What Is Research Ethics?

Meaning and Scope

The research ethics system functions as a guideline which defines acceptable research practices through its
established norms about proper research conduct. The research process requires us to maintain truthful testing
which provides everyone with fair treatment. Our responsibility requires us to protect all individuals who take
part in our research as well as people who benefit from our research findings. Research ethics maintains
integrity because it establishes rules which researchers must follow in their work. Research ethics establishes
the guidelines which enable scientists to conduct their experiments without creating hazardous situations.
 Research ethics holds essential value for educational institutions as well as scientific research
projects.
 The selection of research problems
 The choice of research methodology
 Interaction with human and animal subjects
 Data collection, analysis, and interpretation
 Authorship, publication, and peer review
The research study requires ethical considerations which must be addressed through methodological choices
regardless of whether it uses qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-method approaches. The research process
contains ethical issues which exist throughout every stage of research activities.
What is Research Methodology?
Research methodology requires ethical standards which prevent researchers from using methods that breach
consent laws and fairness principles and confidentiality standards. Research methodology provides a scientific
framework which researchers use to collect data and analyze results and interpret their findings. Research
validation establishes research outcomes as ethical and trustworthy and repeatable which establishes their value
for both scientific research and practical application. Research methodology is used aas an essential discipline
because it connects research ethics with specific research methods through qualitative and quantitative and
descriptive and analytical and applied and fundamental and mixed methods which each present distinct ethical
challenge.
Types of Research Methodology
Fundamentally, research methods are differentiated because each method as stipulated has its very own purpose,
application, and ethical consideration. Each method has a specific and individual purpose, application, and
ethical concern. Understanding these different methodological concerns is part and parcel of the ethical and
aware engagement the academic has with his studies.
 Qualitative Research- It considers human experience, cultural context, and social patterns; ethical
obligations include obtaining informed consent, confidentiality, and capturing participants'
narratives.
 Quantitative Research-Data collection and analysis involve numerical data patterns that are
statistically analyzed and then inform how to draw a conclusion. Usually applied in surveys,
experiments, and correlational studies, quantitative research yields numerical/ measurable results. It
is the researcher's role to ensure that data are accurately reported in an objective and transparent
manner from a statistical perspective to comply with ethics.
 Descriptive Research- Aims to describe characteristics without causing any impact; it becomes the
duty of the researcher to avoid bias in reporting and not to selectively present data.
  Analytical Research- Analyzing and interpreting secondary or existing data. Ethical considerations
dictate original work, proper citation, and avoidance of plagiarism.
 Applied Research- Researches with practical solutions to real-world problems; it is the
responsibility of the researcher to use the findings in such a way that they do no harm.
 Fundamental Research- Broadening of theoretical knowledge; ethical duty here is that of
intellectual honesty and contribution to the growth of research.
 Mixed Method Research- It incorporates qualitative and quantitative methods. The researcher
should integrate fairly the perspective of both methods without overrepresenting one.
Importance of Research Ethics in Academic and Social Research
Ethical considerations in research include informed consent, voluntary participation, transparency, and data
protection. Research ethics are critical in ensuring the credibility, social relevance and consideration of
participants and institutions in research. One must know this point well in examinations to become a responsible
scholar advocating for the integrity of academic work.
 Concern for Human Participants – That ensures that participants are informed and not coerced
into voluntary participation that may lead to harm and use or exploitation.
 Data Integrity – Prevents fabrication, falsification, or selective reporting, thus giving authenticity
and credibility to data.
 Fairness & Justice – Equal and non-discriminatory treatment of all concerned persons, including
vulnerable persons, in particular.
 Fostering Transparency & Accountability – The method used, funding sources, and any real
conflict of interest must be revealed with utmost transparency by researchers to ensure honest
practice.
 Building Trust Vis-À-Vis the Public – Ethical research strengthens the credibility of the research
systems in India, thus leading to wider acceptance of such results.
 In fields like nursing research, ethics play a critical role in patient care studies, emphasizing
beneficence and non-maleficence
 Ethics in business research ensures that data is not manipulated to mislead stakeholders or
misrepresent outcomes.
The Ethical Problems Facing Social Science Research
Social science research involves interviews, surveys, and fieldwork. It creates challenges regarding informed
consent maintainability of participant identity protection. It also creates awareness of different cultural
practices. The researcher exists in a situation where power exceeds the control of study participants. This creates
an ethical problem.
 Informed Consent and Voluntary Participation: Study participants need to receive complete
information about study purposes. They need to receive the information about study risks, study benefits
and study procedures. People should give their consent freely. This consent must be without any
pressure from others or any strong influence.
 Privacy and Data Protection: Modern research studies face ethical challenges. When researchers
violate privacy rights and when they abuse personal information. Also, when they fail to store data
properly.
  Bias and Selective Reporting: The practice of hiding negative study results while reporting selected
information. It leads to research results that do not match actual findings and results in research
objectivity violations.
Principles of Research Ethics
The seven fundamental ethics constitute the foundation of Research. Upon this responsible research practices
against such misconducts are predicated. In fostering integrity and objectivity, and promoting scholarly
excellence these principles are used. These seven values form the ethical principles in research. These principles
guide conduct from idea to publication
 Honesty: Researchers must present their research data, methods and study results. Their research
limitations are found through honest reporting. Any form of misrepresentation undermines the reliability
of research. It violates ethical guidelines in research.
 Objectivity: Researchers must conduct their research activities without any personal biases. It should
extend to their research design phase. The data analysis process and interpretation phase are also
included in research. Their peer review activities and research reporting stage. Researchers must disclose
conflicts of interest that may influence outcomes.
 Integrity: A researcher demonstrates integrity through consistent behavior which matches their declared
research commitments. Researchers must maintain their commitments to promises. While following
established research procedures. They must follow all ethical research requirements throughout the
research process.
 Carefulness: The practice of careful work demands researchers to achieve precise results. Through their
work and to create complete documentation of their results. and to conduct thorough evaluations of their
own research work. The practice of maintaining complete research records enables researchers to avoid
making mistakes. It avoids them from facing potential ethical problems.
 Confidentiality: The practice of confidentiality protects all personal information. It is about participants
including their identities and confidential information from being shared with anyone. Those who has
not obtained explicit permission to access it.
 Responsible Publication: The purpose of research publication should serve to expand knowledge.
Instead of serving as a method for researchers to achieve personal gain. Duplicate publication, salami
slicing, and unethical authorship practices violate this principle.
 Respect for Colleagues and Mentorship: The principles of ethical research foster research teamwork .
It leads to correct credit distribution and proper guidance. This is between professionals and junior
researchers and students.
Codes & Policies for Research Ethics
International and Indian standards regulate the adherence to ethical research practice. These codes should be
understood as ethical compasses for researchers. The standards navigate the channels of methodology in
fairness, transparency, and accountability.
 Declaration of Helsinki – Protecting human subjects through the principles of informed consent and
medical ethics.
 Belmont Report – Provides the principles of Respect for Persons, Beneficence, and Justice in the
guidance of social and biomedical research.
 CIOMS Guidelines – Provide global ethical standards for biomedical and health-related research
particularly in developing countries.
  Nuremberg Code – Establishes voluntary consent in medical research post World War II trials.
Research Misconduct: Meaning and Types
Research misconduct represents grave violations of research ethics. It leads to a decline in research integrity.
 Fabrication: The term fabrication describes the process of creating research data. It describes the
research results which no actual research activities produced.
 Falsification: Falsification describes research material and research process. It also describes the
research data manipulation which results in incorrect research outcomes.
 Plagiarism in Research: Researchers commit plagiarism when they use someone else's ideas or words.
It may also happen when they use others work without giving proper credit to the original source.
 Conflict of Interest: Any personal interest or financial interest might lead to bias in a research. Any
professional interest may also create a conflict of interest.
Major Ethical Codes
1. The Nuremberg Code establishes that voluntary consent must be obtained. It must be obtained from all
participants before any human experimentation begins.
The Nuremberg Code is one of the most important ethical guidelines for research involving human
participants. It was created in 1947 after the Nuremberg Trials, specifically the Doctors' Trial, where Nazi
physicians were prosecuted for conducting unethical and cruel medical experiments on prisoners during World
War II.
The code established 10 fundamental ethical principles that must be followed in any research involving
human subjects.
Background of the Nuremberg Code
During the Nazi regime, many doctors conducted experiments on prisoners in concentration camps without their
consent. These experiments involved extreme suffering, permanent injury, and often death.
After the war, the international community recognized the need for strict ethical standards in medical and
psychological research. As a result, the Nuremberg Code was formulated to protect human participants and
prevent abuse in scientific research.
The 10 Principles of the Nuremberg Code:
1. Voluntary Consent
The voluntary consent of the participant is absolutely essential.
Participants must:
 Have legal capacity to consent
 Be free from coercion or pressure
 Fully understand the nature, purpose, risks, and duration of the experiment
This principle introduced the modern concept of informed consent.
2. Research Must Benefit Society
The experiment should produce valuable results for the good of society and should not be unnecessary or
random.
3. Based on Prior Research
Experiments should be based on:
 Previous animal studies
 Existing knowledge of the problem
This ensures the study is scientifically justified.
4. Avoid Unnecessary Suffering
The research must be designed to avoid all unnecessary physical and mental suffering.
5. No Experiment If Death or Serious Injury Is Expected
If researchers believe that death or disabling injury may occur, the experiment should not be conducted.
(Except possibly when the researchers themselves serve as subjects.)
6. Risk Should Not Exceed Importance
The degree of risk should never exceed the humanitarian importance of the problem being studied.
7. Proper Preparations and Facilities
Adequate facilities and precautions must be taken to protect participants from injury, disability, or death.
8. Conducted by Qualified Researchers
Experiments must be conducted only by scientifically qualified persons with the necessary skills and training.
9. Participants Can Withdraw
Participants must be free to end their participation at any time if they feel unable to continue.
10. Researchers Must Stop the Experiment
Researchers must terminate the experiment if they believe it may lead to injury, disability, or death.
Importance of the Nuremberg Code: The Nuremberg Code laid the foundation of modern research ethics.
It influenced later ethical guidelines such as:
 Declaration of Helsinki (1964)
The Declaration of Helsinki was developed in 1964 by the World Medical Association as a set of ethical
principles for medical research involving human subjects. It expanded the ideas introduced in the
Nuremberg Code.
Key points:
 Emphasizes informed consent from research participants.
 The well-being of the participant must take priority over scientific interests.
 Research must be reviewed by an independent ethics committee.
 Special protection should be given to vulnerable populations.
  Researchers must ensure risk–benefit assessment before conducting studies.
Purpose:
To guide physicians and researchers in conducting ethical medical and clinical research on humans.
 Belmont Report (1979)
The Belmont Report was published in 1979 by the National Commission for the Protection of Human
Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research in the United States. It was developed after unethical
studies such as the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.
The Belmont Report introduces three core principles. It includes respect for persons and beneficence and
justice.
Key ethical principles:
1. Respect for Persons
 Individuals should be treated as autonomous.
 Participants must give informed consent.
2. Beneficence
 Researchers must maximize benefits and minimize harm to participants.
3. Justice
 The benefits and burdens of research should be distributed fairly among participants.
Purpose:
To establish fundamental ethical principles for research involving human participants, especially in
biomedical and behavioral research.

QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Introduction
  The word quasi means ‘as if’ or ‘to a degree’. Thus, quasi experimental design is one
that resembles an experiment but lacks at least one of its defining characteristics.
 According to McBurney & White (2007), ‘quasi experiment is a research procedure in
which the scientist must select subjects for different conditions from preexisting
groups.
 According to Broota (1989), “All such experimental situations in which the
experimenter does not have full control over the assignment of experimental units
randomly to the treatment conditions or the treatment cannot be manipulated are
called quasi experimental design.”
 Quasi-experimental designs are sometimes called ex-post facto design or after-the-fact
experiment, because the experiment is conducted after the groups have been formed.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUASI EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH AND TRUE

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

• In true experimental design, the researcher has complete control and designs the
experiment. In quasi experimental situation, the researcher does not have control over the
treatment group i.e., assignment of subject to condition.

• In true experimental design, variables can be manipulated but in quasi experimental

design, manipulation of variable is not possible as categories of subjects are observed. For
example, to study the effect of gender we cannot manipulate gender but simply label groups
according to the difference between sample.

• In quasi experimental design, control groups aren’t necessary whereas in experimental

design requires the use of control and treatment groups.
TYPES OF QUASI EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
 Non-Equivalent Control Group Design
 Non-Equivalent Group, Post Test only Design
 The Separate Sample Pre Test-Post Test Design
 The Separate Sample Pre Test-Post Test Control Group Design
 Interrupted Time Series Design
 Multiple Time Series Design
 Counter Balanced Design

1. Non-Equivalent Control Group Design

This design involves an experimental group and a control group with both given pretest and
posttest; however, these groups are not randomly selected because they constitute the naturally
assembled groups (e.g. classrooms). The assignment of X (the treatment) to one group or the
other is randomly selected by the researcher. This design may be diagrammed as shown below:
PreTest PostTest
G1 (Treatment) O1 X1 O2
G2 (Control) O3 O4
For example, four sections of a course are chosen to participate in a study of teaching methods.
Half are randomly assigned a new teaching method and the other half are not. All are given
pretests at the beginning of the term and all are given posttests at the end of the semester.
2. Non-Equivalent Group, Posttest only Design
The non-equivalent, posttest only design consists of administering an outcome measure to two
groups or to a program/treatment group and a comparison.
For example, one group of students might receive reading instruction using a whole language
program while the other group of students receives a phonetics-based program. After twelve
weeks, a reading comprehension test can be administered to observe which program was more
effective.
A major problem with this design is that the two groups might not be necessarily the same
before any instruction takes place and may differ in ways which can influence the reading
progress.
3. The Separate Sample Pretest Posttest Design
This design is often used with large population (i.e., public opinion studies) where the
researcher cannot randomize or segregate subgroups for different treatments. Two equivalent
groups are identified, one sample is measured prior to the treatment and a different (but
equivalent) sample is measured after the treatment.
For example, 100 community members are randomly surveyed concerning their opinions about
the local government policies. A PR campaign is then conducted for six weeks. A follow-up
survey is then conducted with 100 different residents who are randomly selected.
R O X O= Observation (Survey)

R X O X=Treatment (PR Campaign)

4. The Separate Sample Pretest Posttest Control Group Design

This design is similar to Separate Sample Pretest-Posttest Design; however, a control group is
added to the design. For example, in the above-mentioned instance the same design is used but,
in addition, the measurements are made in a similar nearby city where there was no PR
campaign.
R O X
R X O

R O
R O
O= Observation (Survey)
X=Treatment (PR Campaign)

5. Interrupted Time-Series Designs

These research designs allow the same group to be compared over time by considering the trend
of the data before and after experimental manipulation (McBurney & White, 2007).
In this design, pre-testing and post-testing of one group of subjects is done at different intervals
with the purpose to determine the long-term effect of treatment and therefore the number of pre-
test and posttest can vary from one each to many. This design can be diagrammed as below:
01 02 03 04 * 05 06 07 08
The above diagram shows that a series of pre-tests are given to a group. Then treatment (X) is
given and a series of post-tests are given to the same subject. This design is different from
single group pretest posttest design. In this we give the series of pretests and posttests to a
subject, whereas in the pretest post-test design we give only single pretest and posttest.
6. Multiple Time Series Design
In this design two groups are used, one group receives treatment and the other group does not
receive the treatment and this group acts as the control group.

It is usually a complex setting with many events and trends that might affect the behavior in
question. The addition of a comparison group for which the same series of measures is
available, but which is not exposed to the treatment whose effects are being studied, can be
useful in clarifying the relationship between the treatment and any change in the series of
behavioral measures being used.
 7. Counter Balanced Design
This design was named by Underwood (1949). In this design, all the subjects receive all
treatments but in a different order. Each treatment occurs once at each time period and once for
each treatment group. For example, a Latin-square design is a type of counter balanced design
in which four treatments are applied to four naturally assembled pool of subjects:
Consider a study of the effect of different training methods on learning. Subjects are placed into
four groups (A, B, C, D) for different training methods (X1 to X4).

Variables like maturation, selection and experimental mortality posing threats to internal
validity are well controlled by the counter balanced design.
Advantages of quasi experimental research design:

• In social science research, quasi experimental research design can be very useful in
generating results where pre selection and randomization of groups is often difficult.

• Quasi-experimental design reduces the time and resources needed for experimentation
without extensive prescreening and randomization.

• Since quasi-experimental designs are used when randomization is impossible and/or

impractical, they are typically easier to set up than true experimental designs.

• Quasi-experimental design minimizes threats to external validity as natural environments

do not suffer the same problems of artificially as compared to a well-controlled laboratory
setting.

• Quasi-experimental design is efficient in longitudinal research that involves longer time

periods which can be followed up in different environments.
Disadvantages of quasi experimental research design

• The lack of random assignment in the quasi-experimental design method may pose many
challenges for the investigator in terms of internal validity. This deficiency in randomization
makes it harder to rule out confounding variables and introduces new threats to internal
validity.
 • Because randomization is absent, some knowledge about the data can be approximated,
but conclusions of causal relationships are difficult to determine due to a variety of
extraneous and confounding variables that exist in a social environment.

• Moreover, causation still cannot be fully established in quasi experimental research

design because the experimenter does not have total control over extraneous variables.

SINGLE SUBJECT DESIGN

Single-subject design or single-case research design is a research design most often used in
applied fields of psychology, education, and human behaviour in which the subject serves as
his/her own control, rather than using another individual/group.
Researchers use single-subject design because these designs are sensitive to individual organism
differences vs group designs which are sensitive to averages of groups.
Often there will be large numbers of subjects in a research study using single-subject design.
Since the subject serves as their own control, this is still a single-subject design.
These designs are used primarily to evaluate the effect of a variety of interventions in applied
research.
According to Nelson and Martella (1999), single-subject research is a quasi-experimental
rather than correlational or descriptive, and its purpose is to document causal, or functional,
relationships between independent and dependent variables.
Single subject research employs within and between subject’s comparison to control for major
threats to internal validity and requires systematic replication to enhance external validity
(Nelson & Martella,1999).
According to Gay & Airasian (2003), Single Subject Research Designs (also referred to as
single-case experimental designs) are designs that can be applied when the sample size is one
or when a number of individuals are considered as one group.
These designs are typically used to study the behavioral change an individual exhibits as a
result of some treatment. Basically, the participant is exposed to a non-treatment and a treatment
phase and performance is measured during each phase.
In general, single-subject research is a method of testing hypotheses. Such research is used to
test the hypotheses that a particular treatment will tend to have an effect on one or more
Behavior.
Single subject research designs are very useful in clinical research particularly in the area of
Behavior modification and drug evaluation.
Phases within single subject design:

• Baseline: This phase is one in which the researcher collects data on the dependent
variable without any intervention in place.

• Intervention: This phase is one in which the researcher introduces an independent

variable (the intervention) and then collects data on the dependent variable.

• Reversal: This phase is one in which the researcher removes the independent variable
(reversal) and then collects data on the dependent variable.
It is important that the data are stable (steady trend and low variability) before the researcher
moves to the next phase. Single-subject designs produce or approximate three levels of
knowledge: (1) descriptive, (2) correlational, and (3) causal.
Requirements of a single-subject design:
 Continuous assessment: The behaviour of the individual is observed repeatedly
over the course of the intervention. This ensures that any treatment effects are
observed long enough to convince the scientist that the treatment produces a lasting
effect.
 Baseline assessment: Before the treatment is implemented, a researcher has to
look for behavioural trends. If a treatment reverses a baseline trend (e.g., things
were getting worse as time went on in baseline but the treatment reversed this
trend), then this is powerful evidence suggesting a treatment effect.
 Variability in data: Because behaviour is assessed repeatedly, the single-subject
design allows the researcher to see how consistently the treatment changes
behaviour from day-to-day. Large-group statistical designs do not typically provide
this information because repeated assessments are not usually not taken and the
behaviours of individuals in the groups are not scrutinized; instead, group means
are reported.

Types of single subject design:

In single subject experiment research, the following types of basic designs are commonly used:
1. Withdrawal design: In this type of research design, the experimental treatment that is
introduced following a baseline period is then withdrawn. The treatment can be
systematically presented and withdrawn in several ways. The basic logic is to establish an
operant level, introduce the independent variable, note any changes in response rate,
withdraw the independent variable to see if response rate returns to operant level and so
forth. Sometimes the withdrawal design is erroneously referred to as a reversal design.
Thus, reversal refers to the removal and withdrawal of the treatment variable that is
applied following the baseline period; i.e. “reversing” back to baseline. There are three
commonly used types of paradigms of withdrawal design.
• A-B Design Paradigm (1 baseline and 1 treatment phase)
In the A-B design, the dependent variable or target behaviour is operationally defined and
measurements of this behaviour are made throughout the study.
During the A phase of the investigation, baseline observations are made of the behaviour
being studied to determine the frequency of occurrence. During the B phase, the treatment
variable is introduced and nay changes in the dependent variable are noted and attributed to
the independent variable.
In a clinical setting, the A-B design could be used to study the effects of shock therapy in
the treatment of drinking problem. The A phase (baseline) would be the amount of alcohol
consumed by the patient before treatment. During the B phase the patient would be offered
a choice between alcohol and non-alcoholic beverage. If the subjects chose the alcohol then
a mild electric shock would be delivered. The results indicated that the patient decreased
alcohol consumption. The weakness of this design is that it lacks internal validity, and it is
possible that an extraneous variable could be responsible for the changes observed during
phase B. Thus, this design should be used only when other designs are not possible.
• A-B-A Design Paradigm (baseline (A) treatment (B) and baseline (A))
In this design, a baseline is established during the first A phase, a treatment is introduced
during phase B, and a second baseline is recorded after the withdrawal of the treatment. If a
behaviour increases or decreases upon introduction of the treatment variable and then
returns to its baseline during the second A phase, then it may be concluded that there is a
relationship between the independent (treatment) and dependent (behaviour) variables.
The example of shock treatment for an alcoholic patient could also be extended for an A-B-
A design by adding a second A phase in which the patient is no longer shocked for selecting
alcohol. The major advantage of the A-B-A design is that there is a greater chance of
identifying confounded extraneous variable that are responsible for observed changes
during the B phase.
 The weakness of A-B-A design is that it doesn’t completely control for extraneous
variables. Secondly the effect of manipulation may not be fully reversal
• A-B-A-B Design Paradigm (Baseline-Treatment Baseline-Treatment)
This is also known as repeating treatments. When intervention is reintroduced after the
withdrawal phase, this results in A-B-A-B design which in fact, is analogous to the
equivalent time samples design (a kind of quasi-experimental design).
In this design, operant level or baselines (A) and interventions (B) each is repeated twice.
According to this design, the behaviour may change from the first baseline (A) to
intervention (B) where upon it may decrease following withdrawal of B (Second A) and,
finally the behaviour may again increase with the introduction of the intervention (B). As a
consequence of this, the functional relationship between the intervention (B) and the
behavioural measures is strengthened.
Thus, A-B-A B provides a better opportunity for careful examination of intervention effect
than the simple AB-A design. The weakness of this design is the same as ABA design i.e.
irreversibility and sequence effect.
2. Alternative treatment design: A specific subclass of the A-B-A-B design is that there
need not be baseline. Rather, A and B are two different treatments that are alternated
randomly with a single individual-treatment A is thus withdrawn and replaced, not with a
baseline, but with another treatment. The purpose for alternating treatments design is to
attempt to evaluate the relative effectiveness of two or more treatments. For example, an
extended series of treatments might be alternated in an A-B-A-B-A-B design in which A
and B are two different methods for controlling the smoking habit. Over an extended
period of time, one method might end up being relatively effective, while the other would
not.
In practical situations, it could be seen that this kind of design, which has been
increasingly used within recent years, has the advantage that treatment is being used
without a withdrawal and return to baseline.
The weakness of this design is that it creates interference between treatment phases
therefore the treatment must sufficiently differ.

 Multiple Baseline Design

In this design, several baselines are simultaneously established prior to the administration of
treatment and the effect of independent variables across several different behaviors emitted by
the same participant is evaluated.
The researcher, here takes several compatible behaviours, that is, the behaviour that occurs
simultaneously in the individual and establishes baselines for each behaviour.
Subsequently, a treatment is introduced for one target behaviour. If this behaviour changes
following the treatment and other behaviour (control) remain stable at the baseline, the
researcher concludes that the treatment is affecting behaviour.
After some time, the treatment is applied to the second target behaviour of the compatible
behaviours and its effects are recorded.
For example, a researcher can determine if rewarding a child with mental retardation for doing
certain personal tasks is effective. Multiple baselines designs are useful if the expected
behaviour change is irreversible.
 Changing Criterion Design
The basic strategy of the changing criterion design is that the effectiveness of a treatment is
judged according to specified gradual changes in behavior occurrence during the period of the
intervention.
The criteria are actual components of the intervention and specify that behaviour should change
in increments to match changes in the criteria. Like other all single subject designs, the
changing criterion design commences with a baseline phase (A) in which records are made of a
single class of behaviour. The difference is that during the intervention there are several sub
phases, each with different pre-established criteria.
For example, assuming that a child is unable to sit still in class, the teacher may reward the
child for sitting still for 5 minutes at a time until the performance becomes stable. Then, the
criterion may be set at 10 minutes, later at 15 and so forth. The behaviour at each criterion
becomes the baseline against which to evaluate the effect of the manipulation at next criterion.
Like the multiple baseline design, a changing criterion design is useful when the behaviour
change is irreversible or when a return to the initial baseline is not possible.
Advantages of single subject design:
1) The biggest advantage of single-subject research design is its ability to carry out a
scientific investigation with only one subject (or sometimes two).
2) This advantage is more important for a psychologist than for other social scientists,
because it saves much time in dealing with many subjects or large N research or between
group researches and he is able to have full concentration on only one subject.
 3) Single-subject research design allows the researcher to control the experimental situation
more effectively by establishing a good, obvious and continuous measure of the dependent
variable (DV) throughout the experimental situation.
4) Such researches rarely require statistical tests to be performed for evaluation of data.
Only through visual inspection the experimenter examines such factors as changes in the
magnitude and rate of behaviours being studied (Kazdin, 1982).
5) Both exploratory and descriptive researches can easily be carried out with single-subject
design.
6) Single-subject research design allows the researcher to eliminate and hold constant
extraneous variables that do not show up until after the investigation is under way.
7) Single-subject designs are preferred because they are highly flexible and highlight
individual differences in response to intervention effects. In general, single-subject designs
have been shown to reduce interpretation bias for counselors when doing therapy.
Disadvantages of single-subject design:
1) Carry-over effects: results from the previous phase carry-over into the next phase.
2) Order effects: The ordering (sequence) of the intervention or treatment affects the results.
3) Irreversibility: In some withdrawal designs, when a change in the independent variable
occurs, the dependent variable is affected and this cannot be undone by simply removing
the independent variable.
4) Ethical problems: Withdrawal of treatment in the withdrawal design can at times present
ethical and feasibility problems.
5) Practical limitations: Single subject research is time consuming research. It generally takes
several fortnights or months to complete whereas much large end research design can be
carried out in only one session.
6) Baseline Problems: Barlow & Herson (1984) have discussed many problems related to
baselines in single subject research. One of the basic assumptions of single subject research
is that stable baseline has been established. If baselines vary it is difficult for the researcher
to conclude a reliable change in behaviour following treatment or intervention.
7) Researcher’s Bias: Some biases on the part of a researcher are often seen on introducing
the intervention or treatment. Generally, the researcher waits for some cues indicating
change in subject’s behaviour and then he introduces a withdrawal of the treatment. Such
practices by the researcher are not scientific.
8) Lack of External Validity: Single-subject research in comparison to the between groups
research or large N research has poor degree of external validity or generalizability. Since
such an experiment is conducted only on one subject the conclusions obtained are difficult
to be generalized to other participants