REPUBLIC OF RWANDA

KIGALI INDEPENDENT UNIVERSITY ULK

P.O. Box 2280, KIGALI
Website://[Link]
E-mail: ulk@[Link]

ENGLISH SKILLS 1

LECTURER: MPUMUJE Maurice

mpumujemaurice@[Link]

ACADEMIC YEAR 2026-2027

Academic year 2025- 2026

Practice and Confidence will help you master English.

1
Year 1 semester 1 Communication Skills in English module
6. Allocation of study and teaching hours
Total student hours ____________
Staff
Hours
Student hours
Lectures
35 45
Seminars/workshops
15 45
Practical classes/laboratory
10 -
Structured exercises
10 10
Set reading etc.
10 -------------
Self-directed study
10 -------------
Assignments – preparation and
writing 15 10
Examination – revision and attendance
15 10
Other:

TOTAL
120 120

6.1 Brief description of aims and contents

This module is made of the following units: Grammatical theories, useful language expressions
and creative writing.

It focuses particularly on:

 How to use English language grammatically

 How to listen effectively in English
2
  How to develop one’s speaking fluency in English
 How to read and write well in English
The general objective of this module is to help students sharpen their minds in English so as to be
able to compete locally, regionally and on a global scale using English as a medium of
communication.

6.2. Learning Outcomes

1. Knowledge and Understanding

Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to demonstrate knowledge
and understanding of:

• Grammatical structures pertaining to English language,

• Reading well anything written in English
• Writing in different contexts as a way that leads to becoming creative writers
• Debating for conviction and providing constructive ideas
2. Cognitive/Intellectual skills/Application of Knowledge
Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to:

• analyse some grammatical structures

• know what is said and what is not said in English
• develop native-like accent of English
• speak both in formal and informal settings
• listen to any person speaking English, using either American or British accent read for
information, entertainment or any other purpose

3. Communication /Analytic Techniques/Practical Skills

Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to:

• Prove a good command of English

• Give a hand to any person wishing to learn English
• Hold discussions in English while completing their assignments
4. General transferable skills
Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to:

3
 • apply or implement communicative skills.
• participate and contribute to initiatives meant for promoting English language.
• help newly-registered students become familiar with English as a medium of instruction.
• advise and inform others about the invaluable importance of English in the world of
communication.
5. Indicative Contents:
UNIT 1. GREETINGS AND INTRODUCTION

UNIT 2. LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS

UNIT 3. INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SOUNDS

UNIT 4. VERBS CATEGORIZATION

UNIT 5. PRESENT SIMPLE AND PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

UNIT 6. PLURAL OF NOUNS

UNIT 7. ARTICLES

UNIT 8. PAST SIMPLE AND PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

UNIT 9. PRESENT PERFECT AND PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

UNIT 10. PRONOUNS

UNIT 11. PAST PERFECT AND PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

UNIT 12. ADJECTIVES

UNIT 13. FUTURE TENSES

UNIT 14. DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

UNIT 15. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE MODES

UNIT 16. PREPOSITIONS

UNIT 17. LETTER WRITING

UNIT 18. INTRODUCTION TO DEBATE

7. Learning and Teaching Strategy

At the beginning, the teaching strategy is expositive but the main part of the course that follows
is essentially in active method. The lecturer will explain the contents of the course to the students

4
in order to acquaint them with enough skills and sensitize them to become real cadres of change
for better life at individual, family, community, national and international levels. Then at the end
of every chapter, students will make groups work, they will collectively discuss and answer the
questions prepared and written at the end of each chapter. Every group will present its
assignment and the lecturer will help them understand better. Face to face lectures, including
discussions based on examples that are intended to help students well understand will be
encouraged through intensive exercises based on the four skills.

8. Assessment Strategy

Learning outcomes will be evaluated gradually after each unit. An examination of 2 hours
duration will be prepared, and everyone is expected to sit for it. Their assignments and
presentations by individual and in groups will be marked too.

9. Assessment Pattern
Component Weighting (%) Learning objectives covered

Assignments 30 1, 2, 3

Partial Assessment Test 30 1, 2, 3

Final Assessment: 40 1, 2, 3, 4

10. Strategy for feedback and student support during module

The final test or examinations, presentations on structural exercises and assignments will be
marked. Students’ marks will be registered and made available on the web site of ULK.
Students’ marks will be copied on the transcripts that will be available to students.

11. Indicative Resources/ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books:
BURDETT, S (1990). World of Language. Burdett& Ginn Inc: USA. COPPER,
S.(1996). Writer’s Solutions. Prentice Hall: New Jersey.

5
HORR, J. N. (2006). What is a debate? Mahul Ed., New York, USA.
KADEGHE, M. (2005). Communication Skills, theory and practice. Afroplus Industries ltd: Dar
es Salaam.

MURPHY, R. (2000). English Grammar in Use. OUP: London.

PHILLIPS, S. (2002). Business letter for powerful communication. Goodwill Publishing

House: Delhi.

SHIRLEY, H. J. (1985) . Houghton Mifflin English. Houghton

Mifflin Company: USA.

SASIKUMAR, V and DHAMIJA, P.V. (2004). Spoken English: A Self-Learning Guide to

Conversation [Link] McGraw Hill: New Delhi.

WEBB, B and GRANT, N(2010). English in Use. Pearson Education Limited: Edinburgh.

WREN, P. C. (2000). High School English Grammar Composition. Schand Company: New
Delhi.

Online sources [Link] Anglo-link’s

online learning.

[Link] Holmwood’s English Grammmar Training.

[Link] Anglo-link’s online learning.

[Link] Holmwood’s English Grammmar Training Brief
description of the course

This course stands as a module by itself. It covers 120 hours of which 84 are allotted to theory
and group class work. The remaining 36 hours shall be used for practical individual or team
work.

Objectives of the course

1. To provide and equip students with basic English grammatical notions;

2. To equip students with the four language skills : listening, speaking, writing and reading;
3. To enable students follow modular faculty courses in English.

6
CONTENTS
CONTENTS ...................................................................................................................................7

UNIT 0: INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE ..................9

0.1 Importance of English in our modern world ........................................................................9

0.2 How you can learn and master English .................................................................................9

UNIT 1: GREETINGS AND INTRODUCTION ......................................................................10

UNIT 2: FUNCTIONS IN ENGLISH ........................................................................................14

UNIT 3: INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SOUNDS .............................................................23

4.1 DEFINITION .........................................................................................................................36

4.2. CLASSIFICATION ..............................................................................................................36

UNIT 5: PRESENT SIMPLE AND PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSES ............................41

5.1 Present simple tense ...............................................................................................................41

5.2 Present continuous tense .......................................................................................................42

UNIT 6: PLURAL OF NOUNS ..................................................................................................47

UNIT 7: ARTICLES ....................................................................................................................51

UNIT 8: PAST SIMPLE AND PAST CONTINUOUS TENSES ............................................58

8.1 Past simple tense ....................................................................................................................58

8.2 Past continuous tense.............................................................................................................59

UNIT 9: PRESENT PERFECT AND PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSES .....61

UNIT 10: PRONOUNS................................................................................................................64

UNIT 11: PAST PERFECT AND PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSES ...................71

10.1 Past perfect ...........................................................................................................................71

10.2 Past perfect continuous tense..............................................................................................71

READING TEXT: MRS. GREEN CALLS AT THE BANK ...................................................73

7
UNIT 12: ADJECTIVES ............................................................................................................76

UNIT 13: FUTURE TENSES .....................................................................................................79

UNIT 14: DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES ...............................................84

UNIT 15: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE MODES ............................................................................90

UNIT 16: PREPOSITIONS ........................................................................................................94

UNIT 17: WRITING A FRIENDLY LETTER .......................................................................104

UNIT 18: INTRODUCTION TO DEBATING .......................................................................108

8
UNIT 0: INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

0.1 IMPORTANCE OF ENGLISH IN OUR MODERN WORLD

English is nowadays the main language of mass media, airports, international business,
conference, science and technology, diplomacy, to mention but a few.

Practically, thanks to English:

1. You can talk to lots of new people.

2. You can use it when you are travelling.
3. You can understand films, radio and T.V broadcasts.
4. You can get a job.
5. You can successfully study at university.
6. You can do your business all over the world.
7. You can understand more about the world by reading newspapers, watching/listening to
news on international televisions/radios.
8. You can carry out research.
9. Etc.

0.2 How you can learn and master English

Here are some tips which may help you to master the English language.

1. Speak without fear

The fastest way to learn English is to speak it without troubling yourself about what people might
say about your mistakes. Remember, we learn a language by making mistakes. Also, mistakes
and errors are a natural part of the learning process.

2. Use different sources

Studying English at school is not enough by itself. That is, do not limit yourself to that. Stick in
your mind that using as many different sources, methods and tools as possible will help you learn
fast.

3. Surround yourself with English

The absolute best way to learn English is to surround yourself with it. Take notes in English, put
English books around your room, set your phone in English, listen to English language radio
broadcasts, listen to English songs, watch English news, movies, television, get pen friends who
speak English natively, speak English with your friends whenever you can, etc.

4. Use English everyday

9
In actual fact, if you use English as often as possible you will consolidate your knowledge. Avail
every opportunity to practice speaking and/ writing English. Otherwise, you will hardly make
progress.

5. Study as often as possible

Studying things like grammar and vocabulary, and doing as many exercises as possible can help
you to get English in your head.

6. Record yourself for further improvement

Recording your own voice, from time to time, will help you improve your pronunciation.

7. Make English your passion

Become a person who likes to learn English. The more you are interested in a language, the
faster the learning. All in all, be motivated and see learning as something entertaining.

8. Get a good dictionary

The dictionary is the most important and significant language device. It provides information
about spelling, pronunciation, usage, etc. So, a dictionary will for sure help you improve your
English.

UNIT 1: GREETINGS AND INTRODUCTION

10
1.1 GREETINGS

To greet someone in a formal or friendly way, you can say:

Good morning
Good afternoon
Good evening
You can add to these names or words of address, as in:
Good morning, Sir/Madam Good
morning, Lecturer
Good morning, Mr. Peter

To greet someone in an informal or friendly way, you can say:

Hi! Hello!
How do you do!

If you meet a colleague you have not seen for some time, you can greet him/her by saying:
John, Good to see you (again)
It’s good to see you!
How nice to see you (again)
Very nice to meet you (again)

After greeting someone, the interaction may continue by asking how someone is. The
commonest way is by saying ‘How are you?’

You can also say:

- How are you doing?

- How’s life treating you?
- How’s life?
- In good shape, are you?
- How are you keeping?
- How are you getting on?
- How is it (going)?
- Are you all right/ okay/ fine?
- What’s news?
- How are things?
- How’s everything?

Informal ways of responding:

- (I’m) cool.
- Can’t complain.
- Can’t grumble.
11
 - (I’m) ok, thanks. - So-so.
- Fifty-fifty.
- Not so/too bad.
- Surviving, (thanks). - Still alive.
- Oh, (I’m) on the top of the world.

Formal ways of responding:

- (I’m) very well, thank you. - (I’m) fine, thank you.
- (I’m) all right, thank you.
- (I’m) quite well, thank you.

1.2 MAKING INTRODUCTIONS

(a) To introduce yourself, you can say:

- How do you do? My name’s Sylvain Nizeyimana.

- Excuse me, my name’s Abraham Mugiraneza. Oh! How do you do?
- Excuse me/ How do you do? I don’t think we’ve met before. My name’s Alice Umuhire

In other situations (speaking on the telephone), you can say:

- Hello! /Good morning/afternoon/evening. This is (your first name and surname)

speaking.
- Hello! /….. My name’s (first name and surname).
- Hello! /….. (Your first name and surname) calling.

(b) To introduce someone formally, you can say:

- Good morning, Mr. /Miss. ………! May I introduce Mr.………, our new representative.
He will be taking over from me in December.
- Let me introduce (our marketing manager), Miss. Linda Njoroge. - Allow me to
introduce (our director), Mr. John Murego.
- I’d like to introduce (our new BM), Mr. Fiacre Habimana.

In other situations (introducing a speaker, lecturer, etc.), you can say:

It is with great pleasure that I introduce to you Mr. Juvenal Nsengiyumva, your computer skills
lecturer.

(c) To introduce someone informally, you can say:

- Meet my friend, Peter. He’s a student from Greece.

-This is Peter, a student from Greece.

12
Point to remember

After two persons have been introduced to each other, they stretch out their right hands and shake
them saying:

‘How do you do’ or ‘Pleased/ Glad/ Nice to meet you’

CONTEXTUALISATION

MUHIZI: Kabayiza, this is Umulisa, my cousin from Rusizi.

KABAYIZA: Glad to meet you, Umulisa.

UMULISA: Glad to meet you, too.

WRITING AND SPEAKING PRACTICE

1. Play the following conversation. Mind your pronunciation and body language.

TOM: Umwali, may I introduce Mr. Mugabo to you? He has heard about you and is very eager
to meet you.

UMWALI: I’m delighted. How do you do?

MUGABO: How do you do?

UMWALI: What part of Rwanda do you come from, Mr. Mugabo?

MUGABO: From the Western province.

TOM: Umwali, Is this your first visit to Canada, Mr. Mugabo?

MUGABO: No, I usually come here on official business. This is my wife, Uwera. She has come
with me just to attend Rwanda Day function.

UMWALI: How do you do, Mrs. Mugabo?

UWERA: How do you do?

UMWALI: So, you want to attend Rwanda Day function for yourself?

UWERA: Yes.

UMWALI: By the way, how do you find Montreal?

UWERA: Oh, it’s a beautiful city!

TOM: Come, everybody, let’s have some tea now.

13
 2. a) In groups of three, write a dialogue whereby greetings and introductions are
contextualized.

NB: Be as imaginative and creative as possible.

b) After writing your dialogue, act it out before the rest of the class.

UNIT 2: FUNCTIONS IN ENGLISH

2.1 Ways of expressing gratitude You
can express gratitude by saying:

• Thank you ( a lot / very much/ so much) or Thanks ( a lot / very much/ so much)
This is the most usual way of saying thank you.

e.g. Thanks a lot for your help.

14
• Many thanks
This is a formal way of saying thank you, used especially when writing a letter.

e.g.: Many thanks for the lovely present you sent me.

• That’s very kind of you

A formal way of saying thank you, often used when declining an invitation.

e.g. That’s very kind of you Mrs Wilson, but I’m afraid we’ve already arranged to
have lunch in town.

• I’d like to thank you

Used when making a formal speech.

e.g. I’d like to thank my mother, my father and all those who have helped me over the
years.

• Thanks a bunch
Used ironically when someone has not helped you at all.

e.g. A : You could always join us later.

B : Yeah, thanks a bunch, just when all the food is finished.

• Cheers
A more informal way of saying thank you.

e.g. Cheers, mate ! I, too, will buy a drink next time.

• You’ve saved my life

An informal way of saying thank you, when someone has helped you in a
difficult situation.

e.g. Oh, thanks, John, you’ve saved my life! She was about to ask me for my
homework.

• I’m really grateful / I’ m very appreciative / I really appreciate.

Formal ways of saying thank you;

e.g. - I’m really grateful for all your help with the party.

- My uncle was sincerely appreciative of your support.

15
 - I really appreciate what you did for me.

How you can respond to an expression of gratitude

There are various ways you can use for responding to thanks, notably:

* You’re welcome * Come again * Don’t mention it.

* It’s my pleasure / The pleasure’s mine * Not at all.

* No problem

* Any time Friendly

* It’s ok

Example situation

Moses: Could you possibly lend me one of your pens?

Thiery: With pleasure. Here you are.

Moses: Thank you very much indeed.

Thiery: You’re very welcome.

2.2 Inviting and offering

2.2.1 Inviting

To invite someone, you can say:

Will you come and share?

Would you like to join us for dinner?

Please, come and share.

2.2.2 How to offer something

To offer something in an informal way, you can say, for example:

Do you want a cup of tea?

Fancy a cup of tea?

16
Just for you.

To offer something in a formal way, you can say, for example:

Would you like a cup of tea?

Would you care for a cup of tea?

Would you mind a cup of tea?

May I get you a cup of tea?

To accept/refuse an offer informally, you can say:

Yes, please/No, thanks.

Yes, why not/No, not at the moment. Thanks.

To accept/refuse an offer formally, you can say:

Yes, that would be lovely/No, I’m alright. Thank you.

Yes, I’d love one/ Thank you very much, but I’ve just had one.

2.3 Ways of asking and giving permission

2.3.1 Asking permission To ask

for permission, you can say:

• Can I……?
This is most usual and general way of asking permission.

e.g. Can I take your car to work tomorrow?

• May I …?
A more formal and polite way of asking permission.

e.g. May I use your phone?

Please, may I go out now?

• Is it ok if / Is it all right if / Would it be all right if / Do you mind if / Would you

mind if ….
Used for showing you do not want to interrupt or annoy someone.

17
 e.g. : - Would it be all right if I turned off the radio?

- Do you mind if I open the windows?

- Do you mind if I smoke?
- Would you mind if I sit by you?
- Is it all right if I stop now?

2.3.2 Giving permission

To give permission, you can say:

• You can
The most usual and general way of giving permission

e.g. You can take the big bag as well as if you like.

• You may
A more formal and polite way of giving permission

e.g. Guests may only use the dining room after 6.30 pm.

• I don’t see why not

Used when you cannot see any reason to prevent someone from doing
something.

e.g. Daughter : Could I stay the night at Mary’s?

Mother : I don’t see why not, so long as you’re home before lunch tomorrow.

• Of course you can

Used for showing that you are happy for someone to do something.

e.g. Speaker 1 : Can I bring my like inside ?

Speaker 2: Of course you can, there’s plenty of space.

• Go ahead
Used informally for making someone feel comfortable about doing something.

e.g. Speaker 1: May I take a bath?

Speaker 2: Sure, go right ahead. There’s plenty of hot water.

• Help yourself
Used informally, especially when talking about food or drink.

e.g. Speaker 1 : Is there any more bread?

18
 Speaker 2: Help yourself. It’s in the kitchen.

2.4 Ways of suggesting something

• How about ….? / What about….?

An informal way of suggesting something.

e.g. How about going to dinner tonight?

What about buying something to eat?

What about (having) a drink?

• Let’s …
An informal way of suggesting to the people you are with something that you
could do together.

e.g. Let’s go swimming!

• Why don’t/ we/you / they…?

A way of suggesting something when you are presenting a new idea that other
people have not thought of.

e.g. Why don’t you try phoning their office number instead ?

• May / can/ could I make a suggestion?

A way of suggesting something, often used when interrupting

people who are already discussing ( what to do)

e.g. Could I make a suggestion? Why don’t we put all the guests on the

first floor and them eve…… will be happy ? AND THEN ....

• May / can I suggest

A way of suggesting something, especially when you are not completely sure

if it is a good idea.

e.g. Perhaps we could ask Jeffrey’s father if he has a tend he could lend us.

2. 5 Ways of asking for favours making a request

• Would you mind …. / Do you mind ….?

e.g. Would you mind typing this letter for me?

Do you mind lending me your car?

• I wonder if ….?
19
e.g. I wonder if you don’t mind giving me Alice’s address.

• Will you….?
e.g.: Will you pass me the salt, please?

• Can/ could you….?

e.g. Can you give me a lift?

Could you possibly lend me your English dictionary?

Agreeing to a do a favour

The formal ways of agreeing to do a favour are:

With pleasure

It’s no trouble at all.

Refusing to do a favour

The formal ways of refusing to do a favour are:

No, I’ m afraid not, because…

I would have liked to help, but I’m afraid I can’t.

2.6 Ways of apologizing

• I’m sorry
The usual way of apologizing to someone you know well.

e.g. I’m sorry, I’m late. I missed the bus.

I’m sorry, I didn’t quite well hear what you said.

• I (do) apologize for …

A more polite and formal way of apologizing, used especially when you feel responsible
for something that someone else has done.

e.g. I do apologize for Julie’s behaviour. She’s normally so reliable.

• I owe you an apology

Used when you realize you have treated someone badly, for example by blaming them

for something that is not their fault.

20
 e.g. We’ve discovered who the thief was and it seems we owe you an apology.

• Please accept my / our apologies

Used when making a written or formal apology

e.g. We accept that this was the company’s fault and ask you to accept our sincere
apologies

• Excuse me
Used when apologizing for something you did by accident.

e.g. Oh, excuse me, I didn’t see you standing there.

• I beg your pardon

Used for saying you are sorry because you have made a slight mistake.

e.g. Oh, I beg your pardon, I didn’t realize this way your chair. WAS

• I / we regret …
Used when making an apology an official an official announcement.

e.g. We regret to announce that tonight’s performance of « La Traviata» has been

cancelled.

Responses to apologies:

- That’s ok.
- No worries.
- Please, don’t worry. - Never mind.
- That’s quite all right. - No need to apologise
- It doesn’t matter at all.

SPEAKING PRACTICE

What would you say in the following situations?

1. After someone has done you a favour.
2. When you want to use your neighbour’s phone.
3. After someone has said to you, ‘I do appreciate what you’ve done for me’.
4. An esteemed customer enters your shop and stands in front of the counter.
5. After you have offended someone.
6. Asking your boss to lend you some money.
7. Your friend and you are hungry, and you come across a restaurant.
8. Your lecturer says to you, ‘You’re late for class again!’

21
9. Your guests and you are watching TV, and you feel like smoking.
10. Your friend invites you to dinner, yet you can’t make it because you’ve arranged to share
with somebody else.
11. You are hosting special people, and you want to offer them a cold drink.
12. It is lunch time, the table is set, and you want your neighbour to join you.
13. You want X or Y employee to give you his/her employer’s contact.
14. You are attending a meeting, and you decide to interrupt the chairperson to make a
suggestion.
15. You are having lunch, and you want the person sitting next to you to pass you the salt.
16. After someone has said to you, “I’m sorry”.
17. After someone has said “thank you” to you.
18. Someone asks you for a favour, yet you can’t make it.

22
UNIT 3: INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH SOUNDS

I. VOWEL SOUNDS
0.1 Single vowel sounds( Short and long)

Symbols Examples

ɑ: Car, bar, far, heart, cart, father, mars

ɔ: Ball, wall, walk, war, short

¡: Read, meet, people, weed

u: Shoe, food, moon, June

e Bell, bed, men

æ Hat, bag, hand, cat, man

Ʌ Bus, but, mother, blood, flood

ɒ Dog, what, not, God, nod

ɪ Pig, sit, pit, dig

ᶸ Book, wood, good, put

ɜ: Skirt, first, shirt, thirsty, purpose, journey,

work, word, world

ə Teacher, father, again, alive

23
Below is a synopsis chart of the English vowels

Synopsis chart interpretation

The picture shows a synopsis chart of English vowels (often called the vowel quadrilateral). It is
a visual map of how vowel sounds are produced in the mouth.

1) What the shape represents

The diagram represents the position of the tongue and lips when pronouncing vowels.

Top → bottom: how open the mouth is

Top = close/high vowels

Middle = mid vowels

Bottom = open/low vowels

Left → right: where the tongue is placed

Left = front of the mouth (front vowels)

Centre = central vowels

Right = back of the mouth (back vowels)

2) Front vowels (left side)

These are produced with the tongue pushed forward.

/iː/ – as in see

24
/ɪ/ – as in sit

/e/ – as in bed

/æ/ – as in cat

/a/ – open front sound

3) Central vowels (middle area)

The tongue is in the centre of the mouth.

/ʌ/ – as in cup

/ə/ (schwa) – as in about

/ɜː/ – as in bird

/aː/ – as in father (depending on accent)

4) Back vowels (right side)

The tongue moves toward the back; lips may be rounded.

/uː/ – as in food

/ʊ/ – as in book

/ɔː/ – as in law

/ɒ/ – as in hot

/ɑː/ – as in car

5) Lip rounding

Back vowels often involve rounded lips (u, ʊ, ɔː), while front vowels usually have spread lips (iː,
ɪ, e).

6) Purpose of the chart

The chart helps learners:

See relationships among vowel sounds

Understand how pronunciation changes with tongue height and position

Distinguish similar sounds (e.g., /iː/ vs /ɪ/, /uː/ vs /ʊ/)

Improve phonetics and speaking accuracy

7) Key idea to remember

25
Every vowel sound is defined by three things:

Tongue height (close–mid–open)

Tongue position (front–central–back)

Lip shape (rounded or spread)

This diagram is therefore a map of English vowel pronunciation inside the mouth, not spelling.

1.1 Double vowel sounds( Diphthongs)

eɪ Rain, take, main, fake

aɪ Kite, kind, mine, shine, tidy, fine, eye

ɔɪ Boy, toy, employ, oil

ɪə Here, hear, fear, gear, senior

eə Chair, air, heir, where, there

au Cow, how, house, trousers, mouse

uə Poor, tourist, sure, pure

əu Go, so, goat, coat

II. CONSONANT SOUNDS

Symbols Examples

p Person, poverty, prayer, paper

b Born, boom, brave, big, brown

t Tell, television, tent

d Desk, day, daddy, dove

k Care, cook, kettle, cry

g Ignore, gossip, glass, jag

s Sister, six, suit, save

26
z Zebra, observe, scissors, possess

f Finish, philosophy, five, laugh

v Very, venue, vowel

m Mother, bomb, made, move

n Nose, night, know, snow

ƞ King, morning, sing, slang

θ Both, mouth, south, teeth

ð Brother, that, then, breathe

ʃ Shirt, fish, shake, shout

ʒ Pleasure, measure

h Hotel, hot, home, hello

ʧ Church, check, teacher, fetch

ʤ John, June, jail, Japan

r Red, right, rape, room

l Light, lion, listen, lose, less

ј Yes, yellow, you, yield, yawn

w One, wow, when, waste, worst

SOUNDS OFTEN CONFUSED

(1) [ θ ] and [ f ] or [ s ]

Do not say f or s instead of θ .

e.g. Do not say free for three, or pass for path.

The following instruction will help you if you have trouble with the sound th[θ ] :

Put your tongue between your teeth (i.e upper and lower teeth) so that the tip of it can actually
be seen.

27
 (2) [ð] and [d] or [v] or [z]

Do not say d, v or z instead of ð.

The sound th[ð] is made exactly in the same way as th[θ]

(3) [l] and [r]

Do not say l instead of r or conversely.

You will at once see the difference between l and r if you try to sing them:

lllllllllllllllllll, rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr, llllllllllllllllllllll, rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr

When you sing l the tip of your tongue stays still, touching the roof of your mouth just behind
your top teeth and your voice sounds smooth and clear

When you sing r the tip of your tongue vibrates and your voice sounds rather rough.

PRONUNCIATION PRACTICE

[ aɪ ] and [ ɔɪ ]

1) I’ve never seen that KIND of COIN 2)

She didn’t ENJOY the FIGHT.

3) What does this BOY want to BUY? 4) Your sister

has an APPOINTMENT with MINE
5) That NOISE isn’t NICE.
6) The PILOT needs some OIL.
7) I heard his VOICE TWICE.
8) I think ROY is RIGHT.
9) The policeman POINTED at my BIKE

10) Why did you ROIL the WINE?

[ au ] and [ ɔɪ ]

1) What do you know ABOUT that BOY?

28
 2) You can find that kind of TOY in TOWN.
3) I only know he’s a COW BOY.
4) HOW could the COW eat a COIN?
5) The ANNOUNCER looked ANNOYED.
6) He POINTED at the POUND-note.
7) BOY took a look AROUND.
8) An OWL doesn’t like OIL.
9) NOW, stop that NOISE!
10) I hear a VOICE in the HOUSE.

[ θ] and [ t ]

1) I THOUGHT I had already TAUGHT that.

2) The metal of this TIN is very THIN.
3) His TENT is the TENTH on the left.
4) BOTH fishermen have BOUGHT a new BOAT.
5) Who on EARTH has HURT you?
6) POINTING at SOMETHING is very impolite.
7) There’re THREE TREES is front of my house.
8) Where on EARTH is BURT?
9) Where’s Mrs. THATCHER? We’d like to ATTACH her. 10) Is it TRUE that you
THREW the fruit THROUGH the window?
[ʤ] and [ʧ]

[Link] JEEP wasn’t CHEAP.

2. I last saw MARGE in MARCH.
[Link] priest is in CHARGE of the CHURCH
4. Her MAJESTY attended the MATCH.
[Link]’s chewing CHALK with his JAWS.
6. JACK didn’t CHECK the plans.
[Link]’ll buy a LARGE house in MARCH.
8. His FUTURE wife is GERMAN.
9.I got a REGISTERED letter from ROCHESTER.
[ θ] and [f]

1. The three thieves are free

2. She pointed at the thing with her finger.

29
 3. He threw the fruit through the window.

4. He fought better than I thought.

5. The first boy was very thirsty.

[ð] and [d]

1. They must meet today. 2.

This is the new disk 3. Is

that the date you choose?

4. Everything is dear over there.

5. Dan is stronger than Tom.

6. Dare you go there ?

7. My brother wants some bread.

8. I’d rather listen to the radio.

[r] and [l]

1) I can’t WRITE without LIGHT.

2) There’s a LIGHT on you RIGHT.
3) He had LAIN in the RAIN for hours.
4) The CROWD looked up at the CLOUD.
5) Pick up that GLASS in the GRASS.
6) You’re WRONG: it won’t be LONG.
7) BERRY’s got a big BELLY
8) You must be WRONG : it doesn’t BELONG to him 9) He took his wife’s LIFE with a
RIFLE.

10) The teacher COLLECTED the CORRECTED paper.

30
SILENT LETTERS IN ENGLISH

1. Silent B

B is not pronounced when following an M at the end of the word.

e.g: climb, lamb, comb, bomb B is

also silent when followed by a T.

e.g: Debt, doubt, subtle

2. Silent C

C is not pronounced when following an S at the beginning of a word and followed by E or I. e.g:

Scent, scissors, science

C is also not pronounced in the ending scle.

e.g: Muscle

3. Silent K

K is not pronounced when followed by an N at the beginning of a word.

e.g: Knife, Knowledge, knee, knock

4. Silent L

L is usually not pronounced before D, F, M, K

e.g: Should, half, calm, walk

5. Silent N

N is not pronounced when following M at the end of a word.

e.g: Column, autumn, hymn

6. Silent D

D is not pronounced in such words as: Wednesday, sandwich, handkerchief.

EXERCISES

1. How many pure vowels are there in English? Name them and find an example for each

31
2. Read the underlined sounds in each word here below

a) Courage, court, shirt, dirty, hurt, shy fine fly, get, gecko, stay, wonder, doctor, father,
mother, help, weigh, one, won, etc

b) Lord, mortar, pestle, castle, mayor, fire, higher, flour, floor, serious, be, better, none,
either, neither, exam, question, etc

3. Write five words that contain each of the following sounds a) [ð]:

b) [ʤ]:

c) [ʧ]:

d) [au]:

e) [ɔɪ]:

f) [ei]:

4. Repeat these words after the lecturer

a) Heal, heel; see, sea; won, one; eight, ate; nose, knows

b) Hare, hair; hi, high; sell, cell; be, bee; two, too; die, dye; I, eye

c) shy, try, fry, cry, pay, say, day

d) Bridge, Jesus, geography, Jamaica, Jew

e) Them, then, although, thatch, with, without

f) Thunder, thorn, thumb, thick, thirty, three

g) Hour, sour, plow, how, mouse, louse, bounce

h) I see near the sea three trees

i) A poor man has poured the flour on the floor for four hours

j) Where’s the man I wanted Mary to marry?

READING PRACTICE

32
I remember the day I called my mother on the telephone; I told her that I was getting married. I
could hear her voice on the other side of the telephone, she was smiling and she asked me a
question that I proudly answered. She said, “Son, did you take time to know her?” I said, “she is
the best all over the world”.

CONNECTED SPEECH

1) What Is Connected Speech?

Connected speech refers to the way sounds change when words are spoken naturally and fluently
in continuous speech. In real-life communication, words are not pronounced separately; they are
linked together, and sounds may change, disappear, or be added.

Example:

 Careful speech: “I want to go.”

 Natural speech: “I wanna go.”

2) Main Features of Connected Speech

A) Linking

Linking happens when the final sound of one word connects to the first sound of the next word.

i) Consonant to Vowel Linking

When a word ends in a consonant and the next word begins with a vowel.

Examples:

 Turn off → Tur-noff

 Pick it up → Pi-ckit-up
 Sit down → sounds smooth and connected

ii) Vowel to Vowel Linking

When one word ends in a vowel and the next begins with a vowel, a small /j/ or /w/ sound is often
added.

Examples:

 Go on → Go-won
 I agree → I-yagree
 See it → See-yit

33
B) Elision

Elision is when a sound is omitted (not pronounced) in fast speech.

Examples:

 Next day → Nex day (/t/ is dropped)

 Friendship → Frenship (/d/ is dropped)
 Facts → often sounds like Faks

C) Assimilation

Assimilation happens when a sound changes to become more like a nearby sound.

Examples:

 Good boy → Gub boy (/d/ changes to /b/ sound influence)

 Ten bikes → Tem bikes
 Don’t you → Don’tcha

D) Contractions

Shortened forms of words commonly used in spoken English.

Examples:

 I am → I’m
 She is → She’s
 They have → They’ve
 Will not → Won’t

E) Weak Forms

Some common words (like prepositions, articles, auxiliary verbs) are pronounced weakly in
connected speech.

Examples:

 I can go → “can” sounds like /kən/

 For me → “for” sounds like /fə/
 Of course → “of” sounds like /əv/

F) Intrusion

An extra sound is added between two vowel sounds for easier pronunciation.

Examples:

 Law and order → Law-r-and order

34
  Idea of it → Idea-r-of it
 Go away → Go-w-away

3) Why Connected Speech Is Important

 Makes speech sound natural and fluent

 Improves listening comprehension
 Helps learners understand native speakers
 Increases speaking confidence

4) Full Sentence Examples

1. What do you want to do?

→ Whaddaya wanna do?
2. Did you eat yet?
→ Didja eat yet?
3. I have to go.
→ I hafta go.
4. Let me help you.
→ Lemme help you.

5) Summary

Connected speech includes:

 Linking
 Elision
 Assimilation
 Contractions
 Weak forms
 Intrusion

It explains why spoken English sounds different from written English.

35
UNIT 4: VERBS CATEGORIZATION

4.1 DEFINITION
Verbs are a class of words used to show the performance of an action (e.g. do, throw, run, teach,
eat,…), existence (be), possession (e.g. have, possess, own,…), state (e.g. be, seem, look,...) of a
subject.

4.2. CLASSIFICATION
Verbs are classified into two categories:

• Helping/Auxiliary verbs
• Main/ ordinary verbs
Let us look at each category in turn.

1. Helping verbs

These are classified into two categories that are: Primary helping verbs and modal auxiliary

verbs. a. Primary auxiliary verbs

These are the verbs to be, to do and to have. They are used in forming tenses, moods and voices
of other verbs.

Be

The verb “to be” is used as an auxiliary or helping verb with –ing form of the main verb to form
the continuous tenses, as in:

- The students are taking notes.

- Tom and his wife are having lunch abroad now. - They were watching television.

It is also used as an auxiliary verb with the past participle of the main verb to form the passive
voice, as in:

- Beans are grown in this region.

- These toys are manufactured in Chine.
- I am assisted by this lady.
36
Have

The verb “to have” is used as an auxiliary verb along with the past participle of the main verb to
form the perfect tenses, as in:

- Have you finished your assignment?

- She had realized her mistakes.
- The train has just arrived. - He has come to see you.

Do

The verb “to do” is used as an auxiliary verb along with the main verb to make negative
sentences, to ask questions, to show emphasis and to stand for a main verb in some
constructions, as in:

- I do like oranges.
- Do you know Charles Murigande?
- I do love you.
- John works faster than I do.
- Play as I do.
- I love you more than Peter does.

Point to remember

The verbs “to be”, “to have” and “to do” can also be used as main or ordinary verbs. Consider
these examples:

- I have two brothers and sisters.

- John is a good teacher.
- What are you doing now?

b. Modal helping verbs

These are a type of auxiliary verbs that help the main verb to express a range of meanings
including, for example, such meanings as possibility, probability, wants, wishes, necessity,
permission, suggestion, etc. the main modal verbs are: can, could, may, might, will, would,
shall, should, must and ought to.

Here are some illustrative sentences:

37
 - I can drive a car (Ability)
- The sky is dark and cloudy. So, it may rain tonight (Possibility)
- Sir, may I go now? (Permission)
- You ought to work hard (Necessity)

Point to remember

Modal helping verbs have only one form. They do not take an ‘s’ in the third person singular, no
infinitive and no participle.

2. Main verbs/lexical verbs

The main verb expresses the main action or state of being of the subject in the sentences and
change form according to the subject (singular, plural, 1stperson, 2ndperson, 3rdperson).

Main verbs, unlike helping verbs, have meanings on their own. There are thousands of main
verbs, and we can classify them in several ways:

(a) Transitive and intransitive verbs

A transitive takes a direct object (as in: The hunter killed a lion), whereas an intransitive verb
does not (as in: He died).

(b) Linking or copular verbs

A linking verb links the subject to its complement, i.e. what is said about the subject, as in:

Mary is a nurse. (Mary = Nurse)

That sounds interesting.

They are growing weaker.

Things have gone bad.

The sky became dark.

(c) Dynamic and stative verbs

While a dynamic verb describes an action (eat, teach, write,…), a stative verb describes a state, a
situation ( e.g. appear, know, love, want, have, smell,…).

(d) Regular and irregular verbs

38
The only difference between regular and irregular verbs is that they have different endings for
their past participle forms.

For regular verbs, the past tense ending and past participle ending is always the same: -ed, as in:
looked, played, worked,

For irregular verbs, the past tense ending and the past participle ending is variable. So it is
necessary to learn them by heart. For example:

Buy, bought, bought

Cut, cut, cut

Do, did, done

PRACTICE EXERCISE

1) Turn the following statements into question

a) Joseph graduated from ULK last year.

b) They do their assignments every morning.

c) I am your friend.

d) We have lunch at 12.00 O’ clock.

e) We have had dinner.

f) He can speak five languages.

g) You will probably travel to Huye next week.

h) Jane is singing a nice song.

2) Re-write the following into negative form

a) John is a hardworking person.

b) We attended the meeting.

c) He lives nearby.

39
 d) They swim in the lake every day.

e) I was born to serve.

f) Peter cut his finger while peeling potatoes.

g) I used to wear glasses when I was young.

1. Complete the table below

Infinitive Simple past Past participle

Hear

Go

Speak

Do

Be

Think

Teach

Preach

Hope

40
UNIT 5: PRESENT SIMPLE AND PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSES
5.1 PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE
The present simple tense is mainly used:

To express a habitual action, as in:

• I drink tea every morning, before going to work.

• Peter gets up every day at five o’clock.
• My watch keeps good time.
• I always listen to news on the BBC.
To express general truths/facts ( situations that do not change); as in:

• The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

• Water boils at 1000c.
• The earth revolves around the sun.
• Jill never eats breakfast.
To express a fact that exists at the time of speaking as in:

Sugar costs Rwf 700 a kilo.

To talk about events actually going on (as in running commentary), as:

John takes the ball, passes it to Peter, Claude intercepts, turns left, shoots and scores.

To talk about past event in a vivid or dramatic manner ( historical present), as

in:

The Tortoise takes an axe, parts it in the path leading to the forest, hides in the bush and
waits for the seven girls to pass by.

To talk about a planned action in the near future, as in:

• The match starts at 3:00 p.m.

41
 • I leave for Kigali tomorrow early morning.

5.2 PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

This tense is used:

For an action going on at the moment of speaking as:

• Peter is teaching (now).

• The weather is getting colder.
• We are learning English.
For an action in progress but not necessarily at the moment of speaking, as:

• I am writing a book. (but I am not writing at this moment).

• John is building a house in Kigali city.
• Town is writing a dissertation.
For an action (especially fixed personal arrangements) that has already been
arranged to take place in the near future, as:

• H.E Paul Kagame is visiting Gisenyi town tomorrow.

• Uncle Bernand is leaving for Kenya next week.
• Marry and Peter are wedding on Friday.
With always, continually, constantly, regularly,……to express a repeated action that
is irritating to the speaker, as:

• Umwali is always crying.

• My grandmother is always complaining.
• These kids are constantly quarrelling Note :

A number of verbs are not normally used in the progressive form (i.e. pres. Cont. tense…)

1. Verbs of perception: see, hear, smell, recognize, taste, notice,…

2. Verbs expressing feelings or states of mind: want, desire, refuse, wish, forgive, care, hate,
like, love, admire, feel, hope, prefer,…
3. Verbs of thinking: think, suppose, believe, agree, consider, trust, remember, forget, know,
under stand, imagine, mean, mind, …

42
 4. Verbs denoting possession : have, own, owe, belong, possess,…
5. Verbs such as : contain, consist, keep, cost, seem, …

Note, however, that some of the verbs listed above can be used in the progressive form,
but with a change of meaning.

So, you can say, for example:

1. I am having lunch ( I am eating lunch).

Here, the verb ‘have’ does not mean ‘possess own’, as in : I have a car.

2. I am thinking about it ( My mind is working at that moment).

Here, the verb ‘think’ does not mean ‘It is my opinion’ as in:

I think John is right.

3. He is seeing to his bicycle ( He is attending to his bicycle).

Here, the verb ‘see’ does not mean ‘notice’ with yes’, as in: I can see the teacher.

4. They are looking at the teacher.( They are directing their eyes towards the teacher).

Here, the verb, ‘look’ does not mean the expression of face / eyes, as in:

• Alice looks sad.

• He looks like a policeman.

EXERCISES

Write the verbs in brackets in present continuous

1. The students (to draw: affirmative) a nice picture on the board.
2. We (do: interrogative) exercises of English.
3. Children (play: affirmative) football in front of their house.
4. The book Nshuti (read: negative) is not interesting.
5. Stop making noise I (try: affirmative) to concentrate.
6. It (rain: negative) anymore; we can go out.
7. John still (wait: interrogative) for me.
43
 8. My mother (watch: affirmative) TV.

Write the verbs in brackets in the present simple

1. Mary always (go) to church on Sundays.
2. Can you tell me where he (live).
3. John and Peter (be) good friends.
4. They (not know) the name of their lecturer.
5. These boys (swim: interrogative) like a fish.
6. I (have) a lot of books on my shelf.
7. Tom (be) a good driver.
8. They (have: negative) much money.

READING ACTIVITY

Read the following passage and then answer the questions set on it

BANKING ADVICE

Banks do two things for us. First they keep our money safe so that we can take out just what we
need. Second, we can borrow money from the banks to buy essential things, may be a house or a
tractor.

When you want to open an account, you visit a bank. A bank teller shows you how to fill in
forms, giving all your personal details; where you live, where you work and so on.

You can put some money into your account. The bank will give you a cheque book and a bank
card. If you look at this card carefully, you will see that it has a special number, your name, a
place for your signature and a bright shiny square. This square is called a microchip. It prevents
fraud, that is, other people trying to steal your money by using your card.

When you want to withdraw your money, you put your card in the Automatic Teller Machine or
ATM and key in your secret number and the amount of money you wish to withdraw. The
machine reads the chip and then cash comes out through a special drawer. It is always the exact
amount you key in. These machines work 24 hours a day. If someone steals your card, they
cannot use it in ATM unless they know your secret, personal identification number or PIN.

44
You can now pay things without going to the bank or using an ATM. You can use your cheque
book or credit card in shops to buy clothes. Most shopkeepers ask to see your identity card as
proof that you are the true owner of the credit card. Your salary can be paid automatically into
your bank account. You receive the statement from the bank every month. This shows you how
much money you have and how much money you have withdrawn. You can also arrange to
borrow money from the bank as a loan. You must agree to repay the loan every week or every
month until all the money you owe is repaid. You also pay interests on the money you borrow.
Gradually, the loan becomes smaller and smaller.

Most banks believe they are giving a valuable service to their customers. But some of the

customers think that the banks are out to make too much profit. A. Now answer the following

questions:

1) What services do banks provide for their customers?

2) What information should you provide to open an account?

3) Why do bank cards have microchip on them?

4) Why is it impossible to use another person’s card?

5) Name two things that banks charge for

6) What should you receive a statement every month?

B. Fill in the blanks using these words: signature, statement, teller, account, safe, microchip,
credit card, overdraft, repay, interest, ATM, customer.

a) I wanted to use the bank, so I opened an…………..

b) I wanted to borrow money from the bank, so I arranged an……………

c) Shema must pay………..on the money he borrows from the bank.

d) The bank has a spacemen of his …………so that nobody can sign his cheques.

e) Shema must…………the loan in six months.

f) When Shema visits the bank, he is usually served by a…………….

45
g) Every evening the staff put all the money in a huge…………

h) Shema can withdraw cash from an……………any time of the day.

i) Shema gets a ………………every month to show how much money he has and how
much he has withdrawn.

j) “Mr John does not have an account in this bank,” said the bank manager. “ He is not
our…….”

k) The bright shiny square on a bank card is known as a…………. C. Provide the

meanings of the following expressions/ phrases:

a. A current account

b. A savings account

c. A paying-in slip

d. To honor a cheque

e. To bounce a cheque

f. To be overdrawn

g. To cash a cheque

46
UNIT 6: PLURAL OF NOUNS
(1) The plural of nouns is generally formed by adding –s to the singular as in:

Peter is a good boy.

Peter and Paul are good boys’

(2) But nouns ending in –s, -ss, -sh, -ch, or –x form their plural by adding –es to the
singular, as in:

This is my boss.

These are our bosses.

Where is my tooth-brush?

Where are our tooth-brushes?

That church is nice.

Those churches are nice.

This is a bus.

These are buses.

(3) Most of verbs ending in –o also form the plural by adding –es to the singular, as in:

Please, give me a mango.

Please, give us mangoes.

Also: potato, buffalo, Negro, hero, volcano

Note that we can say:

Dynamo- dynamos

Piano- pianos

Photo- pianos

Radio- radios

Commando- commandos

Kimono- kimonos

47
Kilo- kilos

(4) Nouns ending in –y preceded by a consonant form their plural by changing –y into –I and
adding –es; as:

Baby- babies

Army- armies

Lady- ladies

Story- stories

City-cities

(5) Nouns ending in –f or –fe form their plural by changing –f or –fe into –v and adding –es;
as:

Thief- thieves

Loaf- loaves

Leaf- leaves

Wolf- wolves

Shelf- shelves

Wife- wives

Calf- calves

Some nouns, however, ending in -f or –fe add –s; as:

Chief- chiefs

Proof- proofs

Handkerchief- handkerchiefs

(6) A few nouns form their plural by changing the inside vowel of the singular. Examples of
such words include:

Man- men

Woman- women

Foot- feet

Goose- geese

Mouse- mice

48
Louse- lice

Tooth- teeth

(7) There are a few nouns that form their plural by adding –en to the singular, for example:
Ox- oxen
Child- children
Brother- Brethren

Notes:

a) Some nouns have the singular and the plural alike, for example:

Sheep

Deer

Series

Species

b) Some nouns are used only in the plural, for example:

Scissors

Pincers

Spectacles/glasses

Trousers

Shorts

c) Some nouns look plural but are in fact singular, for example:

Mathematics

Economics

Physics

News

d) Abstract nouns have no plural. They are uncountables, for example:

Hope

Charity

Love

Kindness

49
 e) In compound nouns, the singular of the plural is put on the most important word, for
example:

Mother-in-law Mothers-in-law

Traffic jams Traffic jams

Night-club Night-clubs

Dining-room Dinning-rooms

f) Some pronouns and adjectives can also take the plural form He/she/it- they

I-we

He/she/ it- them

My-our

His/her/ its- their

Mine- ours

Hers/ his- theirs

This-these

That-these

EXERCISES

1) Rewrite the sentences below in the plural forms and make all possible changes. a).

I have a nice bag.

c). This boy does not know where she lives.

d). If you she likes it, she can buy it.

e). That is my child with a radio and a potato.

f). My tooth is broken, I have to take it to hospital.

g). My mother in law has a lot of money.

h). The man I saw was wearing a nice pair of trousers.

i). Do you still remember the dress and the glass I brought you on Monday?

j). The woman has met a sheep and a deer in the bush. 2)

Choose the right verb to go with the subject

50
a) This man (sings/sing) in my school’s choir.

b) His teeth (are/is) aching; he must go a dentist.

c) Those wives (need/needs) an urgent help from all of us.

d) Mathematics (is/ are) not easy for most students.

e) He told me that aesthetics (remain / remains) a course he always dreams of studying.

f) Oh, he brought the family the news that (was/were) truly expected.

g) The people here (thinks / think) on ways to improve their living conditions.

h) The crossroads (has / have) been decorated due to the coming event.

UNIT 7: ARTICLES
An article is a type of determiner that shows whether you are referring to a particular thing or to
a general example of something.

Articles are of two kinds: definite article (the), and indefinite article (a/an).

The form a is used before words that begin with a consonant sound, as in:

- Buy me a pen.
- I need a yellow dress.

The form an is used before words that begin with a vowel sound, an in:

- He offered me an apple.
- She is an educated woman.
51
Point to remember

Note that it is the sound of the initial letter that matters and not the spelling.

Thus a is used before words beginning with a u when they are pronounced with a y sound as
though it were a consonant, as in: a unit, a unique kind, a usual happening, a universal truth.
Similarly, you can say a European city.

The form an is also used, for example before words beginning with the letter h where this is not
pronounced, as in: an hour, an honest man.

Uses of the definite article

“The” is mainly used:

(1) to refer back to a person or thing that has already been mentioned, an in:
- The hunter looked up in a tree and saw a tiger. The tiger was ready to jump at
him. - For lunch I had a sandwich and an apple, but the sandwich was not
very nice.

(2) when it is clear which thing or person we mean.

For example, in a room we talk about the light, the floor, the ceiling, the door, the curtains,
the carpet, etc.

Example sentences:

- Can you turn on the light, please?(= the light in this room)
- Where is the toilet, please?(=the toilet in this building/house)
- I took a taxi to the station (= the station in this town)

(3)when we talk about a type of machine, an invention, musical instruments, as in:

- The computer has led to the loss of many jobs.

- The car is an excellent means of transport.
- Do you play the guitar?
- The piano is my favorite instrument.

(4) to indicate a person or thing to be the only one, as in:

- The sun,
- The Bible,
- The White House,
- The King of Spain,
- The President of Rwanda

(5) instead of a possessive determiner to refer to parts of the body, as in:

52
 - She took him by the arm.
- The dog bit her on the leg.

(6) in front of superlative adjectives, as in:

- It was the cheapest car we could find.

- She is the most beautiful woman of all.

(7)with some nationality adjectives when you mean ‘the people of that country’, as in:

The French are famous for their food. (= the French people)

Why do the English think they are so wonderful? (= the English people)

(8) with the names of newspapers, as in:

The New Times, The Washington Post, The Evening Standard,…

Omission of ‘the’

(1) We do not normally use ‘the’ with the names of meals:

What time is lunch?

We had dinner in a restaurant.

What did you have for breakfast?

Ann invited me for/to dinner.

But when there is an adjective before lunch, dinner,…, we use a, as in:

We had a very nice dinner.

(2) We do not use ‘the’ when we mean something in general, as in:

I love flowers. (= flowers in general, not a particular group of flowers)

I’m afraid of dogs.

Doctors are paid more than teachers.

Life is has become dear.

Crime is a problem in big cities.

(3) We do not use ‘the’ with hospital, prison, school, university, college, church when we
are thinking of the general idea of these places and what they are used for.
- Jack had an accident a few days ago. He had to go to hospital(= as a patient)
- After finishing my secondary studies, I will go to university. (= as a student)

53
 - The criminal has been taken to prison. (= to be jailed)
- I go to church every Saturday. (= to fellowship) But you can say:

- I went to the hospital to visit my sick mother.

- Mr. Ken went to the school to meet his daughter’s teacher. (= he didn’t go there as
a pupil)
- The workmen went to the church to repair the roof. (= they didn’t go to a religious
service)
- Ken went to the prison to visit his brother. (= he went as a visitor, not as a
prisoner)

(4) Similarly we do not use ‘the’ with work, bed, and home, as in:
- It’s time to go to bed. - Tom is still in bed.
- Are you going to work?
- Why isn’t Ann at work?
- Come on! Let’s go home.
- Will you be at home tomorrow?

(5) We do not use ‘the’ with names of continents, countries, cities, lakes,
streets/roads/squares, airports, shops, hotels, restaurants, banks, etc.

So, you can say:

Africa, Rwanda, London, Lake Victoria, Cromwell Road, Kennedy Airport, Serena Hotel,
Ecobank, ….

Point to remember

- Note that we say ‘the’ with names of countries and states including
‘republic’, ‘union’, ‘kingdom’, ‘states’, as in:

The Democratic Republic of Congo

The Soviet Union

The German Federal Republic

The United States of America

The United Kingdom

- We also use ‘the’ with plural names, as in:

54
The Netherlands

The Philippines

- We say ‘the’ before names of places, buildings, etc. with of, as in:

The Bank of Kigali

The Bank of England

The Tower of London
The House of Parliament
The Great Wall of China Uses

of the indefinite article We

use a/an:

(1) When the listener does not know which thing we mean, as in:

Tom sat down on a chair. (= we don’t know which chair)

Ann is looking for a job. (= not a particular job)

(2) When we say what someone /something is, as in:

Sylvain is a lecturer.
A dog is an animal.
What a lovely dress!
This is really a beautiful house.

Jack is a very nice person.

(3) We say once a week/ three times a month/ Rwf 10 a kilo, etc.
I go to the cinema twice a week.
These potatoes are Rwf 200 a kilo.
She works eight hours a day.

PRACTICE EXERCISE

COMPLETE WITH AN APPROPRIATE ARTICLE WHERE NECESSARY:

1. Where did you have…. lunch? Did you go to….restaurant?

2. Every term parents are invited to………school to meet the teachers.

3. Would you like…..apple?

55
4. Stella looks after…… patients in hospital. She is……nurse.

5. Excuse me, please. Can you tell me how to get to…..airport?

6. I saw …..accident this morning. ……car crushed into……tree. …..driver of…..car wasn’t
hurt but ……car was badly damaged.

7. Would you like to live in….town or in …….country?

8. Shall we meet after….work tomorrow evening?

9. …..giraffe is ….tallest of all animals.

10. We visited…..Canada and…..United States. FILL IN THE BLANKS WITH A OR AN

1. He sold me ……nice video of Romeo and Juliet.

2. The son of my friend has bought……..umbrella at John’s shop.

3. Last week I met……ugly man seated along the road asking for directions to the airport.

4. My brother’s sponsor is ………Uruguayan tycoon.

5. ………orange and……..mango are fruits that people like to eat here.

6. This is……..home for old people; it is not……house for anyone.

7. He drew……arm and ……….leg of ……human being.

8. ULK has………..beautiful digital library.

9. Rwanda is…….country of Africa that is developing wonderfully.

10. Manishimwe has a brother who is……..unpopular musician.

READING ACTIVITY: Read the following dialogue and then act it out.

BUYING A SHIRT

Shop assistant: Good afternoon, madam. What can I do for you?

Customer: Good afternoon, I’d like to look at some shirts.

Shop assistant: Cottons or synthetics madam?

Customer: Cottons.

56
Shop assistant: Over here, if you don’t mind. We have an excellent range of shirts in cotton.
These stripped ones are new arrivals.

Customer: I’d rather fancy those blue ones with red stripes.

Shop assistant: Well.

Customer: Could you take them out please?

Shop assistant: What’s the collar-size, madam?

Customer: Fifteen.

Shop assistant: Fifteen? Are you sure, madam?

Customer: Yes, I am.

Shop assistant: Here you are, madam.

Customer: How much is it?

Shop assistant: That’s twenty thousand Rwandan Francs, taxes inclusive. Would you like to try
it on?

Customer: Try it on? No. Could you gift-wrap it? You see, it’s a gift to my husband on his
birthday!

Shop assistant: I see! (Later) Here it is! I’ve stuck on it a little card saying “Happy Birthday!”

Customer: That’s very kind of you, young man. Bye!

Shop assistant: Good bye, madam.

SPEAKING ACTIVITY:

Discuss the importance of a good customer care in any business.

57
UNIT 8: PAST SIMPLE AND PAST CONTINUOUS TENSES
8.1 PAST SIMPLE TENSE

This tense is used:

To indirect an action completed at a particular time in the past. It often occurs

with adverbs or adverb phrases of past time (e.g. yesterday, last week, last month, a

week ago, …) , as :

• Ann left for Kenya yesterday.

• I received his letter a week ago.
• Ann left for Kenya yesterday.
• Why did she drop out of school?
• Did you meet him on your way to school this morning?
• I learnt English in Uganda.

To indicate an action in the past (which occurred during a period of time) which

is now ended, as:

• I taught English at Rwankeri Secondary school for one year.

• Peter worked for this company for 10 years.

58
8.2 PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
This tense is used:

For actions is progress at a certain time in the past, as in:

Speaker 1: What were you doing at 4 p.m. yesterday?

Speaker 2: I was walking home/I was watching television/ I was reading a very
interesting novel.

For an action in progress when another past action began, as in:

- We were having lunch when the telephone rang.

- The thief was looking in the cupboard when the door suddenly opened.
- While I was crossing the road I noticed a crowd in the distance.
- The engine failed when we were approaching the airport.
For two actions in progress at the same time in the past, as in:

- While I was preparing for my exam, John was playing cards.

- Tom was just watching television when we were driving back home.

PRACTICE EXERCISE

Put the verbs into the correct form, past continuous or past simple.

1) Jane ………….(wait) for me when I ………………(arrive).

2) “What …………………..(you/do) this time yesterday?” ‘I was asleep.’
3) “……………………….(you/go) out last night?” ‘No I was tired.’
4) “Was Carol at the party last night?” ‘Yes, she ………….(wear) really a nice dress.
5) How fast ………..(you/drive) when the accident……….….(happen)?
6) John …………..(take) a photograph of mine while I…………….(not/look).
7) We were in a very difficult position. We ……….(not/know) what to do.
8) I haven’t seen Alan for ages. When I last …………….(see) him, he …………………(try)
to find a job in London.

59
 9) I ……..(walk) along the street when suddenly I ……(hear) footsteps behind me.
10) Somebody ……………… (follow) me. I was frightened and I ……(start) to run.
11) When I was young, I ……………(want) to be a bus driver.

Pair work
Look at this example and practice with your partner: A.
I went to the bank this morning
B. What did you do there?
A. I deposited some cash and returned home.

B. What did you do at home?

A.I watched TV
B. What was on?
A. There were cartoons

READING ACTIVITY

GIVING DIRECTIONS

A: Excuse me. Could you tell me the way to the bus stop please?
B: Yes, sure. Go straight through the park. Take the first turning on the right. Turn left. The bus
stop will be on your right. A: Thank you. Have a nice day.

SPEAKING PRACTICE
Pair off with any classmate to write up a dialogue whereby individual A is asking for directions
and individual B is giving directions. Be as imaginative and creative as possible.
60
UNIT 9: PRESENT PERFECT AND PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSES
9.1 Present perfect tense

This tense is used:

For actions with no definite past time reference, as:

• I’ve been to Hong Kong.

• Have you ever been to Japan?
• Have you ever read « Gulliver’s Travels’?
For actions in the immediate past with just, as:

• I’ve just spoken to Mr. Smith. Peter has just left.

With never, ever, already, yet, so far,…., as:

• Have you ever been to America?

• I have already finished my homework.
61
 • They haven’t finished yet.

To denote a state or situation that began at some time in the past and continues up
to the present moment (often used with since-and for-phrases), as:

• I have known Peter for 4 years.

• He has been ill for a long time.
• I have not seen him since last year.

9.2 Present perfect continuous tense This

is used:

To indicate an action that began in the past and is still in progress.

e.g. The baby has been sleeping for 2 hours (and is still sleeping).

I have been working for this company since 2006.

Steve has been waiting for you for hours.

They have been building this bridge for several months.

To indicate an action that was in progress in the past and has just finished.

e.g. 1 A: Why are your hands so dirty?

B: I’ve been working in the garden.

2 A: Why are you out of breath?

B: Eeeh, I’ve been jogging.

3 A: But your clothes are all wet!

B: I’ve been watering the garden.

PRACTICE EXERCISE

Put the verb in the brackets in the suitable form, Present perfect or Present perfect
continuous.

9. You look tired. …………………………(you/work) hard?

10. ‘Jane is away on holiday.’ Oh, is she? Where ……………………(she/go)?
11. ‘Is it still raining?’ ‘No, it………………(stop).’

62
 12. I……………………………(read) the book you lent, so you can have it back now.
13. Maria ………………(learn) English for two years.
14. ‘Is Ann on holiday this week?’ No, She …………………..(work).’
15. I…………………(read) the book you lent me but I………………….(not/finish) it yet.

FILL IN THE BLANKS WITH FOR OR SINCE

1. We have been working on this exercise…………………….the morning.

2. All the children have gone home……………an hour.
3. …………………when has he gone to bed?
4. My books have been stolen…………you came here.
5. We have studied this course ……………a month.
6. I believe he has been at the bank……………7 morning.
7. ………how long have we met that guy?
8. We have been watching this movie…………………dad went out.
9. It has been raining…….a long period.
10. The monkey has climbed the tree………the dog barked.

READING ACTIVITY

AT THE BUS STOP

A: Good afternoon, do you know where the bus stop is?

B: Hello, the bus stop is down the street.

A: I’m new to the area; can you show me exactly where?

B: Sure, just go down two blocks and it’s on your left.

A: I have Rfrw 1500, will that be enough for the bus fare?

B: Yes, Rfrw 1500 is more than enogh to get you to your destination.

A: Where are you from?

B: I’m from Musanze, I’m here visiting family.

A: Oh that sounds lovely.

63
B: It is, I haven’t seen them for two years.

A: Oh, is it a surprise?

B: Yes, they don’t know I’m coming.

A: Wonderful! It was nice talking to you.

B: Thank you!

Questions on the dialogue:

1. Where do you go to get a bus to a different place?

2. What can you find at the bus station?

3. Do you know some bus stations in Rwanda? If yes, please mention some

UNIT 10: PRONOUNS

A. Definition and Role

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun or a noun phrase. It is, therefore, used instead
of a noun or noun phrase to prevent repetition.

e.g. The train was late, it had been delayed.

The President of the Republic of Rwanda visited Washington D.C., where he was warmly
welcomed….

In sentence 1, “it” is used instead of “the train” to avoid repetition.

Similarly, in sentence 2, “he” is used instead of “the President of the Republic of Rwanda” to
avoid repetition.

B. Kinds of pronouns

64
We can distinguish nine kinds of pronouns: personal pronouns, possessive pronouns,
reciprocal pronouns, reflexive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, relative pronouns,
distributive pronouns, indefinite pronouns, and interrogative pronouns.

(1) Personal pronouns

A personal pronoun is used to refer back to someone or something that has already been
mentioned.

The personal pronouns are divided into subject pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we& they), and
object pronouns (me, you, him, her, it, us, & them). Example sentences with subject and
object pronouns

Singular form:

- I have taught English in this university for seven years. Most of my students
appreciate me.
- You speak very fast. None of us can keep up with you.
- He works hard, that’s why his boss likes him. - She was not ready when I
went to pick her.
- It doesn’t work properly. Can help me repair it?

Plural form:

- We have taught in this university for seven years. Most of our students appreciate
us.
- You speak very fast. None of us can keep up with you.
- They work hard, that’s why their boss appreciates them. - They were not ready
when I went to pick them.
- They don’t work properly. Can help me repair them?

(2) Possessive pronouns

These are used to refer to a specific person/people or thing/things ( known as the antecedent)
belonging to a person/people, and sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or a thing/things.

Possessive pronouns are: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, and theirs.

Example sentences with possessive pronouns:

65
Singular form:

These are my books. They are really mine.

Don’t take this pen. Just use yours.

This is my pen, and not his.

John found his clothes, but Mary couldn’t find hers.

Plural form:

These are our books. They are really ours.

Don’t take these pens. Just use yours.

These are our pens, and not theirs.

John and Peter found their clothes, but Mary and Agnes couldn’t find theirs.

(3) Reciprocal pronouns

A reciprocal pronoun is used to convey the idea of reciprocity or a two-way relationship.

The reciprocal pronouns are: “each other” and “one another”.

Examples include:

We must try to help each other.

They don’t love each other.

Peter and David seem to hate each other.

The two families are always criticizing each other.

The members of the family blame one another for their mother’s death.

Look at those kids. They are beating each other.

(4) Reflexive pronouns

A reflective pronoun is a pronoun that ends in “-self” or “-selves” and refers back to a noun or
pronoun that has occurred in the same sentence.

66
The reflexive pronouns include: “myself”, “yourself”, “himself”, “herself”, “itself”,
“ourselves”, “yourselves”, and “themselves”.

Some example sentences:

This morning, I cut myself shaving.

The children washed themselves, and then went straight to bed.

Pay attention with that knife, else you will hurt yourself.

Karake has cured himself of his bad habit.

Point to remember

- Reflexive pronouns are sometimes used for emphasis, as in:

The headmaster himself punished the boys.

The movie itself was not interesting.

The mayor himself promised to support our club.

- Reflexive pronouns can also be used to indicate that something has

been done by someone by his/her own efforts without any help, as in: I did the
assignment myself. (i.e. nobody helped me do it) Eric built the house himself.

We convinced our boss ourselves.

- Reflexive pronouns can also indicate that someone or something is

alone, as in:

She lives by herself.

The house stands itself.

(5) Demonstrative pronouns

A demonstrative pronoun is used to show, indicate things or people in relationship to the speaker
or writer in place or time.

The demonstrative pronouns are: this, these, that, and those.

Example sentences:

I’d like to give you this.

67
What’s that?

These are interesting books.

Those are not his shoes.

(6) Relative pronouns

A relative pronoun is a pronoun used to introduce a relative clause. In other words, a relative
pronoun refers back to a noun or noun phrase (i.e. antecedent) in the main clause.

The main relative pronouns are: who, whom, whose, which and that.

Example sentences:

There is the man who stole my money.

She is the person to whom I gave the money.

This is the man whose wife won the prize.

They criticized the work which I had done.

That’s the house that I would like to buy.

That’s the boy that I wish to marry.

(7) Distributive pronouns

A distributive pronoun refers to individual members of a class or group. They include: each,
either, neither, none, everyone, no one.

Example sentences:

All of the men are to be considered for the new posts. Each is to send in his application.

All the students must obey the rules. Each is to wear the uniform.

All my four sons sat for a job test, but none passed it.

I saw two dresses, but neither of them was suitable.

The two books are very interesting. If I had money, I would buy either of them.

(8) Indefinite pronouns

68
These are used to refer to people or things without being specific as to exactly who or what they
are. They include: everyone, everybody, everything, anyone, anybody, someone, something,
and no one, nobody, nothing, as in:

Everyone is to make a contribution.

Anyone can enter.

Nobody cares about us.

Something will be done.

(9) Interrogative pronouns

These are pronouns used to ask a question, as in:

Who asked you to do that?

Who broke the vase?

What did they say?

What happened next?

Whose are those books?

Whose is that old car?
To whom was that remark addressed?
To whom did you talk to?
Which of my sons insulted you?

Practice exercise

Complete with the most suitable pronouns, as required by the context:

1. The wild monkey looked at………………..in the mirror.

2. We stay with our elder sister. She takes a good care of……….
3. Jack and John were happy to meet ……………..
4. Are you the man………….son won the prize?
5. …………..of these three books do you like most?
6. The trains were late, ……….had been delayed.
7. Paul and……..are good friends. We got to know each other in 1995.
8. I visited several towns, but………..of them was clean.

Replace the underlined word or groups of words with a personal pronoun

69
 1. Mary has gone to Byumba.
2. You and I are good friends.
3. I will speak to all the students in the afternoon.
4. The teachers have bought books and rulers.
5. Where did you put my bag?
6. Rwanda is a country.
7. Bakame, the Hare, wanted to meet all the animals in the bush.
8. There are five fingers on my hand.
9. Burundi and Uganda are some African countries.
10. This hen and that dove have the same colour.

READING TEXT: POLLUTION IS SPOILING THE AIR WE BREATHE

Pollution is hanging like a brown over the world. Dirt and smoke are pouring from cars and
factories. Pollution is spoiling the air we breathe, and it’s harming health. Our world has a big
problem these days. The cities have dirt air. The air smells bad, and it looks ugly. Pollution is a
health problem, too, because it’s hurting people’s lungs.

Take an example of a man who does not like the air because it is spoilt. He thinks the pollution is
dangerous, so he doesn’t breathe it. He is wearing a gas mask. He’s smelling a flower and it
smells good but he doesn’t know it. He is touching the flower with his mask, and the flower feels
soft, but he doesn’t know it.

70
He is listening to birds but he doesn’t hear any. He believes that the pollution is coming between
us and the beauty of nature. He is trying to show his ideas with the gas mask. He wants people to
work together now and to make the air cleaner.

TEXT EXPLOITATION

A. Find out the meaning of the following words:

Mask, pollution, dirty, ugly, lungs, to hurt, to spoil, to pour, to harm, and thereafter use
them into sentence construction.
B. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. What is hanging like a brown cloud over our world?
2. Where are the dirt and the smoke coming from?
3. What is pollution doing to our air and health?
4. What problem does our world have?
5. How does the air smell and look?
6. Why is pollution a health problem?

Discussion topic:
Importance of music

UNIT 11: PAST PERFECT AND PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSES

10.1 PAST PERFECT
This tense is mainly used to indicate an action in the past which happened before another
action in the past, as:

• When we arrived at the station, the bus had just left.

• I had completed my work when Aloys came to see me.
• Before he arrived, I had written the letter.

10.2 PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

This tense is mainly used to say how long something had been happening before
something else happened, as in:

71
 - When you paid me a visit in 2002, I had been studying at the NUR for 2 years.
- We had been watching the football match for 20 minutes when it began to rain.
Note also another use through these example sentences:

- Paul was out of breath. He had been running.

- The sun was shining, but the ground was very wet. It had been raining.

PRACTICE EXERCISES
1. Write the verbs in brackets in the past perfect tense
a. All the boys (to eat) the food before dad reached home.
b. When I showed him my book, he (to know) its title.
c. Before we went to university, we (to complete) secondary school.
d. Mary (to go) to sleep when it started raining.
e. After he (to die), the people knew the real causes of his death.
f. Keza (to marry) Byiza before she visited us.
2. Fill in the blank with when or before
a. ……..they offered us a present last year, we had been going to school.
b. You and I had been dancing in our dining room for an hour………….the cat came
in our house.
c. ………..the lecturer entered the class, all the students had been seated.

d. I had completed teaching my class ………… Matthieu came to tell me he missed

one assignment.
e. ……………he was born, his mother had married two men.
f. Dad and me went out…………………..it had rained cats and dogs.

3. In the sentences below, say which action comes before the other
a. He had gone to bed when it started raining.
b. Before cars were invented, people had been travelling by camels or on foot.
c. Mum cooked me food after she had seen me very hungry.
d. Rwanda had been independent before Kayibanda took power.
e. ULK had been operating in Kishangaa before it moved to Gisozi.
72
 f. My brother met me in my bedroom after he had been to the post office.
g. The students came to look for me when I was sitting in my office.
h. I danced before the music had been played.

READING TEXT: MRS. GREEN CALLS AT THE BANK

Mrs. Green: I’d like you to cash this cheque for fifty dollars for me, please. Bank
Manger: Have you an account with us?
Mrs. Green : Yes, my husband and I have a checking account. I also want to deposit these other
checks in our account at the same time.
Bank Manager: I see. Have you made out a deposit slip?
(Mrs. Green hands teller deposit slip with checks for deposit) I hope that I have made it out
correctly.
Bank Manager: It seems to me all right. How do you want this other check cashed?
Mrs. Green? Will five tens be all right?
Mrs. Green: That will be fine. (Accepts bills) I also want to ask you about starting a saving
account. My husband and I have been thinking of opening a small savings account in which we
could perhaps put aside a few dollars each week.
Bank Manager: The procedure is very simple. You can open a savings account at any time with
an initial deposit of five dollars or more. Five dollars is a minimum original deposit. After that
you deposit or withdraw money bas you wish. You bring you bankbook with you each time and
deposit or withdrawal is entered in your book. The amount carries interest of 21/2 %, and the
interest in you is added to your account every six months. That’s about all there is to it. If you’d
like to open an account, you can talk with the manager or with on of his assistants. They will be
glad to take care of you.

Mrs. Green: Thank you! I don’t believe we are quite ready just yet. However, I do want to speak
with someone about another matter. I received a notice a few days ago from the bank saying that
our check account was overdrawn. With whom should I speak about that?
Bank Manager:You can talk with the manager if you like. There he is, seated at that desk over
near the window. He seems to be free at the moment.
Mrs. Green: (Mrs. Green goes over to manager’s desk) how do you do! I am Mrs. Green. About
a month ago my husband and I opened a checking account here, and a few days ago I received a
notice from the bank saying that our account was overdrawn.
Bank Manager: (Manager, reaching for the telephone) just a minute, Mrs. Green. I’ll get the
record of your account. (Telephones, record of Mrs. Green’s account is brought to him) yes, your
account was overdrawn four dollars on the twenty-third of the month.
Mrs. Green: But you didn’t return the check to me.
Bank Manager: No, the overdraft was only four dollars so the bank honored the check. In such
cases we simply send the client a notice and assume that the will reimburse the bank for the
amount paid. Of course, if the amount is very large, the bank will return the check and refuse to
pay it. Apparently, you took care of the matter because your record shows that on the twenty-fifth
a deposit was made which easily covered the shortage.
73
 Mrs. Green :Then there is nothing further I have to do about it; is that correct?
Bank Manager: You will find a charge of two dollars on your next monthly statement, which
you will have to pay. That is a standard charge made by all banks in the case of an overdraft. But
otherwise everything has been taken care of. We just hope that in the future you won’t overdraw
you account.
Mrs. Green: I really can’t understand it. I kept a very careful record of my checks and the total
was much less than we deposited.
Bank Manager: But perhaps your husband also wrote some checks.
[Link]: It’s possible. I didn’t say anything to him about the account being overdrawn
because I was afraid he might be angry.
Bank Manager: [Link]: It’s a join account, Mrs. Green, and carries two signatures. That
means that either you or your husband can write checks against it.
[Link]: I don’t suppose it’s possible to have a join account where my husband would just
deposit money and I would write the checks.

Bank Manager: I’m afraid not.

[Link]: It might be a very good idea. You should think about it. Anyway, I’m dreadfully
sorry to have bothered you. It was very stupid of me.
Bank Manager: It was no bother at all. We are always glad to help you. Why don’t you take
one of our little booklets along with you? They describe the various services, which the bank
offers. We have a personal loan department, a savings department, and we sell traveler’s checks.
Perhaps some day you or your husband may wish to make a personal loan.
[Link]: I’m afraid that’s my husband’s department. He takes care of getting the money; I
just spend it. Anyway, my husband says that a bank is a place where they lend you money only
when you can prove that you don’t need it. Is that correct? Bank Manager: Not quite. But tell
your husband that we shall be glad to do business with him whenever he has need of our
services. [Link]: Thanks. I’ll do that. Good-bye.

1. QUESTIONS ABOUT THE CONVERSATION.

1. Where does this dialogue take place?
2. What persons take part in this dialogue?
3. What are the duties of the “teller” in a bank?
4. What is the procedure to be followed in a bank in making a deposit?
5. What is the difference between a checking account draw in bank today?
6. What interest do most savings accounts draw in bank today?
7. What charge, if any, do banks make for checking accounts?
8. What are some of the advantages of paying for purchases by check rather than a cash?

74
 9. What happens if a person has having a checking account overdraws his account?
10. What is meant by a “joint” account?
11. What are “travelers’ checks”?
12. What are some of the advantages, while traveling, of using travelers’ checks?
13. Since banks do not charge for many of the services they offer and since they pay interest
on all savings accounts, how do they make their profit?
14. What is the procedure to be followed in making a loan at a bank?
15. What interest do banks usually charge on loans?

WRITING ACTIVITY

The following conversation took place in a bank. Complete it (20 marks)

Customer: Good morning, Sir.

Counter Clerk:………………………………………………………………………

Customer: Can I cash a cheque, here?

Counter Clerk: What’s the amount? Let me see the cheque.

Customer:…………………………………………………………………………….

Counter Clerk: It’s less than one hundred thousand. Go to the teller’s counter right over there.
She’ll………………………………………………………….

Customer (at the teller’s

counter):…………………………………………………………………Please, be a little prompt,
will you? I…………………………………………………………………

Teller: All right, Madam. Give me the cheque.

Customer: Here you are. (After a minute) But

I………………………………………………………………….

Teller: Bear with me for some minutes, and I’ll give you the money.

Customer:……………………………………………………………………………………..

Teller: It’d take just two minutes. An entry has to be made.

Customer: Okay.

Teller ( After around two

minutes):………………………………………………………………………….
75
Customer: Thank you!

Teller:………………………………………………………………………………………….

Discussion topic: The power of English in our modern world

UNIT 12: ADJECTIVES

A. What is meant by the word adjective?
An adjective is a word that describes or gives information about a noun or pronoun. It is said to
qualify a noun or pronoun since it limits the word it describes in some way, by making it more
specific.

B. What do adjectives tell us about?

76
Adjectives tell us something about colour, size, shape, quality or classification, personality
trait of a noun or pronoun, as in:

- She bought white curtains.

- There are so many large houses in Kampala.
- This table is round.
- He served us delicious food.
- The Chinese culture differs from the Rwandan one. - He is happy.

Point to remember

Adjectives do not change their form. They remain the same whether the noun to which they refer
is singular or plural, or masculine or feminine.

C. Position of adjectives
(a) The adjective is placed immediately before the noun that it qualifies, as in:
She bought a red dress.
It was an enjoyable evening.
I like short novels.
She likes long and flowery letters.
He works long, hard hours.
She had a mean, old and overbearing step-mother.
Note, however, that you can say:
I want to see the students interested in the English Club.
All the people involved in the murder are to report to the police station.
The President elect is taking an oath tomorrow.

(b) After verbs like “to be”, “to seem”, “to look”, “to taste”, etc. Mary
is pretty.
You look tired.
It seems easy.
This meat tastes funny.

D. Formation of adjectives
- Many adjectives are formed from either the past participles of verbs, and so end in
–ed, or from the present participles and so end in –ing.

Examples of adjectives ending in –ed include: annoyed, blackened, jailed, damaged, developed,
coloured, guarded,….

Examples of adjectives ending in –ing include: amusing, interesting, horrifying, worrying,

satisfying, amazing,…

77
 - Several adjectives end in –cal and are formed by adding –cal to certain nouns
ending in –ic/ -ics

e.g. magical, musical, statistical,…

- Several adjectives end in –ic and are formed from nouns ending in –ics.

e.g. linguistic, economic, electronic, …

- Other common adjectival endings include –ful, -less, -y, -able, -ible, as in:

Beautiful, careful, dreadful, hateful, sorrowful

Careless, sunless, meaningless, hatless,

Rainy, sunny,

Acceptable, available, capable, desirable, understandable

Accessible, edible, compatible, comprehensible, feasible

PRACTICE EXERCISES

1. Rearrange these words so that you make a correct and meaningful sentence.

a. Dress/ bought/ she/ a/ new/ long/

b. Long/ likes/ child/ curtains/ that/ and/ beautiful/

c. Dry/ the/ works/ hours/ in/ season/ he/ long/

d. wooden /table/ American/ is/ an/ circular /this/

e. that/ I /believe/ are/ always/ people/ wise/ old

f. Intelligent/ brother/ my/ boy/ is/ an/ likes/ courses/ who /difficult/

2. Make an adjective from these nouns and verbs

Verbs: to help, to worry, to renew, to drink, to eat, to hope, to care, to compare, to accept,
to bear, to enjoy, to wash, discuss, to wonder, to succeed, to marry, to boast, etc.

Nouns: rain, sun, access, desire, beauty, care, dread, love, mountain, sand, length, width,
height, language, economy, atom, sorrow, meaning, interest, etc.

78
Discussion topic:

Why do you think Rwandans should protect the environment?

UNIT 13: FUTURE TENSES

Future simple tense

This tense is mainly used:

With if-clauses to indicate an action that is likely to happen, as:

If I have time, I will pay you a visit.

79
If it doesn’t rain tonight, we’ll play tennis.

When we decide to do something at the moment of speaking, as in:

Ali: My radio has broken down. Can you repair it for me?

Bin: Okay, but I can’t do it now. I’ll repair it tomorrow.

Note:

If we have already decided to do something, we use present continuous tense or going

to.

Ali’s mother: Can you repair my son’s radio? It has broken down.

Bin: Yes, I know. He told me. I’m going to repair tomorrow.

To talk about things that we cannot control. It expresses the future as a fact, as in:

I shall be 35 in November.

Summer will start next month.

Ali will be 24 next birthday

To talk about what we think will happen in the future (predicting future
happening), as in:
I think Rayon-sport will win the match I
expect/hope/suppose Peter will join us.
He will probably assist us.

Be going to
Be going to form is used:

(a) For an action in the future that has already been planned by the speaker, as in:
I’m going to call Dan after lunch.

(b) For something that is certain to happen in the future, as in:

80
 I know he is going to invite me.

Future progressive tense

This tense is mainly used:

To indicate an action that will be in progress at a certain time in the future, as in:

• This time tomorrow, I’ll be having a good time at Serena Hotel Beach.
• I suppose it will be raining when we reach Kigali.
• “What will you be doing this time next week?” “We’ll be debating.” To talk about
things which are already planned or decided, as in:
• I’ll be going to the city center in the afternoon. Can I get you anything? (With this
meaning will be going is similar to am going.)
• “Will you be using your bicycle this evening?” “No, you can take it.”

Future perfect tense

This is mainly used to say that something will already have happened before a certain
time in the future, as:

• He will have left before you reach the office.

• We’re late. I expect the film will already have started by the time we get to the cinema.
• For sure, I will have finished my exercise by then (i.e. when you come to pick me)

Future perfect continuous tense

This is mainly used to talk about an action that will be in progress over a period of time
that will end in the future, as:

• Next month, you’ll have been studying at ULK for 4 months.

• I’ll have been teaching here for 8 years in March.

PRACTICE EXERCISE
81
 Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form as required by the context:
1. Listen to those people. What language………………………(they/speak)?
2. Mary……………….. (Probably/help) us.
3. I needed money. So we………….(sell) our car.
4. How many languages…………………….(your father/speak)?
5. How long……………………(you/be) a university student?
6. We missed the bus yesterday! When we arrived at the station, it………(just/leave).
7. The sky is dark and cloudy. It………………………(rain).
8. She…………………(write) that novel before she became ill.
9. You look tired! …………………(you/work) hard?
10. Peter lives nearby, but he seldom…………….(visit) us.
11. Where………………………..(you/go) when you had an accident?
12. She………………………..(play) tennis since she was six.
13. The house was very quiet when I got home. Everybody ………..(go) to bed.
14. We……………………….(play) tennis for half an hour when there was a terrible storm.
15. A: The match begins at 7.30 and ends at 9.15.
B: That is, at 8.30 we……………………..(watch) it.
16. We………………………(wait) for no reason if our lecturer does not come.
17. Jim was leaning against the wall, out of breath. He………………(run).
18. It’s been decided. I……………………(wed) next week.
19. By the time you come back to work, I ………………….(type) the letter.
20. I …………… (Visit) many African cities.

READING ACTIVITY

IN THE LIBRARY

Student: I want to return these four books.

Counter clerk: But two of these were due on Monday. You are late by three days. You’ll have to
pay the fine.

82
Student: Oh yes, I know that. But…..I was sick and have not been able to come to college these
four days. You condone the delay under special circumstances, don’t you? And my sickness is a
special circumstance, isn’t it?

Counter clerk: Yes it. But you should talk to the librarian. My duty is just to charge the fine if it
is due according to the rules.

Student: Very well, I’ll see the librarian. Meanwhile, please issue me with these two books. Oh
wait a minute. I want another book too. Let me go to the racks and find out that one also.

Counter clerk: Ok, I’ll wait and lend you all the three together.

Student (later): Here is the book I wanted. Now please issue them.

Counter clerk: Would you sign here, please! And here also!

Student: Oh, I want to point out something. In this book, one page is missing. It’s page 231. You
can have a look.

Counter clerk: Oh! Somebody has torn it away! How callous! I must stamp page 230 to indicate
that page 231 has been torn out.

Student: Is this necessary?

Counter clerk: Yes, very necessary. Otherwise, this may be blamed on you or the next borrower
after you.

Student: Thanks very much!

Counter clerk: That’s all right!

Answer the following questions:

1. The student has to pay a fine. Why?

2. The student is late in returning two books. What’s the reason?

3. Do you think the counter clerk is being difficult? Justify your answer.

SPEAKING ACTIVITY:

83
In groups of 4, discuss the importance of reading books.

UNIT 14: DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

Examine these sentences :
John is intelligent / John is an intelligent boy.
John is more intelligent than Jack.
John is the most intelligent student in this class.
From the above three sentences, we can say that there are three degrees of comparison of
adjectives.

13.1 Positive degree

Here, the adjective is used in its basic form merely to describe people or things.

e.g. John is intelligent.

84
 Cairo is a beautiful city.
Mugiraneza is kind.

13.2 Comparative degree

Here the adjective is used to compare two things or people (or two sets of things or people).

In this connection three levels should be taken into account:

a. Equality

For all adjectives (short/long) the rules is: as + adj + as.

e.g John is as intelligent as Peter.

She is as slim as her mother.

John is as busy as me / as I am.

b. Superiority

For short adjectives (i.e. adjectives of one or two syllables), the rule is: adj + er + than.

• John is kinder than Peter.

• An elephant is bigger than a Lion.
• Nyabarongo is longer than Mukungwa.

• English is easier to learn than French.

• My garden is larger than yours.
For long adjectives (i.e. adjectives of three or more syllables), the rule is: more + adj.
+ than.

• John is more intelligent than Peter

• Sorghum beer is more necessary than banana wine.
c. Inferiority

For all adjectives, the rule is: less + adj. + than.

• Peter is less intelligent than John.

• Betty is less kind than Sue.

85
 • These boys are less handsome than those ones.
• These gardens are less beautiful than those ones.
13.3 Superlative degree

Here, the adjective is used to denote the highest quality two things or people.

• Here are 3 girls, but this one in red dress is the most intelligent.
For short adjectives, the rule is: the + adj. + est.

• Nile is the longest river in Africa.

• Peter is the kindest child of all.
• English is the easiest language of all.
For long adjectives, the rule is: the + most + adj.

• The USA is the most powerful country in the world.

• The USA is the most powerful country of all.

POINTS TO NOTE

(1) Certain adjective are irregular. That is, they do not apply to the rules mentioned
previously.
Positive Comparative Superlative

Good Better Best

Bad Worse Worst

Far Farther/Further Farthest/Furthest

Little Less Least

Many/much More Most

86
 e.g.

• I am good at English.
• I am better at English than I am at French.
• I have so many friends, but Peter is the best.
• Malaria is a bad disease.
• Malaria is worse than stomachache.
• AIDS is the worst disease of all.

(2) Inferior, superior, prior, anterior, posterior, senior, and junior used as comparative
adjectives are followed by to instead of than.

e.g.

• Mugabo is junior to Murego.

• Tom is senior to me.
• My wedding was prior to my uncle’s death.
• My intelligence is inferior to yours.

(3) The rules mentioned previously can be applied to adverbs. So, you can say, for instance :
• John speaks quickly.( Positive)
• John speaks more quickly than I do. ( Comparative)
• John ran the fastest. ( Superlative)
• Peter works harder than Alice. ( Comparative) Consolidation and
contextualization

Listening to a video on comparatives and superlatives.

PRACTICE EXERCISES

1. Complete with the correct comparative or superlative form of these adjectives/ adverbs, as
required by the context: bad, fast, interesting, developed, easy, hard, painful, important, rich,
old

a. Rujugiro or Rubangura. Which is…………….?

87
b. If you work…………….you did last year, you will succeed.

c. It is widely believed that AIDS is………………disease of all.

d. John is 20; Peter is 25. So, Peter is……………….John.

e. Sir, the meeting is about to start. Could you drive…………..?

f. Rwanda is…………………Canada.

g. My job is not interesting. So, I want to do something…………..

h. It is widely believed that Education is……………………….investment.

i. English or French. Which is……………….to earn?

j. Last night I took some drugs and now my headache is…………..it was yesterday. I can go to
school now.

2. Write the adjective in its correct form

a. DR Congo is (big) country in Central Africa.

b. My uncle Matama is (yong) than your sister Ellen.

c. The Nile is (long) River In Africa.

d. Paul is (old) as me.

e. Do you think Maths is (interesting) course in your life?

f. In geography, they believe that (high) you climb, the (cool) it becomes.

g. (more) you study, (good) marks you get in exams.

READING ACTIVITY

AT THE RESTAURANT

88
John: Well, here we are. Do you like the place? Tom:
Lovely! Very nice!
John: Ah, I hoped you’d like this place. Let’s go and sit in the corner there, shall we? Tom:
Yeah.
John: Now then, let’s see if we can get some service.
Tom: Well, we need a menu first. Don’t we?
John: We haven’t got one here, have we? Could you ask those people behind us?
Tom: Mm, excuse me, could you possibly give us a menu? Oh, they haven’t got one either.
John: Haven’t they? Let me see... I think I’ll ask these people on my right. Um, sorry to interrupt
you. I wonder if you could give us a menu. Oh, they don’t seem to have one either.
Tom: We’d better get the waiter. I say... Waiter! Waiter:
Yes, Sir!
Tom: Er, we haven’t got a menu.
Waiter: Oh, I’m sorry. I’ll bring you one straight away. Tom:
Thank you!
Waiter: Here is the menu, Sir. Er, I’m very sorry to trouble you, but wonder if you could possibly
move to another table. I’m afraid, this table is reserved.

John: Oh yes, by all means!

Waiter: Thank you very much, Sir. Ah! Here is the menu. You were sitting on it, Sir. Are you
ready for me to take your order?

John: Yes. We’ll have chips and liver, please.

Waiter (later): Here is your order, Sirs. Do enjoy!
John: Thank you

Waiter (later): Was everything OK Sirs?

John and Tom: Yes, that was delicious.
Waiter: Would you like some dessert?
John: No, thank you!
Tom: Could we have the bill please?
Waiter (later): Here is your bill. Tom:
Ok
Waiter (later): Here is your change.
Tom: No, you can keep it.

ACTIVITY

1. What would you like to drink in a restaurant?

2. What types of food do you expect to find in the restaurant and how would you like it
cooked?
3. Write a letter to an overseas pen friend about the kinds of food you eat in Rwanda.
89
UNIT 15: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE MODES
Study the following passage where the passive voice is used in context

YOUTH HIT BY VAN

At 5.05 p.m. on yesterday, there was an accident at a junction in Gisenyi Town when a boy of 16
years old was knocked off his bicycle by a delivery van. Luckily, he was not seriously injured.
Patric Kay, the 16 years old boy, was taken to Gisenyi hospital where he was treated for shock
and a broken arm. The accident was witnessed by several people and it was reported minutes
later by the driver of the van, Mr. Peter Karake. Both the youth and the driver of the van were
questioned afterwards by the police.

1. General information about the form of the passive voice

Be in tense of A.V + Past participle of the verb Examples:

90
 1) A.V: Mother cleans my room every morning.
P.V: My room is cleaned every morning (by mother). 2)
A.V: Asoumpta is reading a book.
P.V: A book is being read (by Asoumpta). 3)
A.V: Does he help her parents?
P.V: Are her parents helped (by her)? 4)
A.V: Did they sing that song?
P.V: Was that song sung (by them)?

Note that sentences expressing commands apply to the structure:

Let……. Be + past participle. e.g.

A.V: Close the door.

P.V: Let the door be closed.

2. Uses of the passive

The passive is mainly used in the four ways:

When we do not want to say who is responsible for an action.

e.g.: The matter will be dealt with soon.
(Here, we do not want to say who will deal with the matter.)

When we are interested in what is done, not who or what does it.
e.g.:- The tea is parked into sacks for export.
- Our roof was damaged in last night’s storm.

(Here, we are just interested in the action)

When the person or thing that does the action (the agent) is obvious and does not
need to be stated, as in:
- The driver was arrested. (not The police arrested the driver)
- Have you ever been arrested? (not Have the police ever arrested you?)
- Tea is grown in Rwanda and Tanzania. (not Farmers grow tea in Rwanda
and Tanzania).

When the agent is unknown, or when we want to avoid vague subject such as
someone, one, etc.
e.g.: My purse has been stolen. (not Someone has stolen my purse)

Note that we use by + agent only when we need to say who or what is responsible for an event.

91
e.g. - The window was broken by a child who was playing by the house.

- Most instances of lung cancer are caused by smoking.

- A: Who designed St Paul Cathedral?

B: It was designed by Christopher Wren.

Only transitive verbs (i.e. verbs which take an object) like build, do, damage, eat, kill, destroy,
discover, invent, make, etc. can go into passive.

So you can say, for example:

- The hunter was killed by the lion. (correct)

- The plane arrived. (correct)

But you cannot say:

The plane was arrived. (Incorrect)

PRACTICE EXERCISE

Change the following into passive voice:

1. The teller is going to cash your cheque.

2. He has ordered the bank to pay.
3. After I have made an entry, I’ll give you your money.
4. Should the government reduce taxes? What’s your view?

5. Did Mr. Ken open a bank account yesterday?

6. They are expecting to pay you back tomorrow.
7. Someone took my pen.
8. No one had eaten my food.
9. Mary does not like music.
10. We pointed at him.
Rewrite the sentences below in active voice
1. Beer is drunk here.
2. The tree has been cut.
3. The cat is hunted by the dog.
4. We will have been punished by Mr Mugoda.
5. Money was put at the bank.
6. The exercise will be done by a student.
7. Jane has been married by Peter.
8. The wall is painted by the boy.

92
 9. The child was washed by me.

READING ACTIVITY

AT THE DOCTOR’S

Doctor: How are you feeling today?

Patient: Not very well doctor.

Doctor: Tell me about it

Patient: Well, I have a terrible headache.

Doctor: How about your throat?

Patient: It hurts a little

Doctor: Do you have a cough? Patient:

Yes, I have a cough too Doctor: Do you

feel weak?

Patient: Yes, I get tired very quickly.

Doctor: Let me take you temperature.

Patient: Yes, please

Doctor (later): Your temperature is 39.1 degrees oC. You have fever. It seems that you have the
flu.

Patient: Oh, that’s terrible

Doctor: Don’t worry. Take this medicine and rest.

Patient: Ok, I understand.

Doctor: Please come next week for a checkup.

Patient: I will. Thank you doctor!

ROLEPLAY

Pair off with your classmate to write a dialogue between a doctor and a patient. Thereafter,
roleplay it.

93
UNIT 16: PREPOSITIONS

A preposition is a word that relates two elements of a sentence, clause or phrase together.
Prepositions show how the elements relate in time or space and generally precede the words that
they govern. Words governed by prepositions are nouns or pronouns.

Prepositions are often very short words, as: at, in, on, to, before, and after. Some other
prepositions consist of more than one word, as: instead of, in place of, in accordance with, in
addition to, with reference to, ahead of,… Examples of prepositions in sentences include:

The cat sat on the mat.

We were at a concert.

They are in shock.

We are going to France.

She arrived before me.

Apart me she has no friends.

We acted in accordance with your instructions.

15.1 Prepositions often confused

1. At or To
At is used to denote position or rest.

e.g. Mugabo is at school now.

Mother is at home.

To is used to denote movement from one plane to another. e.g.

• Mugabo is going to school.

• The goats went to the forest in search of food and water.
• I’m planning to go to America.
• Ant Lily went to the market this morning.

However, do not use to when the word home is referred to.

94
 Don’t say: I am going to home .

Say instead : I am going home.

2. In and Into
In is used to denote position or rest inside something.

e.g.

• We’re in the classroom.

• Sister Ann is in the garden
Into is used to denote movement towards the inside of something.

e.g.

• The students are walking into the hall.

• The thugs got into the forest and disappeared.
• Put this piece of chalk into the box. N.B.: Do not use into after the
verb to enter.

• I entered his office (not I entered into his office).

3. At and In

While At is used for small places, In is used for big places (towns, cities, districts, provinces,
countries, etc.).
e.g. I live at Nyundo.
I was born in Kigali.

18.2 Uses of prepositions after adjectives

1. Angry / annoyed / furious about something

with somebody for doing something.

e.g. What are you so angry about ?

Our teacher is angry with us …

2. Happy / Delighted / Pleased / Satisfied with

95
 e.g. You should be satisfied with what God gave you.

I’m happy with you.

[Link] from

e.g. People are different from one another.

4. Disappointed with

e.g. I’m very disappointed with your exam results.

5. Good / excellent / brilliant at

e.g. I am not good at sciences.

You can also say: bad at, quick at, slow at, clever at ; but weak in.

I’m good at languages, but very weak in sciences.

6. Dependent on

e.g. Children are dependent on their parents.

But independent of

I’m looking for a job so that I can be independent of my elder brother.

7. Jealous / envious of

e.g. Why are you so jealous of me ?

8. Interested in

e.g. I wonder if you are interested in your new job.

9. Married to

e.g. Sarah is married to a rich man.

10. Capable of

e.g. I’m sure, he’s capable of doing this job.

96
 But we say ‘able to’.

11. Crazy about

e.g. Teaching is my life. I’m crazy about it.

12. Crowded with

e.g. Yesterday, Gisenyi was crowded with tourists from all over the world.

13. Full of

e.g. Your composition is full of mistakes.

But filled with

e.g. This jag is filled with oil.

14. Similar to

e.g. Your handwriting is similar to mine.

[Link] of

e.g. I’m tired of waiting.

16. Sorry for

e.g. I’m so sorry for what happened to you.

Sorry for disturbing you.

17. Worried about

e.g. I’m worried about my future.

15.3 Uses of prepositions after verbs

1) Apologise ( to someone) for sth

97
 e.g. I do apologise to you for offending you in public.

2) Apply for
e.g. I think you’d be good at this job. So, why don’t you apply for it ?

3) Concentrate on

e.g. Stop lecturing me. I’m concentrating on my assignment.

4) Depend on
e.g. A : What time will you arrive ?

B : It will depend on the traffic.

5) Insist on
e.g. The headmaster insisted on the fact that we should use French or

English on the Campus.

6) Dream about / of
e.g. I dreamt about you last night.

Have you ever dreamt of becoming a lecturer?

7) Think about / of
e.g. I think about you every single minute of my life.

8) Thank for
e.g. Thank you for joining us.

9) Congratulate on sth / for doing sth.

e.g. I congratulate you on your appointment.

I congratulate you for having done well in the exam.

10) Live on
e.g. Many birds live on insects.

11) Prefer to
e.g. I prefer tea to coffee.

12) Borrow from.

98
 e.g. I borrowed this book from the NUR main Library.

13) Die of
e.g. Bob Marley died of cancer.

14) Spend on
e.g. It’s silly of you to spend your money on useless things.

15) Aim at
e.g. This course aims at helping you improve and develop your

English skills.

16) Divide / split into

e.g. Divide this chalk into 3 pieces .

Split those students (up) into 2 groups.

17) Buy from

e.g. I bought this book from that Library.

POINT TO REMEMBER

The following verbs do not require a proposition to go with them.

1. To access

Don’t say: I eventually accessed to the computer file.

Say instead: I eventually accessed the computer file.

2. To address

Don’t say: The headmaster is addressing to the pupils.

Say instead: The headmaster is addressing the pupils.

Note however that you can say: the message is addressed to the pupils.

3. To answer

Don’t say: Please, answer to my question.

99
 Say instead: Please, answer my question.

But the noun answer takes to.

e.g. Your answer to my question is wrong.

4. To ask

Don’t say: Ask to the teacher.

Say instead: Ask the teacher.

Note that we can say: ask for permission, money, advice…

e.g. Go and ask your father for advice.

5. To approach.

Don’t say: Don’t approach to that dog. It’s so fierce.

Say instead: Don’t approach that dog. It’s so fierce.

6. To enter ( = go into)

Don’t say: We entered into the house, but nobody was there.

Say instead: We entered the house, but nobody was there.

But we can say: to enter into a conversation, a debate, a discussion…

7. To discuss

Don’t say: We discussed about this issue yesterday.

Say instead: We discussed this issue yesterday.

But we can say: We had a discussion about this issue…

8. To leave (depart from)

Don’t say: It was raining when we left from Kigali.

Say instead: It was raining when we left Kigali.

100
 But we say leave for ( go to)

e.g. It was raining when we left for Kigali

9. To obey ( act according to)

Don’t say: Children should obey to their parents.

Say instead: Children should obey their parents.

10. To reach (arrive at)

Don’t say: We reached at school on time

Say instead: We reached school on time.

11. To resemble (= to be similar to)

Don’t say: Betty resembles to her father.

Say instead: Betty resembles her father.

But you can say:

Betty has no resemblance to her mother.

There’s no resemblance between Alice and her mother.

12. To tell (to say to)

Don’t say: I told to Peter the truth.

Say instead: I told Peter the truth.

EXERCISES

1. Complete these sentences with a suitable preposition

a. I have just received an invitation………….a wedding next week.

b. The books he brought are……….the shelf.

c. Hey! Why are you knocking………my door?

101
 d. Can you please come……Monday.

e. I received the parcel……September 23.

f. That boy is good…….English.

g. Look…….me and tell me what you see …….my eyes.

h. Mary is going …….school now because she has a meeting…………….four

sharp.

i. We believe……Angels and they are said to live…..Heaven.

j. I wrote to Kalinda, but still have not received any reply……him.

k. If I look……………..the window I cannot see what you told me.

l. The advantage……..going to school is that you’ll make up your life.

m. Money isn’t the solution…..every problem.

2. Fill in the sentence with the right preposition

a. After work, all the students went…….a party…..foot.

b. We hadn’t arranged to meet. We met…..accident.

c. After dinner, we went out……..a drink.

d. I will be…….holiday very soon.

e. Jane is madly…….love with Jack.

f. The doctor told him to stay….diet for a long period.

g. What’s……television this evening?

h. This is a book ……..Chinua Achebe.

i. Will you pay me….cash or cash?

102
 j. Do not be angry…..me. I know nothing…..your contentions.

k. The child has been hopeless……running through the night.

l. Now the course is not interesting; I am bored……..it.

READING ACTIVITY:

AT THE POST OFFICE KALINDA:

Excuse me.

COUNTER CLERK: Yes?

KALINDA: I want to send this parcel, please.

COUNTER CLERK: Do you want to send it by letter post or parcel post?

It would be Rwf 1000 by letter post, and Rwf 500 by parcel post.

KALINDA: You would better send it by letter post. It might be quicker.

COUNTER CLERK: All right. Is there anything else I can do for you?

KALINDA: Yes. Could you weigh this letter, please?

COUNTER CLERK: It’s just over twenty grams. It will cost you Rwf 300. Here are the stamps
for the parcel and the letter. Will you affix them, please?

KALINDA: I also want twenty inland letter sheet and ten stamped envelopes.

COUNTER CLERK: By all means. But wait a minute, please. Let me first give you the receipt
for the parcel. Here’s the receipt. And here’s the postal stationary.

KALINDA: Thank you very much. Can I leave the parcel there on the desk in front of you?

COUNTER CLERK: Yes. But put the letter in the box over there.

KALINDA: Oh, yes. Thank you very much.

TOPIC: With the internet, do you think the post office is worthy of consideration?

103
UNIT 17: WRITING A FRIENDLY LETTER
What’s a friendly letter?

A friendly letter is a letter you write to a relative, a friend or an acquaintance. It is also called an
informal letter or a personal letter. One of the most important features of a friendly letter is that it
is written almost as though one was speaking to whom he/she is writing to. Given this, one can
tackle several subject-matters when writing a friendly letter.

Why should you learn to write a friendly letter?

‘Why should I learn to write friendly letters?’ you may ask. ‘I can always call my family and
friends on the telephone.’

Often, this is true. There are some situations, however, when the pleasure that a letter can bring
to your friend or relative is worth the little bit of extra effort it takes to write it.
Suppose that your grandmother is ill. You sit down and write a friendly letter telling her that you
hope she will feel better soon. You include news about yourself and your family, too. Your
grandmother can read and reread the words you wrote especially to her as often as she wants.
She can share your letter with others, and she can save [Link] is one of the reasons for writing
friendly letters.

Sample of a friendly letter

Kiyovu, Kigali City,

Tel.: 0788855698

January 18, 2014

Dear Ruth, Many thanks for your letter. I was very glad to hear that you’d done very well in your
exams. Let me send you my hearty congratulations. You certainly deserved this result as I know
you worked very hard.
You asked me how I’ve been spending the time since I took my exams. I’ve been waiting so
eagerly for the result that, I must admit, I’ve not done half the things I planned to do during this
extended holiday. Why do examiners take so long to make up their minds?
However, I’ve been doing a lot of reading. There were so many different things I was interested
in when I was at school and didn’t have the time to read about because they were not on the
syllabus. I’ve read two books about geology, which is a fascinating subject. I hope to make a
hobby of geology when I get to the university. It’ll make a change from the study of law. I’ve
also read novels, mostly modern ones by authors like Graham Greene, C.S. Forester and
Somerset Maugham. How enjoyable it is to read a book for pleasure and not for an examination!

104
I’ve not given a thought to law, and not read one book about the subject. I’ll have four long years
at the university to devote to it.

I’ve also been going once or twice a week to the National Boys’ Club. I took part in the
tabletennis tournament, but I didn’t do very well, I’m afraid. I’ve been playing football for the
Club every Sunday afternoon.

I’ll certainly let you know about my exam results as soon as I have them. But don’t wait for me
to write before you write. I must say that I become less confident about the results each day. It
was encouraging to hear that this was the case with you, and since you did so well perhaps there
is still hope for me!
Remember me to your parents.

Yours sincerely,

Thierry

Parts of an informal/ friendly letter

Looking again at the typical friendly letter above, you will notice that a friendly letter has 6 parts:
the heading, greeting, body, closing, signature and sender’s name. The heading is made up of
the sender’s address and the date.

Things to remember when writing a friendly letter:

- The writer’s address (normally without her/his name) should go in the top right-hand
corner.

-The date is written immediately under the sender’s address after leaving a gap of one or two
lines.

Note: Alternative methods of writing the date are:

December 2, 2014

2nd December 2014

December 2nd, 2014

- The salutation is put at the beginning of the line after a gap of one or two lines and followed
by a comma. The salutation is equivalent to “hello”. For people we know well we can use the
form Dear John. For close relations Dearest James can be used.

105
- The main body of the letter will, of course, depend on the person it is being sent to.
Remember that letter-writing is similar to conversation, and we should adopt the style we
should use if we were talking to the person we are writing to. The writing style of a friendly
letter is casual and informal. Anyway, there are different degrees of informality. For example,
an informal letter to one’s brother would be much more informal than a letter to one’s uncle.

Remember to indent paragraphs, i.e. move in the first word of each paragraph.

- The complimentary closing is equivalent to “bye”. It is written in the middle of the page a
line or two below the last line of the main body of the letter. Yours sincerely can be used for
most personal letters. Yours is also common. Yours ever can be used when writing to a
person you have known a long time. For a close relation one can use:

Yours affectionately,

Your ever admiring friend,

Love,

Note that a comma is used after the letter-closing.

- The signature is put under the ending of the letter.

- The sender’s name is written below the signature.

Note that in a personal letter we do not include the address of the person to whom the letter is
being sent.

Addressing the envelope

No matter how hard you work at writing a friendly letter, your letter will not be delivered unless
you address the envelope clearly and correctly. The name and address of the person to
whom the letter is written go in the center of the envelope.

Steps involved in writing a friendly letter

- Think of a person to write to. Choose one or more than one topics that will interest that
person.
- Write the first draft just to get your ideas down on paper.
- Revise your letter to make it more interesting. You read the letter to someone else, and ask for
suggestion.

106
- Proofread your work, and check the form of your letter. - Make a final copy, address an
envelope, and mail it.

WRITING PRACTICE

Write a letter on any of the following:

1 . Write a first letter to your pen-friend telling her/him about yourself, your family, and your
interests or hobbies. Add any information you wish.

2. Write a letter to anybody at home, telling him/her about how you are getting on with courses at
university.
3. Write a letter your pen-friend telling her/her about your country.
4. Write a letter to your pen-friend telling him about ULK, your university. Everything
considered, request her/him to tell you about her/his university as well.

5. Write a letter to your uncle who has promised to help you financially when you continue your
studies beyond their present level. Tell him of your plans for the next three years and state
what you expect your financial needs will be.

6. Write a letter to your parents and tell them that you have arrived safely at school despite a lot
of problems you faced on the way. Explain the problems and how they were solved.

Discussion topic:

The production efforts in a country like Rwanda should be focused more on agricultural than
industrial production. Discuss.

107
UNIT 18: INTRODUCTION TO DEBATING

A debate is a discussion in which people or groups state different opinions about a given subject.

A debate is, basically, an argument. But that is not to say that it is an undisciplined shouting
match between parties that passionately believe in a particular point of view. In fact, the opposite
is true. You will often be in a position when you will have to argue the opposite of what you
believe in.

In any debate you will either be a proposer (supporting the motion) or opposer (discrediting the
points for the motion by providing contradicting evidence).

Stages involved in a debate

There are two stages in the exercise: Preparation and The actual debate.

(a) Preparation

When you are given a topic to prepare and debate on, it is important to familiarize yourself with
the topic. It is advisable to note down all the points relevant to the topic for debate during this
preparation period. The library, Internet and interviews with both fellow students and other
people connected with the topic in question will provide the kind of information needed for the
debate.

During preparation, the information readily available will be useful to the proposer. The opposer,
however has the task of inferring the opposite information from the same sources. The proposer,
on the other hand, must bear in mind that he can only help spur on the debate if he is fully armed
with both supporting and contradicting points on a given topic. Only when one is able to predict
what one’s counterpart in the debate is going to say can one respond effectively.

(b) The actual debate

In debating, each team will present points in favour of their case.

Here are some tips which may help you win the debate:

- Know your fact

Do not state that something is true unless you absolutely know it is- be prepared to prove it if
necessary.

- Stick to the topic

When debating, you should never divert the topic at hand to another.

- Speak slowly

When debating, speak at normal speed.

108
- Be soft and steady

When debating, you should never raise your voice. You should mind your tone. The louder you
talk, the louder your opponent talks, and the end result is a yelling match.

- Ask questions

When your opponent states a fact, probe deeper in to the fact with questions such as: “Can you
give me an example?”, “Another way of looking at what you’ve said is….., does this seem
reasonable?”

- Be silent

After making a strong argument, stay calm. Let your opponent do all the talking, especially if he
lacks the facts to oppose you. He will bluster and fumble, giving you a variety of new weapons
with which to attack him/her.

Useful expressions:

During the debate

During the debate, expressions such as ‘Thank you Mr. /Madam ………’, ‘Mr. X has just
asserted……’, ‘That’s fine as it goes, but…’, ‘I (strongly) disagree to what Miss… has just
said’ are quite common.

Some more useful expressions:

Do you think that……… In

my opinion………..

As I consider things…….

My point of view is that……

Well, I must admit that…….., but…….

On the one hand ………….., on the other hand…………

When you say that ………., do you mean…………

You are wrong…………..

Anyone will tell you that……….

Before we go any further, let me …….

If you would allow me to continue……..

When closing:
109
I declare the debate closed. Thank you ladies and gentlemen.

That concludes our debate for today. Thank you.

Well, I think that covers everything.

That’s all for today. Thank you.

When voting:

As there is a tie, I would like to remind you that you have to vote.

Those for the motion, please.

Those against.

Any abstention?

The motion is carried unanimously.

The motion has been rejected by 6 votes to 9.

Point to remember

-The speakers in a debate- both the proposers and the opposers- are required to make notes of the
proceedings in order to give accurate responses when called upon to do so.

-The audience too must engage themselves in intelligent listening. Each individual in the
audience must take notes of what is being said so that ‘points of information’ coming from the
audience are relevant.

-The secretary’s duty is to jot down every important point brought up by every speaker during the
debate. Thus, the secretary needs to write quickly and accurately; he may need conventionalized
symbols and abbreviations to meet his demand. At the end of the debate the secretary is expected
to summarize the points and announce the winner. In case of a tie, then voting becomes
necessary and the secretary conducts this. When the proposition side wins, we say the motion is
carried, and the motion is lost when the opposition side wins.

Speaking Practice

Prepare and hold a debate on one of the following motions:

1. Should girls have the same educational opportunities as boys?

Decide for or against, using the following sets of arguments as well as some of your own:

For: - Women have proved themselves capable of doing most jobs.

110
 - Girls will later be responsible for bringing up families.
- Educated husbands prefer educated wives.
- Girls have the same native intelligence as boys.
- Women make up 50 per cent of the population and to neglect their education is to
neglect the education of 50 per cent of the nation. Against: - Educating girls leads to
a breakdown of tradition.

- Money spent on girl’s education is often wasted because they marry and stop working.

- Educated women are more inclined to disobey the husbands than uneducated ones.

- Since there is not enough money to educate everyone, boys should be given preferences
as they are more likely to make use of their education.

2. Has science made life easy?

Decide for or against.

More topics worth debating on:

1. Should girls be given the same educational opportunities as boys?

2. Has computer technology made life easier?
3. Foreign aid has brought more harm than good.
4. Shifting from Francophone to Anglophone system in Rwandan Education has brought
more harm than good.
5. Town life and life in the countryside: Which is better according to you?
6. With the Internet and portable phones, our world is nowadays considered a small village.
7. What’s your position about sex equality policy?
8. Polygamy: Is it worth practicing in a country like Rwanda?
9. Urban children have more educational advantages over rural children.
10. Is money the source of happiness?
11. What’s your position about family planning policy in Rwanda?
12. The productive effort in a country like Rwanda should be focused more on Agricultural
production than on industrial production.
13. School children should be impeded from watching television.

111
READING AND SPEAKING EXERCISE: Read the following dialogue and act it out

AT THE HOTEL

TOURIST: Good morning. Have you any room vacant?

RECEPTIONIST: Yes, sir. Double or single?

TOURIST: I want one double.

RECEPTIONIST: I have a double room on the second floor.

TOURIST: Oh, but I want to have one on the ground floor, or the first floor.

RECEPTIONIST: Let me see if I can…I’m sorry, sir. There’s no double room vacant at the
moment either on the ground or on the first floor. But I wonder if you could wait till the checkout
time. I will have two vacancies then. Could I book one of the rooms for you in advance, sir?

TOURIST: Yes, I don’t mind waiting for an hour or so. What’s your check-out time?

RECEPTIONIST: It’s 12 noon, and it’s already a quarter past eleven. So you will have to wait
for less than an hour, sir.

TOURIST: How come? My watch shows ten minutes to eleven! That means there’s more than
an hour to go. I’m not going to wait…

RECEPTIONIST: I’m afraid your watch is a little too slow, sir. My watch makes 11.20 now. I
set the time only a few minutes before you come came.

TOURIST: Oh, dear, there’s something wrong with my watch. You’re right. I will wait for some
time.

RECEPTIONIST: Thank you, sir. Would you take a seat, on the sofa over there?

TOURIST: Oh, I don’t know anything about the facilities you provide here.

RECEPTIONIST: Don’t worry about that, sir. Here’s a brochure giving all information about
the hotel. On page ten, you’ll find everything about the rooms.

TOURIST: Thank you, young lady.

112