness of a structure is important in many engineering applications, so the modulus of
elasticity is often one of the primary properties when selecting a material.

8. Ductility

 The ductility is a property of a material which enables it to be drawn out into a thin wire.
 Mild steel, copper, aluminium are the good examples of a ductile material.

9. Malleability
  The malleability is a property of a material which permits it to be hammered or rolled into
sheets of other sizes and shapes.
 Aluminium, copper, tin, lead etc are examples of malleable metals.

10. Cohesion
 It is a mechanical property.
 The cohesion is a property of a solid body by virtue of which they resist from being broken into
a fragment.

11. Impact Strength

 The impact strength is the ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads.

12. Fatigue
 The fatigue is the long effect of repeated straining action which causes the strain or break of
the material.
 It is the term 'fatigue' use to describe the fatigue of material under repeatedly applied
forces.

13. Creep

 The creep is a slow and progressive deformation of a material with time at a constant force.
 The simplest type of creep deformation is viscous flow.
 Some metals are generally exhibiting creep at high temperature, whereas plastic, rubber, and
similar amorphous material are very temperature sensitive to creep.
 The force for a specified rate of strain at constant temperature is called creep strength.
 Metal
Metal is an element, compound or alloy that is a good
conductor of both electricity and heat

Ability of the valence free electrons to travel throughout the

solid explains both the high electrical conductivity and thermal
conductivity of metals

Ferrous Metals
These are the most important metals which are known for their
strength, wide availability and ease of forming and machining.
Iron alloys with carbon content of less than 2% are known as
steels, and those with more than 2% are known as cast iron.
 Cast iron
It cantains 2 to 4.5% carbon.
It is easy to cast and is very cheap.
It is brittle and cannot be rolled, drawn or welded.
Hense its use is very limited to castings and frames in process industries.

Steel
Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content
between 0.2% and 2.1% by mass
Steels are the most widely used Engineering Materials used for
construction of various Chemical Equipments or vessels.
High speed steel is commonly used in tool bits and cutting tools.
It does not corrode, rust, or stain with water as ordinary steel does.
 Non-ferrous metals
Copper – Latin cuprum (Cu) –
ranks next to iron in importance and wide range of application
Good heat and electrical conductivity
Resistance to corrosion
Copper Alloys: brass, bronze, cupro- nickel (copper nickel) alloys

Aluminium
atomic number 13
whitish with bluish cast
the third most abundant element (after oxygen and silicon), and the most
abundant metal in the Earth’s crust
low density and ability to resist corrosion; good conductivity
 Zinc
Zinc (Zn), atomic number 30
bluish white
corrosion resistant in air due to a thin oxide film forming on its
surface
used as a coating for protecting steel - galvanisation (or
galvanisation) is the process of applying a protective zinc coating
to steel or iron, in order to prevent rusting

Non-Metals
 Non-Metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity when compared to
metals as they gain or share valence electrons easily (as opposed to metals
which lose their valence electrons easily)
 usually have lower densities than metals;
they have significantly lower melting points and boiling points than metals
 brittle, non-ductile, dull (do not posses metallic luster)
 Plastics
Plastics are synthetic materials being increasingly used as
corrosion resistant material for chemical plant construction.
Plastics can be broadly divided into two classes.

 Thermoplastics materials

 Thermosetting materials

Rubber
 rough, elastic material

 unaffected by water

 attacked by oil and steam

 usage: gaskets, flexible couplings, vibration mount