Chapter 11
Phasors
Phasors allow ac calculations to use basic trigonometry.
The sine function in trigonometry is the ratio of the
opposite side of a right triangle to the hypotenuse.
op
po
si
tes
i
de
hypotenuse s
i
n
=
h
yp
ot
enu
se
opposite side
right
angle
adjacent side
Principles of Electric Circuits, Conventional Flow, 9 th ed. © 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Floyd Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved
Chapter 11
Phasors
The position of a phasor at any instant can be expressed
as a positive angle, measured counterclockwise from 0
or as a negative angle equal to - 360.
positive angle of
negative angle of - 360
phasor
Principles of Electric Circuits, Conventional Flow, 9 th ed. © 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Floyd Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved
Chapter 11
Angular velocity of a phasor
When a phasor rotates through 360 or 2p radians, one
complete cycle is traced out.
The velocity of rotation is called the angular velocity ().
= 2pf = 2p/T
(Note that this angular velocity is expressed in radians per second.)
The instantaneous voltage at any point in time is given by
v = Vp sin 2pft
Principles of Electric Circuits, Conventional Flow, 9 th ed. © 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Floyd Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved
Chapter 11
Superimposed dc and ac voltages
Frequently dc and ac voltages are together in a waveform.
They can be added algebraically, to produce a composite
waveform of an ac voltage “riding” on a dc level.
Principles of Electric Circuits, Conventional Flow, 9 th ed. © 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Floyd Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved
Chapter 11
Pulse definitions
Ideal pulses
Leading (rising) edge Leading (falling) edge
Trailing (falling) edge Trailing (rising) edge
Baseline
Am plitude Am plitude
Baseline
Pulse Pulse
width width
(a) Positive-going pulse (b) Negative-going pulse
Principles of Electric Circuits, Conventional Flow, 9 th ed. © 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Floyd Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved
Chapter 11
Pulse definitions
Non-ideal pulses
A A
0.9 A
0.5 A
0.1A
t t
tW
tr tf
(a) Rise and fall times (b) Pulse width
Notice that rise and fall times are measured between
the 10% and 90% levels whereas pulse width is
measured at the 50% level.
Principles of Electric Circuits, Conventional Flow, 9 th ed. © 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Floyd Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved
Chapter 11
Triangular and sawtooth waves
Triangular and sawtooth waveforms are formed by
voltage or current ramps (linear increase/decrease)
Triangular waveforms have
positive-going and negative-
going ramps of equal slope.
The sawtooth waveform consists
of two ramps, one of much longer
duration than the other.
Principles of Electric Circuits, Conventional Flow, 9 th ed. © 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Floyd Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved
Chapter 11
Harmonics
All repetitive non-sinusoidal waveforms are composed
of a fundamental frequency (repetition rate of the
waveform) and harmonic frequencies.
Odd harmonics are frequencies that are odd multiples
of the fundamental frequency.
Even harmonics are frequencies that are even multiples
of the fundamental frequency.
Principles of Electric Circuits, Conventional Flow, 9 th ed. © 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Floyd Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved
Chapter 11
Harmonics
A square wave is composed only of the fundamental
frequency and odd harmonics (of the proper amplitude).
Principles of Electric Circuits, Conventional Flow, 9 th ed. © 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Floyd Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved
Chapter 11
Vertical section Summary Display section
Signal coupling Volts/Di v
Oscilloscopes The oscilloscope is divided into
AC From Analog
Amp
four main sections.
DC GND vertic al only
Ch 1 Conversion/storage
Vertical section sec tion
(Digital scopes only)
Signal coupling Volts/Di v Intensity
AC Vertical Digital Display section
DC GND
Amp
only To display sec tion
Ch 1
position (Digital
Conversion/storage
scopes only)
AC
Vertical Amp Analog
DC GND position
Ch 2
Trigger section AC
DC GND
Amp
Horizontal From horizontal sec tion
only
Conversion/storage
Ch 2 Intensity
Conversion/storage
(Digital scopes only) section
(Digital scopes only)
Digital
External trigger Trigger only
coupling source Trigger
Horizontal Control and proc ess
Trigger section section level and
(Digital scopes only)
AC
External trigger Trigger
slope
External coupling source Trigger Ch 2 Control and process
trigger DC Ch 1 level and Sec/Div
(Digital scopes only)
External
AC
DC Ch 2
slope
Sec /Div
Trigger
trigger Ch 1
Ext TimeTime base
circuits
Trigger
circuits base
Ext
Line Line Horizontal
Horizontal
position
position
AC
Power supply
AC
DC to all sec tions
Principles of Electric Circuits, Conventional Flow, 9 th ed. © 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Floyd Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved
Vertical section
Chapter 11 Signal coupling Volts/Di v
AC
Amp
Display section
DC GND
Ch 1 Conversion/storage
(Digital scopes only)
Vertical Analog
position only
AC
Amp
DC GND Intensity
Ch 2 Conversion/storage
(Digital scopes only)
Digital
only
Horizontal
Trigger section section
External trigger Trigger
coupling source Trigger Control and process
level and (Digital scopes only)
AC slope
External Ch 2 Sec /Div
trigger DC Ch 1
Trigger
circuits Time base
Ext
Line Horizontal
position
AC
Power supply
DC to all sec tions
Principles of Electric Circuits, Conventional Flow, 9 th ed. © 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Floyd Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved
Chapter 11
Summary
Oscilloscopes Display Vertical Horizontal
Trigger
VERTICAL
VERTICAL HORIZONTAL
HORIZONTAL R
TIGGER
TRIGGER
RIGGER
CH
CH11 CH
CH22 BOTHH
BOT SLOPE
SLOPE
ÐÐ ++
POSITION
POSITION POSITION
POSITION POSITION
POSITION LEVEL
LEVEL
VOLTS/DIV
VOLTS/DIV VOLTS/DIV
VOLTS/DIV SEC/DIV
SEC/DIV SOURCE
SOURCE
SOURCE
CH
CH11
CH
CH22
EXT
EXT
55VV 22mmVV 55VV 2 2mm
VV 5 5s s 5 5nsns
LINE
LINE
COUPLING
COUPLING COUPLING
COUPLING
AC-DC-GND
AC-DC-GND AC-DC-GND
AC-DC-GND RTIG
TRIGRIGCOUP
COUP
DC
DC AC
AC
DISPLAY
DISPLAY PP
RR
OB EECOMP CH
OB
55VV
COMP CH11 CH
CH22 EXT
EXTTRIG
TRIG
INT
INTENSIT
ENSITYY
Principles of Electric Circuits, Conventional Flow, 9 th ed. © 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Floyd Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved