Research Article/Review/Short Communication
Volume xx(Issue), Year, Page
[Link]
Long-term Evaluation of Constructed Wetland
Efficiency for Domestic Wastewater Treatment
under Temperate Climatic Conditions in Beijing,
China
Zeyuan Liu1, Le Hien1, Le Duc Anh Tuan2, Nguyen Thi Xuyen3,*
1
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.1 Yanqihu East Rd, Huairou District, Beijing, PR China, 101408
2
Southern Bus Station Service and Management Center, Department of Construction of Quang Tri Province
3
Faculty of Fundamental Sciences, Viet-Hung Industrial University, No. 88, 419 St., Tay Phuong, Hanoi
*Correspondence: nguyenxuyen90qn@[Link]
SUBMITTED: date; REVISED: date; ACCEPTED: date
ABSTRACT: This study evaluated the long-term performance of a constructed wetland
(CW) system for domestic wastewater treatment under temperate climatic conditions in
Beijing, China. The system, with a capacity of 400 m³/day serving approximately 3,500
people, was monitored over four years. The results showed stable treatment performance,
with average effluent concentrations of COD 30.04 ± 8.49 mg/L, BOD₅ 10.53 ± 3.12 mg/L,
TSS 8.87 ± 3.38 mg/L, TN 12.34 ± 2.88 mg/L, TP 0.54 ± 0.16 mg/L, and NH₄ ⁺ 4.85 ± 1.15
mg/L, all meeting the Chinese discharge standard GB 18918-2002 (Level IB). Removal
efficiencies were higher for organic matter and TSS (up to 76.49% and 84.52% in summer)
than for nutrients (TN 66.62%, TP 55.61%, NH₄⁺ 49.68%). Seasonal variation significantly
affected performance, with winter efficiencies decreasing to 57.87% (COD) and 41.50%
(NH₄⁺). Correlation analysis indicated that temperature was the dominant factor (r = 0.637–
0.638, p < 0.01), while influent characteristics had moderate effects (r = 0.405–0.479). These
results demonstrate that CW systems provide a stable and effective solution for decentralized
wastewater treatment, although optimization is required to improve performance under low-
temperature conditions.
KEYWORDS: : constructed wetland, domestic wastewater, climatic conditions, wastewater
treatment.
1. Introduction
Domestic wastewater has become one of the main sources of environmental pollution in
rapidly urbanizing areas [1]. Although centralized wastewater treatment systems have been
widely implemented in urban regions, a significant portion of suburban and rural areas still
rely on decentralized or inadequate treatment systems [2]. As a result, untreated or
1
Tropical Environment, Biology, and Technology Volume(Issue), Year, Page
insufficiently treated domestic wastewater can lead to serious environmental problems such
as eutrophication, water quality degradation, and ecosystem deterioration.
In Beijing, domestic water consumption reaches approximately 1.5 billion m³ per year,
generating a large volume of urban wastewater [3]. Meanwhile, monitoring data indicate that
nitrogen and phosphorus remain the main pollutants in receiving water bodies, highlighting
the need for effective treatment technologies [4]. In recent years, China has strengthened
regulatory requirements for domestic wastewater through the implementation of stringent
discharge standards. According to the national standard GB 18918-2002, wastewater
treatment plants must meet different discharge limits (Level IA, IB, II, III), among which
Level IA is the most stringent, requiring COD ≤ 50 mg/L, BOD₅ ≤ 10 mg/L, NH₄ ⁺-N ≤ 5
mg/L, and TP ≤ 0.5 mg/L, particularly for environmentally sensitive areas.
For domestic wastewater, various technologies have been applied and shown distinct
advantages. Constructed wetlands (CW) are considered a sustainable and low-cost
wastewater treatment technology [5, 6]. These systems utilize natural interactions among
plants, microorganisms, and substrate materials to remove pollutants [7-9]. CWs have been
widely applied worldwide in urban wastewater treatment and are regarded as an effective
solution for decentralized systems. The treatment mechanisms in CW systems rely on natural
transformation processes, and therefore are significantly influenced by weather conditions
[10, 11]. Climatic factors, especially temperature, solar radiation, and humidity, play
important roles in controlling biological transformation processes in constructed wetlands.
These processes include organic matter decomposition, nitrification–denitrification, plant
uptake, and phosphorus adsorption–desorption, all of which are strongly affected by seasonal
variations [12, 13].
Temperature is the most critical factor affecting microbial activity in CW systems [14]. Most
biochemical reactions follow Arrhenius kinetics, where reaction rates increase exponentially
with temperature. Higher temperatures in summer enhance microbial metabolic activity,
thereby improving organic matter degradation and the removal efficiency of COD and BOD
[15]. In contrast, lower temperatures in winter reduce enzyme activity, resulting in slower
degradation rates and decreased treatment efficiency. This phenomenon is particularly
evident in nitrification processes, as nitrifying bacteria (Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter) are
highly sensitive to temperature and exhibit poor activity below 10°C. The nitrification–
denitrification process is strongly influenced by climatic conditions [16]. Nitrification is an
aerobic process requiring oxygen and suitable temperatures, while denitrification is an
anaerobic process dependent on carbon sources [9]. Under cold conditions, reduced
nitrification rates limit the supply of nitrate (NO₃⁻) for denitrification, thereby lowering total
nitrogen removal efficiency. Additionally, low temperatures can alter microbial community
structure, affecting nitrogen transformation pathways. Solar radiation and photoperiod also
influence CW performance through their effects on plant growth and oxygen supply [12].
Strong sunlight in summer promotes photosynthesis, increasing oxygen diffusion through
plant roots (radial oxygen loss), which supports aerobic processes such as organic matter
degradation and nitrification [12, 17]. Conversely, in winter, reduced light intensity limits
plant activity and oxygen supply, leading to lower treatment efficiency. Humidity and
hydrological conditions affect both biological processes and transport mechanisms in CW
2
Tropical Environment, Biology, and Technology Volume(Issue), Year, Page
systems [18]. Heavy rainfall can dilute pollutant concentrations but may also impact
hydraulic retention time and flow regimes [19]. Conversely, dry conditions can increase
pollutant concentrations and place stress on microbial systems. In addition, plant growth
dynamics play a crucial role in seasonal treatment performance. During the growing season,
plants actively absorb nutrients (especially nitrogen and phosphorus), provide habitats for
microorganisms, and enhance filtration capacity. In contrast, during autumn and winter,
reduced growth and biomass decomposition may decrease nutrient uptake and even release
previously accumulated substances [15, 20]. Although constructed wetlands have been
widely applied, long-term studies evaluating seasonal performance under temperate northern
climate conditions remain limited. Most existing studies are short-term or laboratory-scale.
This study aims to evaluate the long-term treatment performance of a constructed wetland
system for domestic wastewater under temperate climatic conditions in Beijing, China. The
study focuses on analyzing seasonal variations of key water quality parameters (COD, BOD₅,
NH₄⁺-N, TN, and TP), clarifying the influence of climatic factors on treatment efficiency,
and providing a scientific basis for optimizing the design and operation of CW systems in
cold climate conditions.
2. Methodology
2.1. System description
The wastewater treatment system was applied to a suburban residential area in Shunyi
District, Beijing, China, serving a population of 3,500 people, with a design capacity of 400
m³/day. The system was constructed following an ecological approach and includes the main
units: a pre-treatment tank, vertical flow constructed wetlands, and a free-floating plant pond
(Figure 1). Collected wastewater is first conveyed to the pre-treatment tank, which consists of
screening, grit removal, and grease separation compartments. The tank is designed with a
volume of 96 m³ and dimensions of 12 m × 4 m × 2 m, corresponding to a hydraulic retention
time of approximately 6 hours. This ensures effective removal of coarse solids, settleable
particles, and floating materials, while stabilizing flow and pollutant concentrations prior to
biological treatment. After pre-treatment, wastewater is distributed onto vertical flow
constructed wetlands. With a hydraulic loading rate of 0.10 m³/m²/day, the total wetland area
is determined to be 4,000 m². The system is divided into four cells operating alternately, each
with dimensions of 50 m × 20 m and a filter media depth of 1.0 m. The wetland structure
includes a distribution layer, sand–gravel layer, supporting stone layer, and a bottom drainage
system, ensuring efficient filtration, adsorption, and biological degradation processes.
Effluent from the wetlands is then conveyed to a free-floating plant pond for polishing
treatment. The pond is designed with a volume of 1,100 m³ and dimensions of 45 m × 20 m ×
1.2 m. Floating plant rafts are installed on the surface to enhance the removal of remaining
nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, and to further improve water quality before
discharge or reuse.
3
Tropical Environment, Biology, and Technology Volume(Issue), Year, Page
Figure 1. Layout of the domestic wastewater treatment system.
2.2. Operation and sampling.
During operation, water samples were collected every 7 days at two locations: the influent of
the CW system (i.e., wastewater after the pre-treatment tank before entering the constructed
wetlands) and the effluent of the CW system (i.e., wastewater after passing through the
vertical flow constructed wetlands). Sampling at these two points aimed to evaluate the
specific treatment efficiency of the CW system for key pollutants, including COD, BOD₅,
TSS, NH₄⁺-N, TN, and TP. Samples were collected at the same time of day, stored in clean
bottles, preserved at 4°C, and transported to the laboratory for analysis within the prescribed
holding time. In addition, weather conditions were monitored throughout the study period,
including air temperature, humidity, and sunshine duration.
2.3. Analytical methods.
Water quality parameters were analyzed following standard international methods.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD₅) was determined using Method 5210B; chemical
4
Tropical Environment, Biology, and Technology Volume(Issue), Year, Page
oxygen demand (COD) was analyzed using the closed reflux dichromate method (5220D);
total suspended solids (TSS) were determined by the filtration and drying method (2540D).
Ammonium (NH₄⁺-N) was measured using the phenate method (4500-NH₃ F), total nitrogen
(TN) was analyzed using the persulfate digestion method combined with spectrophotometry
(4500-N C), and total phosphorus (TP) was determined using the ascorbic acid method after
digestion (4500-P E).
2.3. Data analysis.
One-way analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) was applied to assess statistically
significant differences in water quality parameters (BOD₅, COD, TSS, NH₄ ⁺-N, TN, and
TP) among seasons. When ANOVA results indicated significant differences (p < 0.05),
Tukey’s HSD post hoc test was used to identify specific seasonal differences. Pearson
correlation coefficients were used to evaluate linear relationships between water quality
parameters and environmental factors such as air temperature, rainfall, and system operating
conditions. The level of statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Results are presented as
mean ± standard deviation, combined with graphical representations to illustrate temporal
variations and relationships among variables.
3. Results
3.1. Water quality variation.
The system operated continuously for four years and showed promising results, with
pollutant concentrations in the effluent significantly reduced compared to the influent (Figure
2). The average effluent concentrations were: COD 30.04 ± 8.49 mg/L, BOD₅ 10.53 ± 3.12
mg/L, TSS 8.87 ± 3.38 mg/L, TN 12.34 ± 2.88 mg/L, TP 0.54 ± 0.16 mg/L, and NH₄ ⁺ 4.85 ±
1.15 mg/L. Although influent water quality exhibited considerable fluctuations, the treatment
performance of the CW system remained stable throughout the operational period. Compared
with China’s discharge standard (GB 18918-2002), all effluent parameters met the Level IB
limits (COD ≤ 60 mg/L, BOD₅ ≤ 20 mg/L, SS ≤ 20 mg/L, TN ≤ 20 mg/L, NH₄ ⁺ ≤ 8 mg/L,
TP ≤ 1 mg/L). These results indicate that the CW system is capable of effectively treating
domestic wastewater and producing effluent that meets environmental discharge standards.
5
Tropical Environment, Biology, and Technology Volume(Issue), Year, Page
Figure 2. Variation of pollutant concentrations in influent and effluent of the CW system.
3.2. Seasonal variation in treatment efficiency.
The results indicate that the treatment efficiency of the constructed wetland system varied
significantly across seasons and was strongly influenced by climatic conditions (p < 0.05,
Table 1). For COD, treatment efficiency increased significantly from 57.87 ± 5.50% in winter
to 76.49 ± 8.94% in summer, while spring and autumn achieved 67.16 ± 7.29% and 68.31 ±
7.20%, respectively, with no statistically significant difference between these two seasons (p
> 0.05). A similar trend was observed for BOD, with removal efficiency increasing from
70.41 ± 3.86% in winter to 83.49 ± 6.28% in summer, while spring and autumn recorded
76.93 ± 5.12% and 77.74 ± 5.06%, respectively. For TSS, treatment efficiency ranged from
72.26 ± 3.62% in winter to 84.52 ± 5.89% in summer, while spring and autumn reached
78.38 ± 4.80% and 79.13 ± 4.74%, respectively. For nutrients, seasonal differences were even
more pronounced. TN removal efficiency increased from 56.69 ± 2.93% in winter to 66.62 ±
4.77% in summer, while spring and autumn recorded 61.65 ± 3.89% and 62.26 ± 3.84%,
respectively. Similarly, NH₄⁺ removal efficiency was lowest in winter (41.50 ± 2.42%) and
highest in summer (49.68 ± 3.92%), while spring and autumn achieved 45.58 ± 3.20% and
46.09 ± 3.16%, respectively. For TP, removal efficiency increased from 45.81 ± 2.89% in
winter to 55.61 ± 4.70% in summer, while spring and autumn recorded 50.69 ± 3.85% and
51.30 ± 3.79%, respectively.
Table 1. Comparison of seasonal removal efficiencies for key pollutants in the constructed wetland system.
Parameter Winter Spring Autumn Summer
COD (%) 57.87 ± 5.50ᶜ 67.16 ± 7.29ᵇ 68.31 ± 7.20ᵇ 76.49 ± 8.94ᵃ
BOD (%) 70.41 ± 3.86ᶜ 76.93 ± 5.12ᵇ 77.74 ± 5.06ᵇ 83.49 ± 6.28ᵃ
TSS (%) 72.26 ± 3.62ᶜ 78.38 ± 4.80ᵇ 79.13 ± 4.74ᵇ 84.52 ± 5.89ᵃ
TN (%) 56.69 ± 2.93ᶜ 61.65 ± 3.89ᵇ 62.26 ± 3.84ᵇ 66.62 ± 4.77ᵃ
TP (%) 45.81 ± 2.89ᶜ 50.69 ± 3.85ᵇ 51.30 ± 3.79ᵇ 55.61 ± 4.70ᵃ
6
Tropical Environment, Biology, and Technology Volume(Issue), Year, Page
NH₄⁺ (%) 41.50 ± 2.42ᶜ 45.58 ± 3.20ᵇ 46.09 ± 3.16ᵇ 49.68 ± 3.92ᵃ
3.3. Effects of weather factors on treatment efficiency.
The analysis results indicate that the treatment efficiencies of various parameters in the
constructed wetland (CW) system are strongly correlated and significantly influenced by
environmental conditions (Table 2). COD removal efficiency shows very strong correlations
with BOD (r = 1.000), TSS (r = 0.920), and TN (r = 0.821), indicating that organic matter
degradation, sedimentation–filtration, and nutrient transformation processes occur
simultaneously within the system. Similarly, BOD removal efficiency is highly correlated
with TP (r = 0.751) and NH₄⁺ (r = 0.641), reflecting the important role of microorganisms in
the simultaneous removal of organic matter and nutrients. Climatic factors exhibit clear
impacts on treatment performance. Temperature shows a significant positive correlation with
all parameters (r = 0.638; p < 0.01), indicating that higher temperatures enhance biological
activity. Humidity presents a moderate positive correlation (r = 0.523), while sunshine
duration shows a negative correlation (r = −0.267), suggesting potentially unfavorable effects
on treatment efficiency under certain conditions. Regarding influent wastewater, COD_in and
BOD_in show moderate positive correlations with treatment efficiency (r = 0.406–0.478),
indicating that the initial pollutant load influences system performance. In contrast, TN_in,
TP_in, and NH₄_in do not exhibit statistically significant correlations, suggesting that the
CW system maintains stable performance despite variations in influent nutrient
concentrations. Overall, treatment efficiency is influenced by the combined effects of
environmental factors and influent loading, with temperature identified as the most dominant
controlling factor under temperate climatic conditions.
7
Table 2. Pearson correlation coefficients between pollutant removal efficiencies, environmental factors, and influent characteristics.
%COD %BOD %TSS %TN %TP %NH₄⁺ Temp Hum Sun CODin BODin TSSin TNin TPin NH₄in
%COD 1
%BOD 1.000** 1
%TSS 0.920** 0.813** 1
%TN 0.821** 0.685** 0.645** 1
%TP 0.654** 0.751** 0.662** 0.648** 1
%NH₄⁺ 0.485** 0.641** 0.584** 0.684** 0.448** 1
Temp 0.638** 0.638** 0.638** 0.638** 0.637** 0.638** 1
Hum 0.523** 0.523** 0.523** 0.523** 0.523** 0.523** 0.742** 1
Sun -0.267** -0.267** -0.267** -0.267** -0.266** -0.267** -0.372** -0.340** 1
CODin 0.478** 0.478** 0.478** 0.478** 0.479** 0.478** 0.307** 0.262** -0.152* 1
BODin 0.406** 0.406** 0.406** 0.405** 0.406** 0.405** 0.286** 0.219** -0.166* 0.792** 1
TSSin -0.133 -0.133 -0.133 -0.133 -0.132 -0.133 -0.096 -0.090 0.104 -0.167* -0.060 1
TNin 0.039 0.039 0.039 0.039 0.039 0.039 0.008 0.026 -0.104 -0.070 0.004 -0.012 1
TPin 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.112 0.097 -0.035 0.062 0.033 -0.015 -0.099 1
NH₄in 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 -0.014 0.007 -0.043 -0.042 0.030 -0.043 0.804** -0.139* 1
**
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
8
4. Discussion
The long-term operation of the CW system demonstrated stable and effective treatment
performance for domestic wastewater under temperate climatic conditions. Over the four-
year monitoring period, the system consistently achieved substantial reductions in organic
matter, suspended solids, and nutrients, with effluent concentrations meeting the Chinese
discharge standard GB 18918-2002 (Level IB). This confirms that CW systems can serve as a
reliable and sustainable solution for decentralized wastewater treatment in suburban areas.
The observed removal efficiencies indicate that organic matter (COD and BOD₅) and
suspended solids (TSS) were more effectively removed than nutrients (TN, TP, and NH₄ ⁺).
This pattern is commonly reported in CW systems and can be attributed to the relatively
straightforward mechanisms of filtration, sedimentation, and microbial degradation involved
in organic matter removal, compared to the more complex biological pathways required for
nutrient transformation. In particular, nitrogen removal depends on the coupled processes of
nitrification and denitrification, which are highly sensitive to environmental conditions, while
phosphorus removal relies on adsorption, precipitation, and plant uptake, which may become
saturated over time.
Seasonal variation was identified as a key factor influencing treatment efficiency. Higher
removal efficiencies observed in summer compared to winter highlight the strong dependence
of CW performance on temperature. Elevated temperatures enhance microbial metabolic
rates, enzyme activity, and plant growth, thereby improving both organic matter degradation
and nutrient transformation [12, 21]. In contrast, low temperatures likely suppressed
microbial activity, particularly nitrifying bacteria, resulting in reduced nitrogen removal
efficiency [22]. The relatively similar performance observed in spring and autumn suggests
transitional conditions where biological processes are moderately active but not optimal [23].
The findings of this study are consistent with previous reports indicating that seasonal
variations in treatment performance are primarily driven by climatic conditions, although the
magnitude of these differences varies across climate zones. In the present study, no
significant seasonal variation was observed for TSS removal efficiency, suggesting that
physical processes such as sedimentation and filtration remain relatively stable throughout
the year. However, several studies have reported a decrease of 14–27.67% in TSS removal
efficiency during winter compared to summer, mainly due to surface freezing and reduced
hydraulic performance in colder climates [24, 25]. For other parameters, including COD, TN,
NH₄⁺, and TP, the removal efficiencies in this study were higher in summer than in winter
by 3.22%, 13.62%, 14.12%, and 9.29%, respectively. These differences are relatively
moderate compared to those reported in colder regions. For instance, a CW system in
Barcelona (Spain) exhibited substantial seasonal variation, where NH₄ ⁺ removal efficiency
reached approximately 99% in summer but dropped to below 0% (i.e., negative removal) in
winter, indicating strong inhibition of nitrification under low-temperature conditions [24].
Similarly, studies conducted in China have reported that removal efficiencies of COD, TN,
9
Tropical Environment, Biology, and Technology Volume(Issue), Year, Page
and TP in summer were 12–27% higher than in winter [26]. Li et al. (2024) further
demonstrated that TN removal efficiency in winter could decrease by approximately 36%
compared to summer, while COD removal differed by 15–40%, and TP removal showed a
smaller reduction of 3.4–8.0% under cold conditions [27].
Seasonal variation differs across climatic zones. For example, in tropical monsoon climates,
winter temperatures typically range from 14.5 to 26.9°C, which are not low enough to
significantly inhibit microbial activity or plant growth [12]. As a result, biological processes
such as organic matter degradation and nitrogen transformation can still proceed at moderate
rates, leading to more stable treatment performance across seasons. This highlights the
importance of regional climatic conditions in determining the extent of seasonal variability in
CW systems and suggests that systems operating in temperate to subtropical climates may
exhibit greater resilience to seasonal fluctuations than those in colder regions. The correlation
analysis further supports the role of temperature as a dominant controlling factor. Significant
positive correlations between temperature and all removal efficiencies indicate that biological
processes govern system performance. The strong interrelationships among COD, BOD, TSS,
and TN removal suggest that physical and biological processes are tightly coupled within the
system. Additionally, the observed correlations between organic matter removal and nutrient
removal parameters highlight the importance of carbon availability in supporting
denitrification processes [19].
Environmental factors such as humidity and sunshine duration also influenced treatment
performance, although to a lesser extent [18]. The positive correlation with humidity may
reflect its role in maintaining favorable moisture conditions for microbial activity and plant
function. Conversely, the negative correlation with sunshine duration suggests that excessive
solar radiation could indirectly affect system performance, potentially through increased
evapotranspiration, changes in hydraulic retention time, or stress on plant systems. Influent
characteristics were found to have a moderate influence on treatment efficiency. Higher
influent concentrations of COD and BOD were associated with increased removal
efficiencies, likely due to enhanced substrate availability for microbial processes. However,
the lack of significant correlations between influent nutrient concentrations and removal
performance indicates that the CW system maintained relatively stable nutrient removal
despite fluctuations in influent quality. This suggests a certain degree of resilience and
buffering capacity inherent to the system. Overall, the results highlight that the performance
of CW systems is governed by a complex interaction of biological processes, environmental
conditions, and influent loading. Among these factors, temperature plays the most critical
role in determining seasonal performance under temperate climates. These findings
emphasize the need to consider seasonal variability in the design and operation of CW
systems, particularly in cold regions. Optimization strategies, such as increasing hydraulic
retention time, enhancing aeration, or integrating hybrid systems, may be necessary to
improve winter performance and ensure consistent year-round treatment efficiency.
5. Conclusions
This study demonstrated that the CW system effectively treated domestic wastewater under
temperate climatic conditions, maintaining stable performance over four years and meeting
the Chinese discharge standard (GB 18918-2002, Level IB). Organic matter and suspended
10
Tropical Environment, Biology, and Technology Volume(Issue), Year, Page
solids were removed more efficiently than nutrients. Seasonal variation significantly affected
treatment performance, with higher efficiencies observed in summer due to enhanced
microbial activity at elevated temperatures. However, the relatively moderate seasonal
differences indicate good system resilience under temperate conditions. Correlation analysis
confirmed temperature as the dominant controlling factor, while influent characteristics had a
secondary influence. These findings highlight the importance of considering climatic
conditions in CW design and suggest that optimization strategies are needed to improve
winter performance.
Acknowledgments
This research received no external funding.
Author Contribution
Zeyuan Liu: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data Analysis, Writing; Le Hien: Data
Collection, Writing; Le Duc Anh Tuan: Data Analysis, Methodology, Nguyen Thi Xuyen:
Methodology, Data Collection, Data Analysis, Writing.
Competing Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
References
[1] Nguyen, V. T.; Pham, T. G.; Bui, T. K. A.; Nguyen, T. T. T.; Dang, D. K., (2025). Efficiency of
Constructed Wetlands with Indigenous Umbrella Sedge for Rural Domestic Wastewater
Treatment in Northern Vietnam. Trop. Environ. Biol. Technol., 3, 123-132.
[Link]
[2] Schellenberg, T.; Subramanian, V.; Ganeshan, G.; Tompkins, D.; Pradeep, R., (2020). Wastewater
Discharge Standards in the Evolving Context of Urban Sustainability–The Case of India.
Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8. [Link]
[3] Liu, S.; Zhou, Y.; Eiman, F.; McClain, M. E.; Wang, X.-S., (2024). Towards sustainable
groundwater development with effective measures under future climate change in Beijing Plain,
China. Journal of Hydrology, 633, 130951. [Link]
[4] Li, J.; Wang, L.; Liu, Z.; Cao, T.; Lü, H.; Zhu, Y.; Li, X., (2025). Research on rural domestic
sewage discharge, influencing factors and pollution loads in the Yangtze river basin. Scientific
Reports, 15. [Link]
[5] Thanh, N. V.; Thuong Giang, P.; Anh, B. T. K.; Thuy, N. T. T., (2025). Evaluation of the
Treatment Performance Over Time of Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater from Rice Noodle
Handicraft Village after Biogas Process. Sustainable Environmental Insight, 2, 113-123.
[Link]
[6] Waly, M. M.; Ahmed, T.; Abunada, Z.; Mickovski, S. B.; Thomson, C., (2022). Constructed
Wetland for Sustainable and Low-Cost Wastewater Treatment: Review Article. Land, 11, 1388.
[Link]
[7] Bui, T. K. A.; Nguyen, V. T.; Pham, T. G.; Dang, D. K., (2019). Study on using reed (phragmites
australis) and water spinach (ipomoea aquatica) for piggery wastewater treatment after biogas
process by constructed wetland. Tap chi Sinh hoc, 41, 327-335.
[8] Phuong, N. M.; Hai, D. T.; Thanh, N. V.; Anh, B. T. K., (2022). Iron and Manganese Removal
from Wastewater by Constructed Wetlands Planted with Caladium bicolor. VNU J. Sci. Earth
Environ. Sci., 38. [Link]
[9] Thanh, N. V.; Hai, D. T.; Thuy, N. T. T.; Anh, B. T. K.; Khanh, T. V., (2022). Evaluating the
treatment efficiency of the subsurface constructed wetlands system and free floating plants system
11
Tropical Environment, Biology, and Technology Volume(Issue), Year, Page
for the wastewater from noodle handicraft village in Hiep Hoa commune, Quang Yen town,
Quang Ninh province. TNU Journal of Science and Technology, 227, 367-375.
[Link]
[10] Anh, B. T. K.; Thanh, N. V.; Ha, N. T. H.; Lap, B. Q.; Toan, V. N.; Duong, L. D.; Hang, N. T. A.;
Phong, N. D.; Chuyen, N. H.; Yen, N. H., (2025). Prospects for Using Oyster Shells (Crassostrea
gigas) and Plastic Waste (Polyethylene) in Lab‐Scale Vertical Subsurface Flow Constructed
Wetlands for Swine Wastewater Treatment: Efficiency, Removal Pathways, and Economic
Viability. Water Environ. Res., 97, e70241. [Link]
[11] Yang, L.; Jin, X.; Hu, Y.; Zhang, M.; Wang, H.; Jia, Q.; Yang, Y., (2024). Technical structure and
influencing factors of nitrogen and phosphorus removal in constructed wetlands. Water Science
& Technology, 89, 271-289. [Link]
[12] Van Thanh, N.; Anh, B. T. K.; Phuong, N. M.; Ha, N. T. H.; Hang, N. T. A.; Mai, N. T.; Binh, N.
T.; Cong, L. T. N.; Thuy, P. T.; Toan, V. N., (2025). Insights of a medium-scale hybrid
constructed wetland system operation for swine wastewater in Northern Vietnam: Influence of
tropical monsoon climate and operational duration. Ecol. Eng., 221, 107772.
[Link]
[13] Almuktar, S. A. A. A. N.; Abed, S. N.; Scholz, M., (2018). Wetlands for wastewater treatment and
subsequent recycling of treated effluent: a review. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 25, 23595-23623.
[Link]
[14] Wang, H.; Xu, Y.; Chai, B., (2023). Effect of Temperature on Microorganisms and Nitrogen
Removal in a Multi-Stage Surface Flow Constructed Wetland. Water, 15, 1256.
[Link]
[15] Tlili, H.; Bali, M.; Boukchina, R., (2025). Seasonal evaluation of pollutant removal in a vertical
constructed wetland in Tunisia’s arid climate. Int J Phytoremediation, 27, 1602-1617. doi:
10.1080/15226514.2025.2512172
[16] Wang, H.; Xu, Y.; Chai, B., (2023). Effect of Temperature on Microorganisms and Nitrogen
Removal in a Multi-Stage Surface Flow Constructed Wetland. Water.
[Link]
[17] Anh, B. T. K.; Van Thanh, N.; Phuong, N. M.; Ha, N. T. H.; Yen, N. H.; Lap, B. Q.; Kim, D. D.,
(2020). Selection of Suitable Filter Materials for Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed
Wetland Treating Swine Wastewater. Water Air Soil Pollut, 231, 88.
[Link]
[18] Yuan, J.; Wang, B.; Hou, Z.-Y.; Peng, J.; Li, D.; Chu, Z., (2023). Response of Nitrogen Removal
Performance and Microbial Distribution to Seasonal Shock Nutrients Load in a Lakeshore
Multicell Constructed Wetland. Processes. [Link]
[19] Dalsgaard, J.; Ahnen, M.; Pedersen, P., (2021). Nutrient removal in a slow-flowing constructed
wetland treating aquaculture effluent. Aquaculture Environment Interactions, 13, 363-376.
[Link]
[20] Binh, N. T.; Kim Anh, B. T.; Thanh, N. V.; Kim, D. D.; Phuong, N. M., (2023). The influence of
pollutantson plant growth and treatment efficiency of horizontally-constructed wetlands. Vietnam
J. Sci. Technol. Eng., 65, 42-46. [Link]
[21] Kumar, S.; Sangwan, V.; Kumar, M.; Shweta, S.; Shivani, S.; Kumar, M.; Deswal, S., (2023).
Performance evaluation of hybrid constructed wetlands for nitrogen removal and statistical
approaches. Water Environ. Res., 95. [Link]
[22] Zhang, J.; Sun, H.; Wang, W.; Hu, Z.; Yin, X.; Ngo, H.; Guo, W.; Fan, J., (2016). Enhancement of
surface flow constructed wetlands performance at low temperature through seasonal plant
collocation. Bioresour Technol, 224, 222-228. [Link]
[23] Akadiri, S.; Dada, P.; Badejo, A.; Adeosun, O.; Ogunrinde, A.; Faloye, O.; Kamchoom, V.;
Adeyeri, O., (2025). The Effect of Retention Time and Seasonal Variation on the Characterization
of Phyto-Remediated Aquaculture Wastewater in a Constructed Wetland. Biology, 14.
[Link]
[24] Garfí, M.; Pedescoll, A.; Bécares, E.; Hijosa-Valsero, M.; Sidrach-Cardona, R.; García, J., (2012).
Effect of climatic conditions, season and wastewater quality on contaminant removal efficiency of
two experimental constructed wetlands in different regions of Spain. Sci. Total Environ., 437, 61-
67. [Link]
[25] Dong, Y.; Wiliński, P. R.; Dzakpasu, M.; Scholz, M., (2011). Impact of Hydraulic Loading Rate
and Season on Water Contaminant Reductions Within Integrated Constructed Wetlands. Wetlands,
31, 499-509. [Link]
12
Tropical Environment, Biology, and Technology Volume(Issue), Year, Page
[26] Pu, Y.; Li, Y.; Zhu, L.; Cheng, Y.; Nuamah, L. A.; Zhang, H.; Chen, H.; Du, G.; Wang, L.; Song,
C., (2023). Long-term assessment on performance and seasonal optimal operation of a full-scale
integrated multiple constructed wetland-pond system. Sci. Total Environ., 862, 161219.
[Link]
[27] Li, X.; Ren, B.; Kou, X.; Hou, Y.; Buque, A. L.; Gao, F., (2024). Recent advances and prospects
of constructed wetlands in cold climates: a review from 2013 to 2023. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res.,
31, 44691-44716. [Link]
© 2024 by the authors. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms
and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license
([Link]
13