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GE2- READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY WITH INDIGENOUS PEOPLE EDUCATION

PRELIM COVERAGE

History as a Social Science and Its Relation to other Field of Discipline

A. History and Political Science- Historian is not merely concerned with tracing the history of
the political process through narration of episode. They must also understand the fundamental
political principles and basic forms of political institutions.
B. History and Economics – since the activities of individuals in society are intertwined or
connected with economic matters.
C. History and sociology- focus on studying man in society, differing only in their approach.
- Initially depends on history, and the interaction between the disciplines is acknowledge by
scholars like Max Weber.
D. History and Psychology- Historians must incorporate/ include psychological insight when
analyzing the motives and actions of individuals and societies.
E. History and Geography – Geography along with chronology, provides histom kjijiry with its
correct perspective, making time space essential factors.

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING HISTORY

“Why study history?” by Peter Stearns (1998 article) he highlighted several reasons why history
is crucial:
1. UNDERSTANDING PEOPLE AND SOCIETIES-
 To comprehend the thoughts, actions, and societies of the past.
 Providing insights into human behaviour and societal structures.
2. UNDERSTANDING CHANGE
 understand how current society evolved, providing a context for changes and
developments over time.
3. CONTRIBUTING TO MORAL UNDERSTANDING
 contributes by examining the consequences of past actions
 enabling individuals to make informed ethical decisions.
4. PROVIDING IDENTITY
 allowing people to connect with their roots and heritage.
5. ESSENTIAL FOR GOOD CITIZENSHIP
 Enabling individuals to engage in civic responsibilities with a deeper knowledge of their
society’s background.

INTRODUCTION
History is the study of life in society in the past, in all its aspects, in relation to present developments
and future hopes. It is the story of man in time, an inquiry into the past based on [Link],
evidence is the raw material of history teaching and learning. It is an inquiry into the inevitable changes
in human affairs in the past and the ways these changes affect, influence or determine the patterns of
life in the society. History is, or should be an attempt to re-think the past.
History aims at helping students to understand the present existing social, political, religious and
economic conditions of the people. Without the knowledge of history, we cannot have the background of
our religion, customs institutions, administration and so on. The teaching of history helps the students to
explain the present, to analyze it and to trace its source. Cause-and effect relationship between the past
and the present is lively in history. History thus helps us to understand the present day problems both at
the national and international level accurately and objectively.

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History – is a science and it studies the past of humanity. -History does not study the present or the
future, which nobody can study, because it has never existed, or stories invented by human beings.
History studies only real things that happened to humans in the past. The word history originally means
the search for knowledge and truth. The word history is derived from the Greek term “historia” which
means “inquiry or research”. Thus, the term history refers to accounts or inquiries of events that
happened in the past and are narrated in a chronological order.
Herodotus (484 B.C. – 425 B.C.) He has sometimes been labeled “The Father of Lies” because of his
tendency to report fanciful information. Much of the information that others subsequently reported about
him is just as fanciful and some of its vindictive or blatantly absurd, yet it is interesting and therefore
worth reporting. He himself reported dubious information if it was interesting, sometimes adding his own
opinion about its reliability. Reasons to study the past -curiosity -to understand what happened in the
past in order to know where we are. -to preserve our knowledge about the past for the future
generations so that they also know who they are. -to know what happened in the past, so that we don‘t
make the same mistakes again in the future.
ANALYSIS OF SELECTED PRIMARY SOURCE
Primary source can be analyzed and evaluated by different criteria. These criteria are the content
analysis, contextual analysis, and the author‘s main argument or point of view.
Content analysis is a research method for studying primary sources such as documents and
communication artifacts, which can be texts of various formats, pictures, audio, or video. One of the key
advantages of using content analysis to analyze social phenomena is its non-invasive nature, in contrast
to simulating social experiences or collecting survey answers. Practices and philosophies of content
analysis vary according to the location of the source communities. They all involve systematic reading or
observation of text or artifacts which are assigned labels (sometimes called codes) to indicate the
presence of interesting, meaningful patterns. After labeling a large set of media, a social researcher is
able to statistically estimate the proportions of patterns in the text, as well as correlations between
patterns. Nowadays, computers are increasingly used in content analysis to automate the labeling (or
coding) of documents. Simple computational techniques can provide descriptive data such as word
frequencies and document lengths. In analyzing primary sources using any of the three (3) ways of
critical analysis, the historical importance of the text or document must be identified and examined. A
text or document with historical significance means that the text or document is original that contains
important historical information about a person, place, or event and thus, serve as primary source.
Internal Criticism -sometimes called ―higher criticism‖ -the meaning and trustworthiness of the
contents of the documents -value and worth of its contents, its literal meaning and the reliability of the
statements themselves. -may be carried on positively or negatively, the first being the approach of
discovering the real meaning of the text and the second that approach with a view to find reasons for
disbelieving what the document says thus putting to question the author‘s good faith, motive,
competence, accuracy and even his knowledge on the subject covered.
External Criticism - sometimes called as ―lower criticism‖ - the genuineness of the document - form
and appearance and more particularly to question of authorship and textual circumstances such as time,
place and purpose.
Philippine Setting: General Information Natural Resources
This lesson focuses on Philippine geography- Its islands, mountains, rivers, coastline, climate and
products that comprise the Philippine archipelago. Philippine geography explains the features of our
country vividly.

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In this lesson, we refer to geography as the physical features of our country- the Philippines- its land,
its climate, natural resources and its people in general. The Philippines is located in Southeast Asia
between the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean. It is composed of 7, 107 islands and islets including
the 3 big island of Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Luzon is the largest island: Mindanao is the second
largest island; and Visayas is the smallest among the three.
Most Filipinos live on the Islands of Luzon and Mindanao, which make up two- thirds of the total area.
The country is prone to frequent earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and typhoons.
The Philippines’ closest neighboring countries are Taiwan (to the North) and Malaysia and Indonesia ( to
the south.
The capital city of the Philippines is Manila, located in Luzon.
Size and Shape
The shape of the Philippines is an elongated archipelago. It covers an area of approximately 115, 830
square milesnand coastline of 22, 549 miles.
The length is 1, 851 kilometers of 1, 150 miles and a width of 1, 062 kilometers of 660 miles.
The Philippines has the longest irregular coastline in the world with 36, 290 kilometers in length. It has
61 natural harbors ( 20 landlocked strait). Manila Bay is said to be the finest harbor in the Far East.
Surrounding Bodies of Water
North- Luzon Strait
East- Philippine Sea
South- Celebes Sea
West- South China Sea
Terrain Points
Mountain Systems
Philippine ‘mountains systems are found in 3 big islands: Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao.
In Luzon, these mountain ranges serve as protective barriers.
1. Caraballo Mountain has highest peak in the intersection of Abra, Ilocos Norte and Cagayan
2. Cordillera Mountain- lies at the wet region of the Cagayan River.
3. Sierra Madre Mountain- known as they longest and continuous mountain range in the Philippines,
starts at Baler, Quezon to Isabela province, Nueva Vizcaya and Cagayan.
4. Tagaytay Range forms the mountain system in the southern Tagalog Region as it traverses through
Cavite, Batangas,
5. Zambales Range – begin at Cape Bolinao in Pangasinan and follows the China seacoast to Bataan
Peninsula in Visayas Region.
6. The Mindoro Mountain range is divided into three ranges which all start at Mt. Halcon: the
northwest ending at Calavite Point, a landmark of ships that pass between Manila Bay and Mindoro
Strait.

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7. Panay ranges from North to South that separates Antiquefrom Iloilo, Capz and Aklan In Mindanao.
8. Surigao ranges along contours of the Pacific coast.
9. Butuan ranges to the southern part and forms the watershed of Agusan River on the eastern part and
the Pulangi River on the western part.
10. The Cental – Western ranges of which Mt. Apo is the highest.
11. Western range which originates from the west of Iligan Bay and ends in the shore of Basilan Strait.
Prominent Mountains.
The top ten highest peaks in the Philippine archipelago are concentrated mainly on its two largest
islands. Luzon Island, home of the grand Cordillera Mountains, has the 3 rd, 6th, and 10th highest while the
rest, including the highest peak is found in the island of Mindanao.
The dry season occurs from December to April and wet or rainy season starts from May to December.
NATURAL RESOURCES AND PRODUCTS
The Philippine is rich in natural resources. Its rich valleys and fertile plains produce diverse crops. Some
products are for export and the rest are for local consumption. The staple crop of the country is rice and
it is largely produced in the Central Plains of Luzon. Other produced products are abaca, copra, gums,
resins, rubber, and sugar.
Mineral Resources- There is an abundance of minerals found in Philippine soil, with the exception of
petroleum and a number of metals. Our metal deposits are estimated at 21 billion metric tons, while
non- metal deposits are projected at 19 billion metric tons.
1. Nickel ranks first in terms of deposits and size. It is found in Surigao del Norte, Davao, Palawan,
Romblon and Samar.
2. Iron is found in Ilocos Norte, Nueva Ecija , Camarines Norte and Cotabato.
3. Copper may be found in Zambales , Batangas, Mindoro, Panay and Negros. Among non- metal
deposits , the most abundant are cement, lime, and marble. Other non- metlas include asbestos, clay,
guano, asphalt, fieldspar, sulfur, talc, silicon, phosphate, and marble.
Fishery Resources-
1. There are 2400 fish species found in the country, 65 of which have good commercial value. Other
marine products found in the Philippines include corals, pearls, crabs, and seaweeds.
2. Some of the country’s best salt water fishing areas are found in Sintangki Island In Sulu, Estancia in
Bohol, Malampaya in Palawan, Lingayen Gulf in Pangasinan, San Miguel lake in Camarines Norte,
Bantayan Channel in Cebu, and the seas of Quezon and Sorsogon.
3. The largest fishing areas in the country are Laguna de Bay, Bombon Lake in Batangas, Bato Lake in
Camarines Sur, Naujan Lake in Mindoro and Mainit Lake in Agusan Del Norte.

References

Agoncillo, Teodoro A. (1990). History of the Philippines. Garo Tech Books Inc.: Quezon City
Malabuyoc, Edwin (2008). Philippine History. Jimsy Publishing House: Malabon City

The Importance of Human Resources and National Heritage

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Human resources and national heritage are deeply connected in shaping a country’s identity,
economic stability, and cultural continuity. Here's how they play essential roles:

1. Human Resources: The Backbone of Progress

Human resources (HR) refer to the people who contribute their skills, knowledge, and labor to an
organization or a nation. The strategic management of human resources ensures that individuals
are properly trained, motivated, and positioned to drive economic and social growth. Key aspects
include:

 Talent Development: Investing in education and skill-building strengthens a nation’s

workforce, fostering innovation and productivity.
 Economic Growth: A well-developed human resource sector increases national
competitiveness, attracting investments and improving the standard of living.
 Social Stability: Good HR practices promote fair labor policies, inclusivity, and job
satisfaction, leading to a stable and engaged workforce.
 Innovation & Entrepreneurship: Encouraging creativity and critical thinking helps
individuals contribute meaningfully to business, science, and social development.

2. National Heritage: The Soul of a Nation

The Importance of National Heritage in the Philippine Setting

In the Philippine context, national heritage plays a vital role in shaping identity, fostering unity,
and driving cultural and economic development. It encompasses historical landmarks, traditions,
arts, languages, and even natural wonders that define the nation's unique character. Here’s how
national heritage is crucial:

a. Cultural Identity and National Pride

The Philippines has a rich and diverse heritage influenced by indigenous traditions, colonial
history, and regional uniqueness. Preserving heritage helps Filipinos maintain a strong sense of
identity and pride in their ancestry, reinforcing unity amidst diversity.

 Indigenous cultures, such as the Ifugao and Maranao traditions, showcase the country’s
deep-rooted heritage.
 Spanish colonial structures like the Vigan Heritage Village serve as reminders of history
and resilience.
 Traditional dances like Tinikling and festivals like Sinulog embody the nation’s vibrant
cultural spirit.

b. Historical Awareness and Education

Heritage allows Filipinos to understand their roots and historical struggles, fostering patriotism
and appreciation for past sacrifices. Schools integrate Philippine history, literature, and arts to
ensure younger generations appreciate their heritage.

 The study of national heroes like José Rizal and Andres Bonifacio instills values of courage
and nationalism.
 Preserving historical sites like Rizal Park and Intramuros educates citizens about the
nation’s past.

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c. Economic and Tourism Development

Cultural heritage is a significant driver of economic growth, particularly in tourism. The

Philippines benefits from heritage tourism, attracting visitors eager to experience the country’s
historical landmarks, cuisine, festivals, and traditions.

 UNESCO Heritage sites like the Banaue Rice Terraces and Puerto Princesa Underground
River boost eco-tourism.
 Local crafts such as banig weaving and handwoven textiles support livelihoods and
preserve traditional skills.
 Heritage-based tourism promotes sustainable economic opportunities for communities.

d. Environmental and Social Sustainability

Heritage extends beyond culture to include natural wonders that must be protected for future
generations. Indigenous practices in environmental conservation, such as traditional agricultural
techniques, contribute to sustainability.

 Ancestral land preservation among indigenous groups safeguards biodiversity.

 Conservation efforts protect sites like Taal Volcano and Tubbataha Reef.
 Community-driven heritage conservation fosters local engagement and responsibility.

e. Community Bonding and Moral Values

Traditional practices and festivals strengthen community connections, reinforcing Filipino values
like "Bayanihan" (mutual help) and "Pakikisama" (harmonious relationships). Heritage serves as
a moral compass, guiding social norms and respect for tradition. National heritage is not just a
relic of the past—it is an active force in shaping modern Filipino society.

The Interconnection between Human Resources and Heritage

A strong human resource sector nurtures individuals who preserve and promote national
heritage, while cultural identity fosters pride and motivation in the workforce. Policies supporting
education, sustainable development, and cultural preservation enhance both sectors, ensuring
balanced national progress.

National heritage refers to the collective cultural, historical, and natural assets of a country
that are preserved and valued for their significance. It includes both tangible and intangible
elements that shape a nation’s identity. These can be classified into several categories:

a. Tangible Heritage

This includes physical objects, sites, and landmarks that have historical, artistic, or cultural
value. Examples:

 Historical Sites: Ancient ruins, castles, temples, and monuments (e.g., Intramuros in the
Philippines)
 Architectural Wonders: Historic buildings and structures with cultural significance
 Museums & Artifacts: Collections that showcase a country’s history and achievements
 Natural Heritage: Unique landscapes, mountains, rivers, and biodiversity (e.g.,
Chocolate Hills)

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b. Intangible Heritage

These are traditions, customs, and practices passed down through generations, forming a
nation’s cultural identity. Examples:

 Languages & Literature: Indigenous languages, poetry, and historical writings

 Traditional Music & Dance: Cultural performances unique to a nation (e.g., Tinikling
dance)
 Festivals & Rituals: Celebrations rooted in tradition, such as religious ceremonies and
local festivities
 Craftsmanship & Arts: Handwoven textiles, pottery, and indigenous art forms

c. National Symbols

These represent the identity and sovereignty of a nation. Examples:

 Flag & National Anthem: Icons that symbolize patriotism

 National Heroes & Leaders: Figures who shaped the nation’s history and values
 Cultural Icons & Landmarks: Recognizable sites or symbols of national pride

d. Culinary Heritage

Food is an essential part of a nation’s identity. Traditional dishes, cooking methods, and
ingredients tell stories of history, migration, and cultural exchange (e.g., adobo, lechon).

Preserving national heritage is essential for cultural continuity, education, and tourism.

MIDTERM COVERAGE
Pre- Colonial Philippines- refers to the time before Spanish colonization in the 16th century, when
various indigenous societies thrived across the archipelago. This era was characterized by complex
social structures, economic activities, belief systems, and governance models that varied among
different ethnic groups.
THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE FILIPINO PEOPLE

● Wave Migration Theory: This theory suggests that the Filipino people are the result of several
waves of migration from neighboring regions.
● Negritos: Believed to be the earliest inhabitants, arriving around 30,000 years ago. They are
characterized by their small stature and dark skin.
● Austronesians: Migrated to the Philippines around 4,000 years ago, bringing with them
advancements in agriculture, pottery, and navigation. They are considered the ancestors of the
majority of modern Filipinos.
● Malays: The final wave of migrants, arriving around 2,000 years ago, introducing more advanced
technologies and social structures.
● Core Population Theory: Proposed by anthropologist Felipe Landa Jocano, this theory argues
that there was a gradual evolution of culture among the inhabitants of the Philippines without the
need for external migration waves. It suggests that the Filipino culture developed from a core
population that evolved over thousands of years within the islands.

The Austronesian Expansion

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● Austronesian: A linguistic group that includes the languages spoken in the Philippines,
Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Pacific Islands. The expansion of Austronesians is considered a
significant event in the people of the Philippines.
● Balangay: Ancient Austronesian boats used for trade and migration, which played a crucial role
in the spread of people and culture across the archipelago.

The Cultural Evolution of Early Filipinos

● Tabon Man: The remains of a prehistoric human found in the Tabon Caves of Palawan, dating
back to approximately 16,500 years ago, are some of the oldest evidence of human habitation in
the Philippines.
● Laguna Copperplate Inscription: The earliest known written document found in the Philippines,
dated to 900 AD. It provides evidence of early writing systems and a complex society with trade
relations in Southeast Asia. 4. Debates and Interpretations
● Beyer's Migration Theory: Proposed by H. Otley Beyer, this is one of the oldest and most
widely known theories. However, it has faced criticism for its oversimplified view of Philippine
history.
● Jocano's Challenge: Felipe Landa Jocano challenges the Migration Theory, emphasizing
internal cultural development and the importance of archaeological findings in understanding the
Filipino origins.

Genetic Studies and Modern Interpretations

● Genetic Evidence: Recent genetic studies suggest that the Filipino people have a complex
ancestry, with influences from Austronesian, Negrito, Malay, and even Chinese and Indian
populations.
● Out of Taiwan Hypothesis: A theory that suggests the Austronesian-speaking peoples,
including Filipinos, originated from Taiwan and spread southward into the Philippines and beyond.

ARRIVAL OF ASIAN NEIGHBORS IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

Early Trade and Cultural Exchanges

● Barter Trade: Early Filipinos engaged in barter trade with neighboring Asian countries,
exchanging local products like pearls, gold, and beeswax for goods such as silk, porcelain,
and spices.
● Balangay: Large wooden boats used by Filipinos to trade with neighboring regions like China,
India, and Southeast Asia, facilitating early economic and cultural exchanges.
● Barangay: The basic socio-political unit in the Philippines, possibly influenced by Malay and
Indonesian communities, reflecting the interconnectedness with neighboring regions.

Influence of Chinese Traders

● Sangley: The term used to refer to Chinese merchants who settled in the Philippines. The
presence of the Chinese played a significant role in the economic and cultural development of
early Filipino communities.
● Porcelain Trade: The importation of Chinese porcelain became a symbol of wealth and status
among Filipino elites, influencing local customs and artistic expressions.

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● Chinese Influence: Chinese traders introduced various cultural elements, including the lunar
calendar, culinary practices (e.g., pancit, lumpia), and artistic designs that have been
incorporated into Filipino culture.

Indian and Hindu Influence

● Laguna Copperplate Inscription: An important archaeological find that suggests early contact
with Hindu kingdoms in Southeast Asia, showcasing the influence of Indian culture and languages
in the Philippines.
● Sanskrit Terms: Many early Filipino words, particularly in the Tagalog and Visayan languages,
are derived from Sanskrit, indicating the depth of Indian influence in the region.
● Maharlika: A term used to describe the warrior class in pre-colonial Philippine society, likely
influenced by Indian and Malay concepts of nobility and social hierarchy.

Arrival of Malay and Indonesian Communities

● Srivijaya Empire: An influential maritime empire based in Sumatra that extended its reach to
the Philippines, particularly influencing the Visayan region. The spread of Islam and the
establishment of early sultanates in the southern Philippines can be traced back to interactions
with Malay traders and missionaries.
● Sultanate of Sulu: Established in the 15th century, the Sultanate of Sulu was heavily influenced
by Islamic and Malay culture, becoming a powerful political entity in the southern Philippines.
● Bornean Datus: Legendary rulers from Borneo who are believed to have settled in the Visayas,
bringing with them Malay culture and governance structures.

Japanese Presence and Influence

● Nihonjin: Japanese traders and settlers known for engaging in trade with Filipinos during the pre-
colonial period. Japanese pottery and swords have been found in archaeological sites, reflecting
this interaction.
● Samurai Influence: Although limited, there are historical accounts of Japanese warriors, or
ronin, who settled in the Philippines and became integrated into local communities.

Cultural Syncretism

Syncretism: The blending of different cultural and religious influences from various Asian neighbors
that led to the unique development of Filipino culture. Examples include the combination of animist
beliefs with Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic practices.
Indigenous Practices: Despite the strong influences from neighboring Asian cultures, early Filipinos
retained many indigenous practices, resulting in a rich and diverse cultural tapestry.

EARLY CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES IN PRE-COLONIAL FILIPINO CULTURE

Social Structure and Governance

● Barangay: The smallest political unit in pre-colonial Philippine society, typically consisting of 30
to 100 families. Each barangay was led by a Datu, who held both political and judicial authority.
● Datu: A chieftain who governed the barangay and was responsible for leadership, governance,
and protection of the people. The position was often hereditary but could also be earned through
valor and wisdom.

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● Timawa: The class of freemen in pre-colonial society, often serving the Datu in exchange for
protection and land. They were distinct from the Maharlika (nobles) and Alipin (servants or
slaves).
● Alipin: The lowest social class, comprising those who served others, either due to debt,
punishment, or birth. There were two main types: Aliping Namamahay (household servants with
certain rights) and
● Aliping Saguiguilid (slaves with fewer rights, often working in the fields).

Religious Beliefs and Practices

● Animism: The belief in spiritual beings or anito that inhabited natural objects like trees, rocks,
rivers, and mountains. Early Filipinos worshipped these spirits and sought their favor in daily life.
● Babaylan: A priestess or shaman who acted as an intermediary between the physical world and
the spiritual realm. Babaylans conducted rituals, healed the sick, and communicated with the
spirits.
● Anito: Spirits worshipped by pre-colonial Filipinos, often representing ancestors or nature deities.
Rituals and offerings were made to the anito to ensure good harvests, health, and protection.
● Bathala: The supreme deity in Tagalog mythology, often regarded as the creator of the universe.
Other regions had their own principal deities, such as Kaptan for the Visayans.

Customs in Marriage and Family Life

● Paninilbihan: A traditional practice where a man serves the family of his bride-to-be as a form of
courtship. This could involve tasks like fetching water, chopping wood, or working in the fields.
● Dowry (Bigay-Kaya): A custom in which the groom's family provides a dowry to the bride's
family. This could include gold, land, or valuable items, symbolizing the groom's ability to provide
for his new family.
● Pamanhikan: The formal act of asking for a woman's hand in marriage, where the groom and his
parents visit the bride's family to seek approval and discuss arrangements for the wedding.

Economic Activities

● Agriculture: The primary livelihood of pre-colonial Filipinos, with rice, coconuts, and root crops as
staples. Farming was done through the Kaingin system (slash-and-burn agriculture) or in
Banaue Rice Terraces for more advanced irrigation.
● Fishing and Hunting: Essential activities for subsistence, particularly in coastal and riverine
communities. Fishing was done using nets, traps, and spears, while hunting targeted wild game in
the forests.
● Weaving and Pottery: Common household industries, with women often engaged in weaving
textiles from abaca, cotton, or other fibers, and creating pottery for cooking and storage.

Trade and Commerce

● Barter: The primary method of trade within and between communities, where goods were
exchanged without the use of money. Common trade items included food, pottery, metal tools,
and textiles.
● Gold: A highly valued commodity, mined from regions like Luzon and Mindanao, and used for
trade, adornment, and religious objects. Gold jewelry was a symbol of wealth and status.
● Markets (Tiyangge): Local markets where people from different barangays gather to trade
goods. These markets were social hubs as well as economic centers.

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Arts and Oral Literature

● Epic Poetry (Epiko): Long narrative poems that told the stories of legendary heroes, gods, and
the history of the people. These epics were passed down orally and were performed during
important community events.
● Baybayin: The pre-colonial script used by Tagalog-speaking people and other ethno-linguistic
groups to write their language. This script was syllabic, with characters representing syllables
rather than individual letters.
● Music and Dance: Integral parts of community life, with traditional instruments like the
kulintang (gong ensemble) and dances like the tinikling
● (bamboo dance) reflecting the rhythm of everyday activities and religious rituals.

Legal Systems and Justice

● Customary Law (Batasan): The unwritten laws based on traditions, norms, and practices
passed down through generations. These laws governed everything from marriage and property
disputes to criminal offenses.
● Trial by Ordeal: A method of determining guilt or innocence in the absence of witnesses.
Examples include paluasan (water ordeal) or sipok (hot iron ordeal), where the accused would
undergo a test of endurance or strength.
● Conflict Resolution: Disputes were often resolved through community mediation by the Datu or
council of elders. Reconciliation and compensation (e.g., payment in goods or service) were
preferred to violent retaliation.

SPANISH PERIOD: EUROPEAN CONQUEST IN THE PHILIPPINES

Arrival of the Spaniards and Initial Encounters

Ferdinand Magellan: A Portuguese explorer leading a Spanish expedition that arrived in the
Philippines on March 16, 1521. Magellan is credited with the first European contact with the
archipelago, although his arrival marked the beginning of Spanish interest in the region.
Battle of Mactan: Fought on April 27, 1521, between the forces of Magellan and the warriors of
Lapu-Lapu, the Datu of Mactan. Magellan was killed in this battle, halting the Spanish expedition's
immediate plans for conquest.
Ruy López de Villalobos: Another Spanish explorer who named the islands Las Islas Filipinas in
honor of Prince Philip (later King Philip II of Spain) during his expedition in 1543.

Establishment of Spanish Colonial Rule

Miguel López de Legazpi: The Spanish conquistador who established the first permanent Spanish
settlement in Cebu in 1565. He later moved the capital to Manila in 1571, which became the center of
Spanish colonial administration.
Colonial Government: The Philippines was governed as a colony of Spain under a centralized system
with a Governor-General as the highest authority, appointed by the Spanish Crown. The Spanish
colonial government established encomiendas, a system of land grants that allowed Spanish settlers to
collect tribute from the local population.
Encomienda System: A labor system where Spanish encomenderos were granted the right to extract
labor and tribute from the indigenous people. In return, the encomenderos were supposed to provide
protection and convert the natives to Christianity, though the system often led to abuses and
exploitation.

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Galleon Trade: A trade route that linked the Philippines with Mexico and Spain, starting in 1565. The
Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade facilitated the exchange of goods, including silver from the Americas
and spices, silk, and porcelain from Asia, but also heavily taxed the local population.

Christianization of the Philippines

Missionaries: Catholic missionaries, including the Augustinians, Franciscans, Jesuits, Dominicans,

and Recollects, played a key role in converting the indigenous population to Christianity. The process of
Hispanization involved not only religious conversion but also the imposition of Spanish culture,
language, and values.
Doctrina Christiana: The first book printed in the Philippines, published in 1593. It was a catechism in
Spanish and Tagalog, written in the Baybayin script, used to teach the fundamentals of Christianity to
the natives.
Reducción: A policy where scattered settlements were consolidated into larger, centralized towns or
pueblos under the supervision of Spanish friars. This facilitated both the spread of Christianity and the
administration of colonial rule.

Resistance and Revolts

Dagohoy Revolt: The longest-running revolt in Philippine history, led by Francisco Dagohoy in Bohol
from 1744 to 1829. It was sparked by the refusal of a Spanish priest to give a proper Christian burial to
Dagohoy’s brother.

Lakandula and Soliman Revolt: An early resistance against Spanish rule led by the local rulers
Lakandula and
Rajah Soliman in 1574, shortly after the Spanish established control over Manila.

Pampanga Revolt: An uprising in 1585 by Kapampangan nobles and laborers against the abuses of
Spanish encomenderos, particularly due to the heavy demands for tribute and forced labor.
Silang Revolt: Led by Diego Silang in Ilocos in 1762, during the British occupation of Manila, aimed at
establishing an independent Ilocano state. After his assassination, his wife, Gabriela Silang, continued
the revolt but was eventually defeated.

Economic and Social Impact

● Polo y Servicio: A system of forced labor imposed on Filipino males between the ages of 16 and
60. They were required to provide 40 days of labor annually for public works, such as building
roads, churches, and other infrastructure projects.
● Tributo: A system of taxation where every Filipino family (or their community) was required to
pay tribute to the Spanish authorities, often in the form of cash, crops, or other goods.
● Bandala: A policy requiring provinces to sell a portion of their agricultural produce to the colonial
government at a fixed price. This often led to resentment due to the unfair prices and forced
requisition of goods

Social Hierarchy: The Spanish colonization introduced a rigid social hierarchy with Peninsulares
(Spaniards born in Spain) at the top, followed by Insulares (Spaniards born in the Philippines),
Mestizos (mixed-race individuals), Indios (native Filipinos), and Sangley (Chinese immigrants).

Cultural Transformation

Hispanization: The process of adopting Spanish culture, including the Spanish language, Catholicism,
and European customs, which became widespread in the Philippines during the colonial period. The
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Fiesta tradition, Catholic sacraments, and Spanish surnames are legacies of this cultural
transformation.
Education: Spanish colonial rule also introduced formal education, often through church-run schools.
However, access to education was limited, with primary education focused on religious instruction.
Architecture: The construction of Baroque churches, fortresses, and government buildings in
Spanish colonial style, many of which remain as historical landmarks today. The introduction of stone
masonry and tile roofing marked a significant shift in local architecture.

Spanish Colonial Administration in the Philippines

Centralized Colonial Government

● Governor-General: The highest-ranking official in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial
period, representing the Spanish Crown. The GovernorGeneral held executive, legislative, and
judicial powers, making decisions on behalf of the King of Spain. The role included overseeing
colonial affairs, implementing royal decrees, and maintaining law and order.
● Real Audiencia: The supreme court established in 1583, which served as the highest judicial
authority in the colony. It also had administrative functions, often advising the Governor-General
and acting as a check on his power. The Real Audiencia handled appeals and was responsible for
ensuring justice was administered throughout the colony.

Local Governance Structure

● Provinces (Alcaldías and Corregimientos): The Philippines was divided into provinces, each
governed by an Alcalde Mayor or Corregidor, depending on whether the area was pacified or
still rebellious. The Alcalde Mayor held both administrative and judicial powers in the province,
collecting taxes, enforcing laws, and maintaining order.
● Pueblos: Towns or municipalities within the provinces, led by a Gobernadorcillo (little
governor). The Gobernadorcillo was typically an elite local official or a member of the principalia
(the local ruling class) who managed local governance, tax collection, and public works.
● Barangay: The smallest administrative unit, consisting of several families under the leadership of
a Cabeza de Barangay. The Cabeza was responsible for collecting tribute, maintaining peace,
and reporting to the Gobernadorcillo. Barangays retained some of their pre-colonial structures,
but were incorporated into the broader colonial administration.

Tribute and Taxation

● Tributo: The main form of taxation imposed on the native population (Indios) by the Spanish
colonial government. It was a fixed annual payment that could be made in cash or kind, such as
agricultural products. The tributo was a significant burden on the locals and often led to
resentment.
● Cedula Personal: A personal identification certificate introduced in the 19th century, which
required individuals to pay a fee to the colonial government. It served as a form of taxation and
was also used as proof of identity.
● Bandala: An economic policy requiring provinces to sell a portion of their agricultural produce to
the government at a fixed price. This system was intended to supply the colonial administration
with resources but often resulted in exploitation of the farmers.

Forced Labor and Public Works

Polo y Servicio: A system of forced labor that required Filipino males aged 16 to 60 to work on public
infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges, churches, and government buildings. Laborers, called
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polistas, were required to work for 40 days each year, often under harsh conditions. This system was
heavily resented by the local population.
Obras Pías: Charitable foundations established by wealthy Spaniards and religious orders to fund public
works and social services, such as hospitals, schools, and orphanages. These foundations played a role
in the development of colonial infrastructure and the provision of services to the population.

Role of the Catholic Church in Governance

Friarocracy: The dominance of the Catholic religious orders (e.g., Augustinians, Franciscans,
Dominicans, Jesuits) in both religious and political life. Friars often held significant power over local
governance, especially in rural areas, where they acted as both spiritual leaders and de facto
government officials. They controlled vast lands and had influence over local decision-making.
Reducción: A policy initiated by the Spanish colonial government to consolidate scattered native
populations into centralized towns or pueblos. This made it easier for the Church to evangelize the
population and for the colonial government to administer control, collect taxes, and enforce policies.
Catholic Missions: The Church played a key role in the colonial administration through the
establishment of missions aimed at converting the indigenous population to Christianity. These missions
often served as centers of education, health care, and community organization.

Economic Policies and Trade

Galleon Trade: The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade (1565-1815) was a major economic activity during
the Spanish period, linking the Philippines with Mexico and Spain. It facilitated the exchange of goods,
such as silver, silk, spices, and porcelain, but also led to the neglect of local industries as the economy
became heavily dependent on this trade.
Monopolies: The Spanish colonial government established state monopolies on key products like
tobacco (Tobacco Monopoly of 1782), which required farmers to sell their tobacco to the government at
fixed prices. This was a significant source of revenue for the colonial government but also caused
hardships for local producers.

Challenges and Corruption

Corruption: Widespread corruption was a major issue within the Spanish colonial administration.
Governors, alcaldes, and other officials often abused their power for personal gain, leading to
inefficiencies, injustices, and widespread dissatisfaction among the local population.
Revolt and Resistance: Numerous uprisings and revolts occurred throughout the Spanish colonial
period as a reaction to abuses, heavy taxation, forced labor, and cultural impositions by the colonial
government. These included revolts led by local leaders such as Dagohoy, Silang, and Tamblot.

The End of Spanish Rule

Philippine Revolution: The culmination of centuries of dissatisfaction with Spanish colonial rule led to
the Philippine Revolution of 1896, spearheaded by the Katipunan, a revolutionary society led by
Andres Bonifacio and later Emilio Aguinaldo. The revolution aimed to overthrow Spanish rule and
establish an independent Philippine nation.
Treaty of Paris (1898): The treaty that ended the Spanish-American War, wherein Spain ceded the
Philippines to the United States for $20 million. This marked the end of over 300 years of Spanish
colonial rule and the beginning of American colonization.

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Institutional Impact of Spanish Rule: From Indio to Filipino

Transformation of Social Identity

Indio: The term used by the Spanish colonizers to refer to the native inhabitants of the Philippines. It
was a pejorative label that denoted the indigenous people’s supposed inferiority compared to the
Spanish and other Europeans. The label reinforced the social hierarchy and the subjugation of the native
population under colonial rule.

Filipino: Originally, this term was used exclusively to refer to Spaniards born in the Philippines,
also known as Insulares. However, by the late 19th century, it evolved to include the educated
natives, Illustrados, who were advocating for equal rights, recognition, and reforms. The term
eventually became a national identity for all the inhabitants of the Philippines, especially during the
Philippine Revolution.

Education and the Rise of the Illustrados

Education under the Spanish: Education during the Spanish colonial period was primarily
religious and controlled by the Catholic Church. The primary aim was to Christianize and
Hispanicize the local population. Basic education was offered through parish schools, where the
curriculum focused on Christian doctrine, the Spanish language, and practical skills.
Illustrados: A class of educated Filipinos who emerged in the late 19th century, often coming from
wealthy and influential families. Many Illustrados studied in Europe and were influenced by liberal
ideas, which led them to advocate for reforms and greater autonomy. Notable Illustrados include
José Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Graciano López Jaena.
Propaganda Movement: A campaign led by the Illustrados during the late 19th century, primarily
through publications such as La Solidaridad, to demand reforms from the Spanish government.
They sought representation in the Spanish Cortes (parliament), freedom of speech, equal rights,
and secularization of the clergy.

Legal and Political Reforms

Royal Decrees and Laws: Throughout the Spanish colonial period, various royal decrees and laws
were issued to regulate life in the colony. These included the Law of the Indies, which governed
the organization of towns, and the Maura Law of 1893, which attempted to reorganize local
governments to make them more efficient.
Spanish Legal System: The Spanish introduced their legal system, which included courts
(Audiencia) and laws that governed property, marriage, and civil disputes. However, the application
of these laws often favored Spaniards and the mestizo elite, further marginalizing the indigenous
population.
Principalia: The local elite class consisting of datus, rajas, and wealthy landowners who were co-
opted into the colonial administration. They served as intermediaries between the Spanish
authorities and the local population, collecting taxes and enforcing colonial policies. Over time,
members of the principalia became influential in both local governance and economic activities.

Religious Influence and Cultural Syncretism

Catholicism: The Catholic Church was a dominant institution in the Philippines, deeply influencing
both the social structure and cultural practices. The Church’s role in education, land ownership, and
governance reinforced its authority. Religious festivals, devotions, and practices became deeply
embedded in Filipino culture.

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Syncretism: The blending of Catholic religious practices with pre-colonial beliefs and rituals led to
a unique form of Filipino Catholicism. For instance, fiestas often combined indigenous and Catholic
traditions, and many Filipinos continued to observe pre-colonial customs alongside Christian
practices.
Reducción: The policy of relocating scattered indigenous populations into centralized towns
(pueblos) under the supervision of the Church. This facilitated the spread of Catholicism and
allowed for more effective governance and tax collection, but also disrupted traditional social
structures.

Economic Changes and the Development of a Landed Elite

Encomienda System: An early system where Spanish encomenderos were granted control over
certain territories and the people within them. They could collect tribute and use local labor in
exchange for providing protection and converting the population to Christianity. This system often
led to the exploitation of the native population and the concentration of wealth in the hands of a
few.
Hacienda System: By the 18th century, the encomienda system was largely replaced by the
hacienda system, where large estates (haciendas) were owned by Spanish landlords or religious
orders. These estates were worked by tenant farmers (kasama) who were often subjected to
oppressive conditions. The hacienda system contributed to the rise of a wealthy landowning class.
Galleon Trade and Economic Integration: The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade
(1565-1815) integrated the Philippines into the global economy, linking Asia, the Americas, and
Europe. The trade brought wealth to a few, but also made the colony dependent on external
markets. The focus on export crops and imported goods hindered the development of local
industries.

Language and Communication

Spanish Language: Spanish was the official language of the colonial government, the Church, and
education. However, it was mainly spoken by the colonial elite, clergy, and educated Filipinos
(Illustrados). The majority of the population continued to speak their native languages, with only a
small portion becoming fluent in Spanish.
Doctrina Christiana: The first book printed in the Philippines, published in 1593, was a catechism
written in both Spanish and Tagalog, reflecting the Church’s efforts to teach Christianity to the
native population in their own language.
Baybayin: The pre-colonial script used by various ethnic groups in the Philippines, which was
gradually replaced by the Roman alphabet due to Spanish influence. The decline of Baybayin and
the spread of the Roman alphabet facilitated the adoption of Spanish and later, English.

Emergence of a National Consciousness

Secularization Movement: A movement among Filipino priests in the 19th century advocating for
the transfer of control over parishes from Spanish friars to native clergy. The movement was part of
a broader push for equality and recognition of Filipino capabilities, leading to tensions between the
local clergy and the Spanish religious orders.
Gomburza: The collective name for three Filipino priests—Mariano Gómez, José Burgos, and
Jacinto Zamora—who were executed in 1872 for alleged involvement in the Cavite Mutiny. Their
execution became a rallying point for Filipino nationalists and inspired the push for reforms and
eventual independence.
Philippine Revolution: The growing sense of national identity and the desire for independence
culminated in the Philippine Revolution of 1896. Led by the Katipunan and key figures like Andres

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Bonifacio and Emilio Aguinaldo, the revolution marked the shift from colonial subjugation to the
struggle for nationhood.

SEMI-FINALS COVERAGE
REFORM AND REVOLUTION

Development of Filipino Nationalism and Emergence of the Filipino identity :

The 19th century saw the rise of an educated Filipino class (Ilustrados), which began to question
the injustices of Spanish colonial rule. Nationalism was fueled by intellectuals and reformists who
sought to unite the Filipinos against foreign control.

External and internal influences:

Global revolutions, particularly in Latin America and Europe, inspired Filipino leaders to think about
independence. The Cavite Mutiny of 1872 and the subsequent execution of the Gomburza (three
Filipino priests) served as a catalyst for anti-colonial sentiments.

Reform Movements
La Liga Filipina: Founded by José Rizal in 1892, the organization called for peaceful reforms,
such as representation in the Spanish Cortes and equality under the law. It aimed to achieve social
reforms and greater autonomy through non-violent means, but it was short-lived after Rizal’s
arrest and exile.

José Rizal's influence:

Rizal's novels, Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, exposed the abuses of Spanish colonial
rule,
Noli Me Tangere (Touch Me Not) and El Filibusterismo (The Reign of Greed)
are two of the most influential works in Philippine literature. Written by national hero
José Rizal, these novels exposed the injustices and abuses of Spanish colonial rule in
the Philippines. Noli Me Tangere: Published in 1887, this novel follows the story
of Crisostomo Ibarra, who returns to the Philippines after studying in Europe. Through
his experiences, Rizal highlights the social, political, and religious issues of the time.
El Filibusterismo: Published in 1891, this sequel to Noli Me Tangere continues the
story of Ibarra, now disguised as Simoun, a wealthy jeweler. The novel delves deeper
into the revolutionary ideas and the desire for change among Filipinos.

inspiring many Filipinos to join the cause for reform and later, revolution. Though Rizal did not
directly support armed rebellion, his writings sparked revolutionary ideas, especially among the
younger generations.

The Role of Education:

The reform movement emphasized education as a crucial element for enlightenment and
national awakening. Rizal believed that freedom from ignorance would lead to political
independence.
Katipunan: Foundation of the Katipunan:

Andrés Bonifacio founded the Katipunan (Kataas-taasan, Kagalang-galangang Katipunan

ng mga Anak ng Bayan) in 1892, shortly after Rizal’s arrest. It was a secret revolutionary

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society aiming for complete independence from Spain. Unlike La Liga, the Katipunan advocated for
armed struggle to achieve freedom.

Structure and leadership:

Bonifacio became the final Supremo (leader) of the Katipunan after internal conflicts with previous
[Link] Katipunan had its own national anthem, “Marangal na Dalit ng Katagalugan,”
composed by Julio Nakpil at Bonifacio’s request.

The Cry of Pugad Lawin:

The revolution formally began in August 1896, marked by the Tearing of Cedulas in Pugad Lawin,
symbolizing the rejection of Spanish authority.

The Philippine Revolution: 1st Phase (1896–1897)

The revolution initially faced defeats, especially in Manila where Spanish forces were better
equipped. Bonifacio’s leadership was challenged due to these failures. However, in Cavite, under
the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo, the revolutionaries experienced significant victories, causing a
shift in the movement’s leadership.

Internal conflict within the Katipunan:

The revolutionary movement split into two factions: Magdiwang (loyal to Bonifacio) and Magdalo
(led by Aguinaldo). This division weakened the unity of the revolutionaries. Tejeros Convention
(1897): The rift culminated at the Tejeros Convention, where Aguinaldo was elected president,
effectively displacing Bonifacio. The conflict led to Bonifacio’s eventual arrest and execution

The Philippine Revolution: 2nd Phase (1898)

Aguinaldo’s leadership and strategy: After Bonifacio's execution, Aguinaldo emerged as the de
facto leader. He reorganized the revolutionary government and declared Philippine
independence in Kawit, Cavite, on June 12, 1898. The revolution’s second phase overlapped with
the Spanish-American War. After defeating Spain in 1898, the United States took control of the
Philippines, changing the course of the struggle from Spanish colonization to American
occupation.

The Malolos Republic

The Malolos Republic, founded in January 1899, became the first democratic government in Asia,
with Aguinaldo as its president. The Malolos Constitution enshrined democratic ideals, such as
the separation of powers, civil liberties, and equality before the law. The fledgling republic faced
immediate threats from American colonization, leading to the outbreak of the Philippine-
American War. The dream of true independence was delayed as the republic fell to American
forces.

THE AMERICAN PERIOD

Filipino-American War (1899–1902)

After Spain’s defeat in the Spanish-American War in 1898, the Philippines did not gain
independence. Instead, the U.S. took over control of the country.
The Filipino-American War started in 1899, as Filipinos, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, fought against
U.S. occupation, believing they had already achieved independence. The war was brutal and
bloody, with heavy losses on the Filipino side. Filipino resistance was strong, but U.S. forces
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eventually subdued the revolutionaries. By 1902, the Philippines became a colony of the United
States. This war showed the determination of Filipinos to gain independence, even against a
new foreign ruler. It also marked the beginning of the American colonial period in the Philippines.

Religious Schism
The Rise of the Iglesia Filipina Independiente (Philippine Independent Church):
During the American period, there was a significant split within the Catholic Church. Many Filipinos,
led by Gregorio Aglipay, wanted to break away from the control of Spanish clergy. This led to the
creation of the Iglesia Filipina Independiente (Aglipayan Church) in 1902, which symbolized
the nationalist desire for independence in religion, just as they sought it in politics. The religious
schism highlighted Filipinos' desire for greater control over their spiritual and political lives, moving
away from foreign influence.

Philippines Under U.S. Imperialism

The U.S. introduced policies to make the Philippines more modern, but these policies also aimed to
pacify and control the population.
The U.S. justified its control by claiming they were preparing Filipinos for self-governance, a policy
called “Benevolent Assimilation.” The U.S. improved infrastructure, such as building roads,
bridges, and ports, and modernizing the economy. However, much of the economic development
benefited American businesses, leaving many Filipinos still poor. American rule was not free of
violence and repression. Filipino leaders and groups that continued to push for independence
were often jailed or silenced by the U.S. government.

Campaign for Independence

Filipino Leaders:
Despite U.S. control, Filipino leaders, such as Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, continued
to campaign for full independence. They believed in using diplomacy and politics rather than
armed conflict to achieve their goals.
These leaders eventually succeeded in gaining more political power for Filipinos under the Jones
Law of 1916, which promised eventual independence.

Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934):

In 1934, the U.S. passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act, which laid out a plan for Philippine
independence after a 10-year transition period under the Commonwealth of the Philippines.
This act gave hope to Filipinos that they would eventually be free from colonial rule. It also allowed
for the establishment of a Philippine government that would eventually lead the country to full
independence.

The Commonwealth (1935–1946)

Creation of the Commonwealth:
The Commonwealth of the Philippines was a semi-independent government created as part of
the plan for full independence. Manuel L. Quezon became its first president in 1935. The
Commonwealth focused on preparing the country for independence by building up the economy,
strengthening defense, and improving education. Although the Commonwealth worked toward
independence, it faced many challenges, such as economic difficulties, political struggles,
and the looming threat of World War II.

Results of American Occupation

The American period brought some beneficial changes, particularly in the areas of education,
infrastructure, and government:
● Education: The U.S. established a public school system, which allowed many Filipinos to receive
formal education for the first time.
● Democratic Government: The U.S. introduced democratic institutions that formed the basis of
the modern Philippine government.
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Despite these contributions, the American period also had many negative consequences:
Economic Dependence: The Philippine economy became dependent on the U.S., with American
companies controlling many of the country's resources.
Limited Sovereignty: While the U.S. claimed to be preparing the Philippines for independence, in
reality, it kept tight control over political and economic affairs.
Legacy of Colonialism:
The legacy of American colonization is mixed. While Filipinos benefited from certain
modernizations, they also experienced the loss of true independence until after World War II.

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 
TIMELINE OF THE AMERICAN PERIOD IN THE PHILIPPINES

1898 – Treaty of Paris

December 10: Spain cedes the Philippines to the United States following the Spanish-
American War. This officially ends more than 300 years of Spanish rule in the
Philippines and marks the beginning of U.S. control.

1899 – Philippine-American War Begins

February 4: Armed conflict breaks out between Filipino forces, led by Emilio Aguinaldo,
and American troops. Filipinos resist U.S. occupation after being denied independence.

1901 – Capture of Emilio Aguinaldo and End of the War

March 23: Emilio Aguinaldo is captured by U.S. forces, signaling the effective end of
organized Filipino resistance. The war officially ends in 1902, but pockets of resistance
continued.
1901 – Sedition Act
The U.S. colonial government enacts the Sedition Act, banning any form of advocacy
for Philippine independence and punishing those who criticize American rule.
1901 – Thomasites Arrive
A group of American teachers known as the Thomasites arrive in the Philippines to
establish public schools and introduce the English language in the education system.

1902 – Establishment of the Philippine Independent Church

Gregorio Aglipay leads the creation of the Iglesia Filipina Independiente (Philippine
Independent Church), breaking away from the Roman Catholic Church under Spanish
control.

1907 – First Philippine Assembly

The Philippine Assembly, the first elected legislative body in the Philippines, is
established, allowing Filipinos limited participation in governance under U.S.
supervision.

1916 – Jones Law

The Jones Law was passed by the U.S. Congress, promising eventual Philippine
independence and granting Filipinos greater control over their government.

1933 – Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act

This act, passed by the U.S. Congress, provides for Philippine independence after a 10-
year transition period. However, it is rejected by Filipino leaders due to concerns over
U.S. military bases in the country.

1934 – Tydings-McDuffie Act

The Tydings-McDuffie Act replaces the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act and sets up a 10-year
transition period for full independence. It also establishes the Commonwealth of the
Philippines, a semi-independent government.

1935 – Commonwealth of the Philippines

Manuel L. Quezon is elected as the first president of the Commonwealth of the

Philippines. The Commonwealth focuses on 21preparing the country for full
independence by 1945.

1941 – Japanese Invasion of the Philippines

During World War II, Japan invaded and occupied the Philippines. The Commonwealth
 

THE WAR YEARS

Japanese Occupation (1942–1945)
During World War II, the Philippines became a major target for Japan due to its strategic location
in Southeast Asia. The Philippines, then under the Commonwealth, was seen as a key stronghold
by both the U.S. and Japan.
December 1941: Just hours after bombing Pearl Harbor, Japan launched attacks on the Philippines,
marking the start of their invasion. January 2, 1942: Manila, the capital, fell to Japanese forces.
President Manuel Quezon and the Commonwealth government went into exile in the U.S., while the
Japanese quickly established control. Japan’s goal was to turn the Philippines into part of its
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, an empire where Japan sought to control Asian
territories under the guise of freeing them from Western rule.

The Japanese imposed harsh military rule, leading to widespread fear and suffering. There were
numerous accounts of torture, executions, forced labor, and sexual violence against Filipino
women (known as comfort women). The Japanese confiscated food supplies, leading to severe
shortages. Rationing became common, and many Filipinos faced famine during this period. Even
though the Japanese controlled major cities, guerrilla groups formed in the countryside, fiercely
resisting Japanese rule. These groups were made up of Filipino soldiers and civilians, often led by
local leaders.

The most notable of these groups was the Hukbalahap (Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon), or
Huks, formed by Filipino communists and peasants. They conducted attacks against the Japanese
forces, especially in Central Luzon. Other resistance movements formed throughout the islands,
using hit-and-run tactics to disrupt Japanese operations.

The Philippines under the Japanese Military Government

Puppet Government:
To give the illusion of Filipino cooperation, Japan established a puppet government led by José P.
Laurel, who became president of the Second Philippine Republic in 1943. However, Laurel had
limited power and was essentially controlled by the Japanese military.
Laurel’s Dilemma: He faced criticism for collaborating with the Japanese, but he later defended
his actions, arguing that he was trying to protect the Filipino people under difficult circumstances.

Propaganda and Indoctrination:

The Japanese introduced heavy propaganda, promoting themselves as “Asian liberators” from
Western colonizers. Schools were required to teach Nihongo (Japanese language) and Japanese
cultural values. However, most Filipinos remained loyal to the U.S. and the Commonwealth
government in exile.
The Liberation of the Philippines (1944–1945)

October 20, 1944: General Douglas MacArthur fulfilled his famous promise by landing in Leyte
with American and Filipino forces, marking the start of the campaign to liberate the Philippines. This
event is known as the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history.
MacArthur worked alongside Sergio Osmeña, who had succeeded Quezon as the president of the
Commonwealth after Quezon’s death in 1944. Together, they planned the restoration of the
Commonwealth government.

Battle of Manila (February 1945)

One of the most significant and tragic battles during the liberation was the Battle of Manila.
American and Filipino forces fought fiercely against the Japanese, but the city suffered widespread
destruction. Over 100,000 civilians died during this battle due to bombings and Japanese
massacres.

End of the Occupation:

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By March 1945, most of the Philippines had been liberated. Japan officially surrendered on August
15, 1945, following the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Philippines was
finally free of Japanese occupation.

TIMELINE OF THE JAPANESE ERA IN THE PHILIPPINES (1941–1945)

1941

December 8, 1941:
Japan attacks the Philippines, just hours after the bombing of Pearl Harbor.
Japanese forces begin their invasion, targeting strategic military bases and cities.
December 26, 1941:
Manila is declared an open city by General Douglas MacArthur to prevent its
destruction, but Japanese forces continue their advance.

1942

January 2, 1942:
Manila falls to the Japanese, marking the start of the Japanese occupation of the
Philippines.
March 12, 1942:
General Douglas MacArthur leaves the Philippines, retreating to Australia,
famously vowing, “I shall return.”
April 9, 1942:
The Fall of Bataan occurs. Filipino and American forces surrender after months of
fighting, leading to the infamous Bataan Death March, where thousands of
prisoners of war were forced to walk over 60 miles in harsh conditions, resulting in
countless deaths.
May 6, 1942:
The Fall of Corregidor marks the complete control of the Philippines by Japanese
forces.

1943

October 14, 1943:

Japan establishes the Second Philippine Republic, with José P. Laurel as its
president. However, this government had little real power, as it was controlled by
the Japanese military.

1944

October 20, 1944:

General Douglas MacArthur returns to the Philippines, landing in Leyte with
American and Filipino forces. This begins the campaign to liberate the Philippines
from Japanese control, starting with the Battle of Leyte Gulf.
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1945

February 1945:
The Battle of Manila begins, as American and Filipino forces fight to liberate the
city from Japanese occupation. This battle results in the death of over 100,000
civilians and the near-total destruction of Manila.
March 3, 1945:
Manila is fully liberated, and most of the Japanese forces in the Philippines are
defeated.
August 15, 1945:
Japan surrenders after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, officially
ending World War II.
September 2, 1945:
The formal surrender of Japan is signed, marking the end of the Japanese
occupation in the Philippines.

FINALS COVERAGE

The Third Philippine Republic was officially established on July 4, 1946, after the U.S. formally
recognized the independence of the Philippines through the Treaty of Manila. This period lasted
until 1972, when martial law was declared under President Ferdinand Marcos. During this time, the
Philippines faced the enormous task of rebuilding its economy, institutions, and society after the
devastation of World War II, while also dealing with internal challenges like communist
insurgencies, corruption, and widespread poverty.
Key Events and Milestones:
Recognition of Independence (July 4, 1946): o Proclamation 2695 issued by U.S. President
Harry S. Truman recognized the full independence of the Philippines. o The Treaty of Manila
formalized this recognition, ending American colonial rule and marking the birth of the Third
Republic.
Independence Day was initially celebrated on July 4, aligning with U.S. Independence Day, but in
1964, it was officially moved to June 12 through Republic Act No. 4166. This was done to
commemorate Emilio Aguinaldo’s declaration of independence from Spain in 1898,
underscoring the Filipino struggle for freedom and sovereignty.

The Presidents of the Third Republic:

Manuel Roxas (1946-1948)

The first president of the Third Republic, Roxas had to address the enormous task of post-war
reconstruction.
Key Accomplishments:
● Rehabilitation Finance Corporation: Provided financial support for rebuilding industries,
agriculture, and infrastructure after the war.
● Department of Foreign Affairs: Established to manage diplomatic relations and represent the
Philippines in the international community.

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● Taxation Reforms: Implemented new laws to create a more equitable and sustainable tax
system, stabilizing the economy.
● Challenges included managing war debts and dealing with U.S. demands, such as the Bell
Trade Act, which many saw as limiting Philippine economic independence.
Elpidio Quirino (1948-1953):
Quirino's presidency was marked by efforts to improve the lives of Filipinos through social
amelioration programs and agrarian reforms.
Key Accomplishments:
● Action Committee on Social Amelioration: Aimed to improve the living standards of the
poor.
● Labor Management Advisory Board: Addressed labor issues and promoted worker rights.
● Agrarian Reform: Focused on equitable land distribution and promoting cooperative
associations to empower rural farmers.
● Quirino's administration also had to contend with the Hukbalahap rebellion, a peasant-based
communist insurgency.

Ramon Magsaysay (1953-1957):

Known as a “champion of the masses,” Magsaysay's administration focused on agrarian reform,
peace, and good governance.
Key Accomplishments:
● Defeated the Hukbalahap movement through a combination of military action and reforms
aimed at addressing the root causes of rebellion, such as poverty and inequality.
● Passed the Agricultural Tenancy Act and Land Reform Act, granting farmers greater rights
over the land they worked and improving the welfare of rural communities.
● His administration was widely popular and marked by a focus on transparency, honesty, and
clean governance.
● Magsaysay's tenure is often regarded as a golden period for the common people, as his efforts
made the government more accessible and responsive to the needs of ordinary citizens.

Carlos P. Garcia (1957-1961):

Garcia's presidency emphasized economic nationalism and reducing dependence on foreign
investments.
Key Accomplishments:
● “Filipino First” Policy: This policy promoted Filipino businesses and industries, prioritizing
local enterprises over foreign companies in an effort to stimulate domestic economic growth.
● Negotiated the Bohlen-Serrano Agreement, which shortened the U.S. lease on military bases
in the Philippines from 99 years to 25 years, a significant step towards reducing foreign military
influence.
● While his administration succeeded in boosting local industries, Garcia also faced economic
challenges, including inflation and criticisms of his protectionist policies.
Diosdado Macapagal (1961-1965):
Macapagal’s administration aimed at modernizing the economy and implementing land reform
to address the inequalities in the agricultural sector.
Key Accomplishments:
● Passed the Agricultural Land Reform Code, a landmark law that aimed to redistribute land to
tenant farmers, giving them the opportunity to become landowners and reducing rural poverty.
Established the Land Bank of the Philippines, which provided credit to farmers so they could
invest in their land and agricultural businesses.
● Economic Reforms: Macapagal also revised the tax system to encourage business growth and
attract investments, laying the groundwork for economic development. Changed Independence
Day from July 4 to June 12 to reinforce the importance of the Filipino fight for independence.
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● Economic Developments: The Third Philippine Republic prioritized rebuilding the economy
after the devastation of World War II. This required stabilizing the financial system, fostering
industrial growth, and improving agricultural productivity.
● Central Bank of the Philippines: Established to manage the country's monetary policies and
ensure financial stability, providing a foundation for economic recovery.
● Agricultural Development: Programs focused on increasing agricultural productivity,
improving irrigation systems, and modernizing farming techniques. Land reforms were introduced
to ensure more equitable land distribution, empowering farmers and helping rural areas recover
from wartime devastation.
● Industrial Growth: The government encouraged local industries by providing incentives for
Filipino entrepreneurs, while also inviting foreign investors to build factories, especially in urban
areas like Manila and Cebu. These efforts contributed to a growing manufacturing sector that
helped reduce dependence on imported goods.
● Foreign Policy and International Engagement: The Philippines under the Third Republic
sought to strengthen its international presence through active diplomacy. The country
became a member of important global organizations like the United Nations, UNESCO, WHO,
and the ILO, allowing it to participate in shaping global policies on health, education, and labor
rights. The Philippines also maintained close ties with the United States, despite efforts to
assert more independence, especially regarding military bases and economic relations.
Challenges:
● Hukbalahap Rebellion: A communist-led rebellion by former guerrilla fighters who felt left out
of the post-war development process. The rebellion was rooted in socio-economic grievances such
as lack of land reforms and poverty in rural areas. Magsaysay’s success in defeating the Huks
restored stability to the government, but the rebellion highlighted deep issues of inequality and
unrest in the countryside.
● Corruption: Corruption within government agencies was a recurring issue, undermining public
trust and slowing down the implementation of reforms. Despite efforts to combat corruption,
including campaigns for transparency, it remained a significant obstacle to development.
● Poverty and Inequality: Widespread poverty, particularly in rural areas, remained a pressing
issue throughout the Third Republic. Government efforts to address these challenges through land
reforms, social amelioration, and labor programs were not always sufficient to reduce inequality.

The Third Philippine Republic was a critical period in the nation's history, as the country rebuilt
from the ruins of war, asserted its independence, and worked towards economic stability. Despite
the challenges of insurgencies, corruption, and socioeconomic inequalities, this era saw significant
achievements in land reform, international diplomacy, and economic development. Each
administration contributed to the progress of the nation, laying the groundwork for future growth,
even as the Republic faced difficulties that would culminate in the declaration of martial law in
1972.

Martial Law: Definition, Purpose, and Disadvantages during Marcos' Implementation

Martial Law is a temporary measure imposed by a government, usually during times of crisis,
where military authorities take control over the normal functions of government. Civil rights,
such as the right to free speech, freedom of the press, and the right to assemble, are often
suspended. The military gains the authority to enforce laws and maintain order.

Purpose of Martial Law:

● Restore order: Martial Law is typically declared in response to security threats, such as
rebellion, war, or widespread civil disorder.
● Protect the government: It aims to prevent the collapse of a government or protect a
nation from external or internal enemies.
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● Ensure safety: By imposing strict measures, the state claims to maintain peace, protect
citizens, and prevent chaos. Marcos' Implementation of Martial Law:
● In the Philippines, Ferdinand Marcos declared Martial Law on September 21, 1972, under
Proclamation No. 1081, citing threats of communist rebellion and separatist movements.
However, it became a tool for him to maintain power beyond his term and silence critics.
Proclamation No. 1081:
Officially declared Martial Law in the entire country.
Reason: Marcos claimed that Martial Law was necessary to suppress increasing threats of
rebellion, particularly from the communist insurgency (CPP-NPA) and Muslim separatist
movements.
Martial Law allowed Marcos to rule by decree, bypassing Congress and the judiciary, giving him
almost absolute power.

Disadvantages of Marcos' Martial Law Implementation:

● Suppression of Civil Liberties:
Basic freedoms like freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of assembly
were suspended. Media outlets were controlled or shut down, preventing any form of dissent or
criticism of the regime.
Political opponents and activists were arrested without due process, imprisoned, or went
missing under unclear circumstances. Many were subjected to torture and extrajudicial
killings.
● Political Repression: Marcos dissolved Congress and ruled by decree, effectively centralizing
power under himself.
● Opposition leaders like Benigno Aquino Jr. and others were imprisoned or exiled, eliminating
any challenge to his rule.
● Elections during this period were heavily manipulated, making democracy a façade under his
rule.
● Widespread Corruption: Martial Law gave Marcos the means to consolidate wealth and
power. Government funds were diverted to the Marcos family and their cronies, leading to
massive corruption.
● Major infrastructure projects were undertaken, but these were often overpriced or mismanaged,
benefiting only a select group of people close to Marcos.
● Economic Decline: Initially, there were some infrastructure improvements, but the economy
soon deteriorated. The Philippines' foreign debt soared, and the economy stagnated due to
poor governance and corruption.
● Widespread poverty and unemployment worsened, while the wealth gap between the elite
(often allied with Marcos) and the masses widened.
● Human Rights Violations: Thousands of people were subjected to torture, illegal arrests,
disappearances, and extrajudicial killings. The military and police were given broad powers,
leading to abuse and widespread fear among the population.
● Amnesty International and other human rights groups documented these abuses, bringing
international attention to the human rights crisis in the Philippines during Marcos' rule.
The official purpose of Martial Law was to ensure national security and stability, under Marcos, it
became a tool for consolidating power, suppressing opposition, and enabling widespread
corruption. It led to severe human rights abuses, economic decline, and the eventual loss of
democracy, creating a legacy of hardship that the Philippines continues to address even after the
regime ended. Despite the many negative consequences of his rule, Ferdinand Marcos Sr. did
contribute positively to some aspects of the Philippines during his time in power. yet, Marcos Sr.

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did implement notable projects that contributed to the Philippines’ development, those
achievements are often overshadowed by the widespread corruption, human rights violations, and
the economic collapse during his later years. The misuse of government resources, cronyism, and
Martial Law's authoritarian control negated much of the progress made, leaving the country with
long-term social, political, and economic challenges.

The Struggle for Progress and the Philippine Government 1986 People Power
Revolution:
A non-violent revolution that ousted President Ferdinand Marcos and restored democracy.
Demonstrations were held nationwide, not just in Manila. February 25, 1986, marked the beginning
of a new era of freedom in the Philippines.

Corazon Aquino Administration (1986-1992):

● Political Achievements:
1987 Constitution: Restored democracy, limiting presidential powers, especially in declaring
martial law.
Creation of autonomous regions (Cordillera and Muslim Mindanao).
Proclamation of the Freedom Constitution and reorganization of the government.
National Reconciliation policy aimed at cooperation, particularly with rebel groups. o Economic
Achievements:
Created PCGG (Presidential Commission on Good Government) to recover ill-gotten wealth.
Implemented Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) to distribute lands to farmers.
● Social Achievements:
Strengthened social services under DSWD.
Introduced the Generics Law, but it faced challenges in implementation.
Fidel Ramos Administration (1992-1998):
Political Achievements:
● Addressed the energy crisis and passed the Local Government Code to enhance local
governance.  Implemented environmental protection programs like NIPAS (National Integrated
Protected Areas System).
● Economic Achievements:
Known for his extensive travels, he secured $20 billion in foreign investments.
Initiated the Philippines' transformation into an "Asian Tiger Cub Economy" by focusing on exports.
● Social Achievements:
Celebrated the Philippine Centennial in 1998.
Promoted peace by securing agreements with Muslim and communist rebels.
● Joseph Estrada Administration (1998-2001):
Issues and Problems:
Grappled with corruption, the Asian financial crisis, and El Niño.
Impeached due to a corruption scandal in 2000 and ousted in 2001.
● Notable Laws:
Clean Air Act, Retail Trade Liberalization Act, and the E-Commerce Act were among the laws
passed during his term.

Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo Administration (2001-2010):

● First Term (2001-2004):
Faced Oakwood mutiny, controversial elections, and protests.
Focused on shifting to a federal-parliamentary system.
● Second Term (2004-2010):
Dealt with significant scandals like the Fertilizer Fund Scam and the Hello Garci Controversy.
● Foreign Policy:

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Strengthened ties with China and maintained a cautious stance with the US.

Rodrigo Duterte Administration (2016-2022):

Known for the controversial “War on Drugs,” resulting in thousands of deaths, many of which were
extrajudicial killings.
His administration focused on anti-crime campaigns, infrastructure development, and stronger ties
with China.
● Economic Achievements:
Continued economic growth, with a focus on inclusive growth, poverty reduction, and infrastructure
under the “Build, Build, Build” program.
● Foreign Policy:
Shifted towards China for economic cooperation, despite the South China Sea dispute.

REFERENCES:
● Aguilar, Filomeno V. 2012. “Differentiating Sedimented from Modular Transnationalism:
The View from East Asia.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 21(2): 149–171.

● Bello, Walden F. 2006. “The Multiple Crises of Global Capitalism.” In Deglobalization: Ideas
for a New World Economy, pp. 1-31. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.

● Castles, Stephen. 2000. “International Migration at the Beginning of the Twenty-First

Century: Global Trends and Issues.” International Social Science Journal 52 (165): 269–
281.

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