SS2 TECHNICAL DRAWING LESSON NOTES

FIRST TERM

WEEK 1
TOPIC: REVISION OF SS1 WORK

CONTENT
1. Introduction
At the beginning of a new session, it is essential to review and consolidate the knowledge and
skills learned in SS1. This ensures that students can recall foundational concepts, apply them in
more advanced work, and correct any misconceptions. The revision focuses on basic drawing
techniques, drawing instruments, lettering, geometrical constructions, orthographic
projection, and isometric drawing—all of which are the bedrock of Technical Drawing.

2. Review of Technical Drawing Instruments and Materials

Technical drawing requires accuracy and neatness, which can only be achieved through the
proper use of instruments and materials.
Common Drawing Instruments include:
 Drawing board: A smooth flat board used for securing drawing paper.
 T-square: Used for drawing horizontal lines and guiding set squares.
 Set squares (45° and 60°): Used for drawing vertical and inclined lines.
 Protractor: Used to measure and construct angles.
 Compass: Used to draw circles and arcs.
 Dividers: Used to transfer measurements from one part of a drawing to another.
 Drawing pencils: Different grades (e.g., 2H, H, HB, B, 2B) are used for different line
types and shades.
 Eraser: For correcting mistakes neatly.
 Masking tape or clips: Used to hold paper securely on the board.
 French curves and flexible curves: For drawing irregular curves.
 Drawing paper or cartridge sheet: The surface on which drawings are made.
Maintenance of Instruments:
 Keep instruments clean and dry.

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  Store in instrument boxes after use.
 Sharpen pencils properly and avoid breaking compass points.
 Prevent T-square and set squares from warping or bending.

3. Review of Lettering and Line Types

a. Lettering Lettering is the process of writing titles, dimensions, and notes on technical
drawings. It ensures legibility and uniformity.
Types of Lettering:
 Uppercase (capital) lettering
 Lowercase lettering
 Italic lettering (slanting form)
Qualities of Good Lettering:
 Uniformity of size and spacing
 Neatness and legibility
 Proper alignment
 Consistent line thickness
b. Line Types and Their Uses:

Line Type Description Use

Continuous thick line Heavy and unbroken Visible outlines
Continuous thin line Light and unbroken Dimension lines, projection lines
Dashed line Short, evenly spaced dashes Hidden details
Chain thin line Alternating long and short dashes Centre lines
Zig-zag line Thin, irregular Breaks or interruptions

4. Review of Geometrical Constructions

Geometrical constructions form the foundation for complex engineering and architectural
designs. Students should be able to:
 Bisect lines and angles
 Construct perpendicular and parallel lines
 Divide a line into equal parts
 Construct regular polygons (triangle, square, pentagon, hexagon, etc.)
 Construct tangents to circles
 Construct arcs and circles through given points
Accuracy and precision are vital in all constructions.

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5. Review of Orthographic Projection
Orthographic projection is the method of representing a 3D object on 2D planes using several
views.
Key Concepts:
 Projection planes: Horizontal (HP) and Vertical (VP)

 Types of orthographic projection:

o First Angle Projection

o Third Angle Projection
 Principal views: Front, plan (top), and side views.

Applications: Used in engineering and architectural drawing to represent objects accurately with
full dimensions.

6. Review of Isometric Drawing

Isometric drawing is a type of pictorial drawing where all dimensions are drawn at 30° to the
horizontal. It provides a 3D representation of an object to show how it looks in reality.
Key Principles:
 Three isometric axes are used: vertical and two inclined at 30° to the horizontal.
 Equal scaling along all axes.
 Circles appear as ellipses in isometric view.
Importance: Isometric drawings help visualize and interpret orthographic projections.

7. Importance of Revision in Technical Drawing

 Reinforces foundational knowledge for advanced topics.
 Helps identify areas needing improvement.
 Refreshes accuracy, neatness, and presentation skills.
 Builds confidence for more complex tasks in SS2 and SS3.

EVALUATION
1. List five common drawing instruments and state their uses.
2. Mention three qualities of good lettering.
3. Differentiate between orthographic and isometric drawings.

3
 4. What are the two main types of projection used in technical drawing?
5. Draw and label five different line types and state their uses.
6. Explain how a perpendicular bisector of a line can be constructed.
7. State two advantages of proper instrument maintenance.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw five different line types, label them, and state one use for each.
2. Construct a regular hexagon with each side measuring 40 mm.
3. Prepare a neat, properly lettered title block for your drawing sheet titled “Revision of
SS1 Work”.

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WEEK 2
TOPIC: GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION

CONTENT
1. Meaning of Geometrical Construction
Geometrical construction is the method of drawing geometrical figures accurately using only
drawing instruments such as a compass, straightedge (ruler), and set squares—without
measuring directly with a protractor or scale (except when necessary).
It involves constructing shapes, angles, tangents, bisectors, and other figures by applying
geometric principles.
Geometrical construction is a fundamental skill in technical drawing, architecture, and
engineering design. It ensures accuracy, precision, and clarity in technical communication.

2. Importance of Geometrical Construction

 It forms the foundation of technical and engineering drawing.
 It teaches accuracy, neatness, and discipline in drawing.
 It helps in designing mechanical and architectural components.
 It aids in the understanding of geometric properties and relationships.
 It helps in developing spatial reasoning and visualization skills.

3. Drawing Instruments Required

To perform geometrical constructions, the following instruments are essential:
 Drawing board – for securing paper.
 T-square – for drawing horizontal lines.
 Set squares (45° and 60°) – for vertical and inclined lines.
 Compass – for drawing circles and arcs.
 Dividers – for transferring measurements.
 Ruler (straightedge) – for drawing straight lines.
 Pencil (2H, H) – for light and dark lines.
 Eraser – for correcting mistakes.

4. Types of Geometrical Constructions

Geometrical constructions can be grouped into the following categories:
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 1. Basic Constructions

o Bisecting lines and angles

o Drawing perpendicular and parallel lines
o Dividing lines into equal parts
2. Polygon Constructions

o Constructing regular polygons (triangle, square, pentagon, hexagon, etc.)

3. Circle-Related Constructions

o Tangents to circles
o Arcs and circles passing through given points
o Inscribing and circumscribing circles about polygons

5. Basic Constructions and Illustrations

(a) Bisecting a Line Segment

To bisect line AB:
1. Draw a line AB.
2. With A as centre, draw an arc above and below AB using a radius more than half of AB.
3. With B as centre and the same radius, draw arcs cutting the previous arcs at points P and
Q.
4. Join PQ. PQ bisects AB at O, the midpoint.
P
\
A --------O--------- B
/
Q

Result: Line AB is divided into two equal parts at O.

(b) Bisecting an Angle

To bisect ∠ABC:
1. Draw angle ABC.
2. With B as centre, draw an arc to cut both arms at D and E.
3. With D and E as centres and a convenient radius, draw two arcs to intersect at F.
4. Draw line BF — it bisects the angle ∠ABC.
D
/\

6
 / \
B----F----E

(c) Drawing a Perpendicular from a Point on a Line

To draw a perpendicular from a point P on line AB:
1. Mark a point P on line AB.
2. With P as centre, draw an arc to cut AB at C and D.
3. With C and D as centres, and radius > half CD, draw arcs to intersect at Q above AB.
4. Draw line PQ — it is perpendicular to AB at P.
Q
|
|
C--P--D------AB

(d) Drawing a Perpendicular from a Point Outside a Line

1. Draw line AB and mark point P above it.
2. With P as centre, draw an arc to cut AB at C and D.
3. With C and D as centres and equal radii, draw arcs intersecting at E.
4. Draw line PE — it is perpendicular to AB.
P
/ \
/ \
--C-----D---AB
\
E

(e) Drawing a Line Parallel to Another Line

1. Draw a line AB.
2. At any point C above AB, draw a transversal line cutting AB at D.
3. With compass, measure the angle between the transversal and AB.
4. Reproduce the same angle at C using the compass arc method.
5. Draw a line through C — this line is parallel to AB.

6. Construction of Regular Polygons

Regular polygons are plane figures with equal sides and equal angles.
Examples:
 Triangle (3 sides)

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  Square (4 sides)
 Pentagon (5 sides)
 Hexagon (6 sides)
 Octagon (8 sides)

(a) Construction of an Equilateral Triangle (given one side)

1. Draw a straight line AB (say 50 mm).
2. With A as centre, draw an arc with radius AB.
3. With B as centre, draw another arc cutting the first at C.
4. Join AC and BC. ∴ ΔABC is equilateral.
C
/ \
/ \
A-----B

(b) Construction of a Square (given one side)

1. Draw line AB (say 50 mm).
2. At A and B, erect perpendiculars using set squares.
3. From A and B, mark equal lengths AD and BC equal to AB.
4. Join CD to complete square ABCD.
D-----C
| |
| |
A-----B

(c) Construction of a Regular Hexagon (given one side)

1. Draw a circle with radius equal to the side of the hexagon.
2. Mark a point A on the circumference.
3. With the same radius, step off the radius around the circle six times to get points A, B, C,
D, E, F.
4. Join all points consecutively to form hexagon ABCDEF.
B
/ \
A C
F D
\ /
E

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7. Constructions Involving Circles

(a) Tangent to a Circle from an External Point

1. Draw a circle with centre O and radius r.
2. Mark an external point P.
3. Join OP.
4. Bisect OP at M.
5. With M as centre and radius OM, draw a circle cutting the first at T₁ and T₂.
6. Join PT₁ and PT₂. These are tangents from P to the circle.
P
/ \
T₁ / \ T₂
(O)

(b) Inscribing and Circumscribing a Circle

 To inscribe a circle: Draw a circle inside a given polygon such that it touches all sides
internally.
 To circumscribe a circle: Draw a circle around a given polygon such that it passes
through all vertices.

8. Practical Applications
 Engineering design (machine components, gears, etc.)
 Architectural plans and layouts
 Structural drawings (frames, beams, supports)
 Geometric design and pattern creation

EVALUATION
1. Define geometrical construction.
2. State four instruments used for geometrical construction.
3. Describe how to bisect a given angle.
4. Explain the steps involved in constructing an equilateral triangle.
5. What is the difference between inscribed and circumscribed circles?
6. Draw and label a perpendicular line from a given point on a line.
7. Construct a regular hexagon with each side measuring 40 mm.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Using your drawing instruments, construct: a. A line AB = 60 mm and bisect it. b. An
angle of 90° using only compass and straightedge.
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 2. Construct a regular pentagon given one side = 40 mm.
3. Draw tangents to a circle of radius 25 mm from an external point 50 mm from its centre.

WEEK 3
TOPIC: GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION (CONTINUED)

CONTENT
1. Introduction
2. Construction of Triangles
3. Construction of Quadrilaterals
4. Construction of Regular Polygons
5. Bisection of Lines and Angles
6. Application of Geometrical Construction in Engineering and Design

1. INTRODUCTION
Geometrical construction continues from the previous lesson but focuses on practical shapes
used extensively in engineering, building design, and architecture — namely triangles,
quadrilaterals, and polygons. In all constructions, accuracy, neatness, and use of proper
instruments (compass, straightedge, set square, and protractor where necessary) are essential.

2. CONSTRUCTION OF TRIANGLES
Triangles are fundamental geometric shapes used in structural and mechanical design because of
their stability and rigidity.
Types of Triangles (by sides)
 Equilateral Triangle: All sides and angles are equal (each angle = 60°).
 Isosceles Triangle: Two sides and two angles are equal.
 Scalene Triangle: All sides and angles are unequal.
 Right-angled Triangle: One angle is 90°.

(a) Construction of an Equilateral Triangle (given one side)

Steps:
1. Draw a line AB (say 60 mm).
2. With A as centre and radius AB, draw an arc.
3. With B as centre and radius BA, draw another arc cutting the first at C.

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 4. Join AC and BC.
Result: Triangle ABC is equilateral.
C
/ \
/ \
A-----B

(b) Construction of an Isosceles Triangle (given base and sides)

Example: Base AB = 70 mm; equal sides = 50 mm.
Steps:
1. Draw base AB = 70 mm.
2. With A as centre, radius 50 mm, draw an arc.
3. With B as centre, radius 50 mm, draw another arc to cut the first at C.
4. Join AC and BC.
Result: ΔABC is isosceles.
C
/ \
50/ \50
/_____\
A 70 B

(c) Construction of a Scalene Triangle (given three sides)

Example: AB = 60 mm, BC = 50 mm, AC = 40 mm.
Steps:
1. Draw base AB = 60 mm.
2. With A as centre, radius 40 mm, draw an arc.
3. With B as centre, radius 50 mm, draw another arc cutting the first at C.
4. Join AC and BC.
Result: ΔABC is scalene.

(d) Construction of a Right-Angled Triangle (given base and height)

Example: Base AB = 60 mm, height = 40 mm.
Steps:

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 1. Draw line AB = 60 mm.
2. At A, draw a perpendicular using set square.
3. Mark AD = 40 mm on the perpendicular.
4. Join BD. Result: ΔABD is right-angled at A.
D
|\
| \
| \
|___\
A----B

3. CONSTRUCTION OF QUADRILATERALS
Quadrilaterals are four-sided plane figures widely used in civil and mechanical design. They
include square, rectangle, rhombus, parallelogram, trapezium, and kite.

(a) Square (given one side)

Steps:
1. Draw base AB = 50 mm.
2. At A and B, erect perpendiculars using a set square.
3. Mark AD and BC = 50 mm.
4. Join CD.
D-----C
| |
| |
A-----B

(b) Rectangle (given length and breadth)

Example: AB = 80 mm, AD = 50 mm.
Steps:
1. Draw base AB = 80 mm.
2. Erect perpendiculars at A and B.
3. Mark AD = 50 mm, BC = 50 mm.
4. Join CD to complete rectangle.
D---------C
| |
| |
A---------B

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(c) Parallelogram (given sides and included angle)
Example: AB = 80 mm, AD = 50 mm, ∠BAD = 60°.
Steps:
1. Draw AB = 80 mm.
2. At A, draw ∠BAD = 60°.
3. On AD, mark 50 mm.
4. From D, draw a line parallel to AB.
5. From B, draw a line parallel to AD to meet the first line at C.
D-------C
\ /
\ /
\ /
A-----B

(d) Rhombus (given one side and one angle)

Example: Side = 60 mm, ∠A = 70°.
Steps:
1. Draw AB = 60 mm.
2. At A, draw ∠BAD = 70°.
3. On AD, mark 60 mm.
4. Complete rhombus by parallel lines.
All sides are equal but angles differ.

(e) Trapezium (one pair of opposite sides parallel)

Example: AB = 80 mm, CD = 50 mm, height = 40 mm.
Steps:
1. Draw AB = 80 mm (base).
2. Draw a perpendicular from A and B.
3. Mark height = 40 mm.
4. Join C and D to form top side.
C-----D
| |
| |
A-----B

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(f) Kite
Properties: Two pairs of adjacent sides are equal.
Steps:
1. Draw a diagonal (say AC = 70 mm).
2. From A and C, construct arcs to locate B and D such that AB = AD, and CB = CD.
3. Join A–B–C–D–A.

4. CONSTRUCTION OF REGULAR POLYGONS

Regular polygons are plane figures with equal sides and angles. They are fundamental in tiling,
gear design, and architectural forms.

(a) Regular Pentagon (given one side)

1. Draw side AB = 40 mm.
2. With A as centre, draw an arc of radius AB.
3. With B as centre, draw another arc cutting at O.
4. Draw a circle with centre O and radius OA.
5. With compass, step off the radius around the circle five times to locate points C, D, E.
6. Join A–B–C–D–E–A.
C
/ \
B-----D
\ /
E
|
A

(b) Regular Hexagon (using circle method)

1. Draw a circle with given radius (say 30 mm).
2. Choose a point A on the circle.
3. Step off the radius six times around the circumference to get six points.
4. Join points consecutively to form hexagon.

(c) Regular Octagon (using square method)

1. Draw a square of given side.
2. Draw diagonals to find the centre.
3. At each corner, draw 45° lines cutting diagonals.
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 4. Connect the new intersection points to form an octagon.

5. BISECTION OF LINES AND ANGLES

(a) Bisecting a Line

Steps:
1. Draw a line AB.
2. With A as centre, radius > ½ AB, draw arcs above and below.
3. With B as centre, same radius, draw arcs to intersect at P and Q.
4. Join PQ. PQ bisects AB at O.
P
|
A-----O-----B
|
Q

(b) Bisecting an Angle

Steps:
1. Draw ∠ABC.
2. With B as centre, draw an arc cutting BA and BC at D and E.
3. With D and E as centres, draw arcs to meet at F.
4. Draw BF to bisect the angle.

6. APPLICATION OF GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION IN

ENGINEERING AND DESIGN
 Civil Engineering: Design of beams, columns, roofs, and arches.
 Mechanical Engineering: Construction of gears, cams, and linkages.
 Architecture: Planning rooms, windows, and decorative patterns.
 Technical Illustration: Pictorial and orthographic drawings depend on accurate
geometry.
 Graphic Design and Pattern Making: In textiles, logos, and ornamental designs.

EVALUATION
1. Define geometrical construction.
2. Draw and label three types of triangles and state their properties.
3. Construct a rhombus of side 60 mm and one angle of 70°.
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 4. Distinguish between a parallelogram and a rectangle.
5. Construct a regular hexagon given one side = 30 mm.
6. State the steps to bisect an angle.
7. Explain two practical applications of geometrical construction in engineering.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Using your drawing instruments, construct: a. An isosceles triangle (base = 70 mm, equal
sides = 50 mm). b. A trapezium with parallel sides 80 mm and 50 mm, height 40 mm.
2. Construct a regular pentagon with each side = 35 mm.
3. Bisect a line 60 mm long and then bisect one of the angles formed by the bisector with
the line.

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WEEK 4
TOPIC: GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION (CONTINUED)

SUB-TOPICS
1. Division of Lines into Equal Parts
2. Construction of Tangents to Circles

CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION
Geometrical construction forms the foundation of engineering, architectural, and technical
drawing. Every accurate shape or figure—whether polygonal, circular, or irregular—relies on
geometric principles for correctness. In this lesson, we will study two important construction
techniques:
 Division of lines into equal parts, and
 Construction of tangents to circles.
Both are indispensable in design, pattern development, and machine drawing, ensuring
accuracy, proportionality, and visual balance.

2. DIVISION OF A STRAIGHT LINE INTO EQUAL PARTS

Meaning
Dividing a straight line into equal parts means splitting it into smaller, congruent segments using
geometrical methods (not direct measurement with a ruler). This method ensures mathematical
precision, especially in scaling or drawing parts proportionally.

Instruments Required
 Drawing board and T-square
 Set squares (30°, 45°, 60°)
 Compass and divider
 Scale rule
 Drawing pencil (2H, H, HB)
 Eraser and masking tape

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Step-by-Step Procedure
To divide a straight line AB into, for example, 5 equal parts:
1. Draw the given line AB. Let AB = 100 mm (or any given length).

2. At point A, draw an inclined line AC at about 30°–45° to AB using a set square.

3. On line AC, mark off five equal segments using a divider or compass. Label them as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 starting
from A.

4. Join point 5 to B. This line (5B) acts as the reference for parallel divisions.

5. Draw lines through points 1, 2, 3, and 4 on AC, each parallel to line 5B, using a set square or compass.

6. Label the points of intersection on AB as P₁ , P₂ , P₃ , and P₄ .

Now, AB is divided into five equal parts.

Illustration (Text Diagram)

5
|\
| \
| \
| \
| \
| \
A----1------2------3------4------B

The lines drawn from points 1–4 to meet AB divide it into five equal parts.

Geometrical Principle Behind the Method

All triangles drawn between parallel lines having the same base and height are equal in area.
Hence, parallel lines drawn through equal divisions on the inclined line create equal segments on
the main line.

Applications
The division of lines into equal parts is useful in:
 Creating equal spacing for rivets, bolts, or beams.
 Designing staircases, columns, and panels.
 Dividing scales and arcs into equal divisions.
 Constructing gears, threads, and machine parts.
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  Dividing maps, patterns, or diagrams into equal proportions.

Alternative Method (Using Compass Only)

To divide a line AB into n equal parts:
1. With A as center, draw an arc intersecting AB.
2. With the same radius, continue marking arcs along AB.
3. If slight errors occur, bisect the last small segment geometrically. This is best used for
small-scale quick constructions.

3. CONSTRUCTION OF TANGENTS TO CIRCLES

Meaning
A tangent is a straight line that touches a circle at exactly one point, called the point of
tangency. It does not pass through the circle. The radius at the point of tangency is always
perpendicular to the tangent.

Types of Tangents
1. Tangent at a point on the circle
2. Tangents from a point outside the circle

3. Common tangents to two circles

o External tangents
o Internal tangents

A. Tangent at a Point on a Circle

Steps:
1. Draw a circle with center O and radius r.
2. Choose a point P on the circumference.
3. Draw the radius OP.
4. Construct a perpendicular to OP at point P using a set square or compass.
5. The line through P is the tangent to the circle.
Illustration:
Tangent
|
|

19
 |
P-----•------O
|
|

The tangent touches the circle at P and is perpendicular to the radius OP.

B. Tangents from a Point Outside the Circle

Steps:
1. Draw a circle with center O and radius r.
2. Mark an external point P outside the circle.
3. Join OP.
4. Bisect OP to find the midpoint M.
5. With M as center and OM as radius, draw a new circle.
6. The new circle cuts the original one at points T₁ and T₂.
7. Join P–T₁ and P–T₂.
8. These are the two tangents to the circle from point P.
Illustration:
T₁
/|
/ |
/ |
/ |
P———M——O
\ |
\ |
\ |
\|
T₂

C. Common Tangents to Two Circles

Types:
1. External Tangents: Do not intersect the line joining the centers.
2. Internal Tangents: Cross the line joining the centers.
Construction (External Tangent):
1. Draw two circles with centers O₁ and O₂.
2. Draw the line joining the centers.
3. Reduce one circle’s radius by the difference between the two radii.

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 4. Draw a tangent from the external point (as in the previous construction).
5. Restore the true radius and transfer tangent points.
6. Draw the two external tangents touching both circles.

Geometrical Principle
If OP is the radius and PT is the tangent, then ( OP \perp PT ).
This principle is the basis of tangent constructions and is used in determining touching points in
mechanical motion, such as gears, pulleys, and cams.

Practical Applications
Tangents are used in:
 Engineering Design: Contact between gears, belts, and pulleys.
 Architectural Drafting: Smooth curve-to-wall transitions.
 Civil Engineering: Designing curved road paths and roundabouts.
 Mechanical Drawing: Designing cams, flywheels, and rollers.
 Art and Graphics: Smooth blending between straight and curved surfaces.

Illustrations (Text-Based Summary)

Tangent at a point:
|
| Tangent
|
•——O (Radius)

Tangents from external point:

T₁ T₂
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ /
P

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4. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RADIUS AND TANGENT
 The tangent to a circle is always perpendicular to the radius at the point of contact.
Mathematically: [ OP \perp PT ]
 Tangents drawn from the same external point are equal in length.
[ PT_1 = PT_2 ]

EVALUATION
1. Define the term tangent to a circle.
2. State the relationship between a tangent and the radius at the point of tangency.
3. Explain step-by-step how to divide a straight line into six equal parts.
4. What are the two main types of tangents that can be drawn to two circles?
5. List three applications of tangent constructions in engineering or architecture.
6. Describe how to construct tangents from an external point to a given circle.
7. Why is geometric division preferred to direct measurement for accuracy?

ASSIGNMENT
1. Construct a straight line AB = 150 mm, and divide it into seven equal parts.
2. Draw a circle of radius 25 mm, and construct two tangents from a point 50 mm outside
the circle.
3. Construct two circles of radii 30 mm and 20 mm, their centers 90 mm apart. Draw two
common external tangents to touch both circles.

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WEEK 6
TOPIC:
SIMPLE SCALE DRAWING – PLAIN AND DIAGONAL SCALES

CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION
In Technical Drawing, it is often impossible to draw an object in its actual size because it may be
too large (like a building) or too small (like a screw). A scale drawing is therefore a
representation of an object in proportionate but reduced or enlarged size.
A scale is the ratio between the dimension of the drawing and the actual dimension of the
object.
[ \text{Scale} = \frac{\text{Drawing size}}{\text{Actual size}} ]

2. TYPES OF SCALES
1. Full Scale (1:1) – Drawing size equals the real size. Example: Drawing a 50 mm rod as 50 mm on paper.
2. Reduced Scale (1:n) – The drawing is smaller than the actual object. Example: 1:100 for a building plan (1 cm =
100 cm).

3. Enlarged Scale (n:1) – The drawing is larger than the real object. Example: 10:1 for small tools or machine parts.

3. REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION (R.F.)

The Representative Fraction expresses the ratio between the length on the drawing and the
actual length using the same units.
[ R.F. = \frac{\text{Length on Drawing}}{\text{Actual Length}} ]
Example: If 1 cm on a drawing represents 2 m (200 cm) in reality, [ R.F. = \frac{1}{200} ]

4. PURPOSE OF SCALE DRAWING

 To represent large objects on a manageable drawing sheet.
 To enlarge small components for better detail.
 To ensure uniform proportion and accuracy in all measurements.

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  To allow for quick reading of measurements during construction or fabrication.
 To promote standardization in engineering and architectural documentation.

5. PLAIN SCALE
Definition
A Plain Scale is a line divided into equal parts to measure or read two units (usually a main unit
and a subunit), such as metres and decimetres or kilometres and hectometres.
Parts of a Plain Scale
1. The main divisions – represent major units.
2. The subdivisions – represent smaller units.
3. The zero point – often lies between the main and sub-divisions.
4. Labeling – each major and minor division is marked with its corresponding value.

Formula for the Length of a Scale

[ L = R.F. \times \text{Actual Length to be Represented} ]

Steps for Constructing a Plain Scale

1. Draw a straight base line (AB) of calculated length.
2. Divide it into equal main parts representing the major units.
3. Subdivide the first division on the left into ten smaller parts.
4. Number the main divisions (1, 2, 3, …) to the right and sub-divisions (1, 2, 3, …) to the
left.
5. Label with appropriate units (e.g., metres, centimetres).

ILLUSTRATION 1: PLAIN SCALE

←--- Subdivisions ---→
|----|----|----|----|----|----|
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 metres

Or, more detailed:

←---- Decimetres ----→
|----|----|----|----|----|
0 1 2 3 4 5 Metres

(Each small division on the left = 0.1 m or 10 cm)

24
Example:
Construct a plain scale of R.F. = 1/50 to read up to 5 metres.
1
Solution: L = 50 × 500 cm = 10 cm. So, draw a 10 cm long line and divide it as above.

6. DIAGONAL SCALE
Definition
A Diagonal Scale is used for more precise readings, enabling measurement up to three units
(e.g., metres, decimetres, and centimetres).
It works on the principle of similar triangles—using diagonals to subdivide divisions into
smaller, measurable parts.

Principle
In a diagonal scale, the diagonal line divides small squares into smaller parts that are
proportional, allowing for finer readings (e.g., 0.1 cm or 0.01 m).

Steps for Constructing a Diagonal Scale

1. Draw a plain scale as the base.
2. Erect a perpendicular line (AC) at the zero point.
3. Mark equal vertical divisions on AC (e.g., 10 equal parts).
4. From the top of the first vertical, draw a line parallel to AB.
5. Draw diagonals from each top division to the next lower intersection on the next vertical.
6. The intersection points of diagonals with vertical lines show subdivided measurements.

ILLUSTRATION 2: DIAGONAL SCALE

0 1 2 3 4
|------|------|------|------|
|\ |\ |\ |\ |
| \ | \ | \ | \ |
| \ | \ | \ | \ |
| \ | \ | \ | \ |
|____\_|____\_|____\_|____\_|
←-- metres --→

Each diagonal intersection allows reading one-tenth of the smallest division, e.g., 0.01 m.

25
Worked Example
Construct a Diagonal Scale to read metres, decimetres, and centimetres with R.F. = 1/50, to
measure up to 5 metres.
Solution:
1. ( L = \frac{1}{50} \times 500,cm = 10,cm )
2. Draw a 10 cm line (AB).
3. Divide into 5 equal parts (each = 1 m).
4. Subdivide the first division on the left into 10 (each = 0.1 m).
5. Erect perpendiculars of 2 cm height.
6. Subdivide vertically into 10 equal parts and draw diagonals.
This allows readings up to centimetres (0.01 m).

7. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLAIN AND DIAGONAL SCALES

Feature Plain Scale Diagonal Scale
Units measured Two (e.g., m and cm) Three (e.g., m, dm, cm)
Accuracy Moderate High
Construction Simple Complex
Principle Linear division Similar triangles
Application General drawing Precision engineering, mapping

8. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF SCALES

 Architecture: Building plans and site layouts.
 Mechanical engineering: Machine parts and fittings.
 Civil engineering: Bridges, roads, and drainage plans.
 Surveying and mapping: Land area representation.
 Town planning: Layouts of cities and estates.

EVALUATION
1. Define a scale and give three types of scales.
2. What is the Representative Fraction (R.F.) and how is it used?
3. State three differences between plain and diagonal scales.
4. Explain the principle of the diagonal scale.
5. List three uses of scale drawing in technical work.
6. Using R.F. = 1/100, construct a plain scale to represent 5 metres.

26
ASSIGNMENT
1. Construct a Plain Scale to measure up to 6 m using R.F. = 1/50. Show 4.8 m on the scale.
2. Construct a Diagonal Scale to read up to 5 m, showing metres, decimetres, and
centimetres (R.F. = 1/100).
3. Explain how similar triangles help in obtaining smaller subdivisions on a diagonal scale.

27
WEEK 8
TOPIC:
PICTORIAL DRAWINGS – OBLIQUE PROJECTION

CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION
In Technical Drawing, pictorial drawings are used to represent three-dimensional (3D) objects
on a two-dimensional (2D) surface such as paper. They help the viewer visualize the object as
it would appear in reality.
There are three major types of pictorial drawings:
1. Isometric Projection
2. Oblique Projection
3. Perspective Projection
In this lesson, we focus on Oblique Projection — its meaning, principles, types, and method of
construction.

2. DEFINITION OF OBLIQUE PROJECTION

Oblique Projection is a type of pictorial drawing in which the front face of the object is drawn
in true shape, while the other faces are drawn at an angle (usually 45°) to the horizontal line
and are reduced in scale to give a sense of depth.
In oblique projection:
 The front face is parallel to the picture plane and drawn in true dimensions.
 The receding (side) faces are inclined to the picture plane and drawn at an angle
(typically 30°, 45°, or 60°) to represent depth.
 The depth dimension is sometimes foreshortened to make the object look more realistic.

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF OBLIQUE PROJECTION

1. The front face of the object is shown in true size and shape.
2. The receding edges (depth lines) are drawn obliquely (usually at 45°, but can also be 30°
or 60°).
3. The depth (receding dimension) may be drawn at full scale (Cavalier) or half scale
(Cabinet).

28
 4. The projectors (lines of projection) are drawn oblique to the picture plane.
5. It shows the object in a more realistic 3D form than orthographic projection, though
slightly distorted.

4. TYPES OF OBLIQUE PROJECTION

There are two main types of oblique projection:
A. Cavalier Oblique Projection
 The receding edges are drawn at full length (true length).
 The angle of projection is usually 45°.
 The result appears distorted because the depth is exaggerated.
Example: A cube drawn with all edges at full length, receding at 45°.
Front Face (True Shape)
|
|\
| \
|__\____ → Receding edges (full length)

B. Cabinet Oblique Projection

 The receding edges are drawn half the true length.
 The angle of projection is also usually 45°.
 The object appears more natural and realistic than in the cavalier method.
Front Face (True Shape)
|
|\
| \
|__\_ → Receding edges (half length)

Note: Cabinet Oblique is the preferred method in technical practice because it gives a better
visual appearance.

5. COMPARISON BETWEEN CAVALIER AND CABINET OBLIQUE

PROJECTION
Feature Cavalier Oblique Cabinet Oblique
Scale on receding axis Full scale (1:1) Half scale (1:2)
Appearance Exaggerated depth Realistic depth
Common usage Mechanical drawings Furniture and architectural drawings
Accuracy Less realistic More realistic

29
Feature Cavalier Oblique Cabinet Oblique
Receding angle 45°, sometimes 30° or 60° 45°, sometimes 30°

6. CONSTRUCTION OF OBLIQUE PROJECTION

Instruments Required
 Drawing board
 T-square
 45° and 30°/60° set squares
 Ruler or scale
 Pencil and eraser
 Compass (if arcs/circles are needed)

STEP-BY-STEP PROCEDURE (Example: Oblique Drawing of a Rectangular Block)

Given Dimensions: Length = 100 mm Height = 60 mm Width = 50 mm

STEP 1: Draw the Front View (True Shape)

1. Draw a horizontal baseline (XY).
2. On this line, mark length = 100 mm (AB).
3. At A and B, erect perpendiculars 60 mm high to represent height.
4. Complete the rectangle ABCD — this is the front face, drawn in true size.
Front Face:
A(0,0), B(100,0), C(100,60), D(0,60)

STEP 2: Draw the Receding Axis

From points A and D, draw lines at 45° to the horizontal (for the depth).

STEP 3: Mark the Depth

On each 45° line, measure 50 mm (width). If using Cabinet Oblique, measure 25 mm instead
(half of 50 mm).
Label these points as E (from A) and H (from D).

STEP 4: Complete the Top and Side Faces

1. From points E and H, draw verticals (same height as front face).

30
 2. Join the upper ends to complete the top face (E–F–G–H).
3. Draw the visible edges with thick lines and hidden ones (if needed) with dashed lines.

ILLUSTRATION 1: OBLIQUE PROJECTION OF A RECTANGULAR

BLOCK
Front View (True Shape)
A(0,0)--------B(100,0)
| |
| |
D(0,60)-------C(100,60)

Receding edges at 45°:

A–E and D–H = 50 mm (or 25 mm for Cabinet)

Top face:
E–F–G–H connects at same height as C–D

Visual (Text Diagram):

D------C
/| /|
/ | / |
H--|---G |
| A---|--B
| / | /
|/ |/
E------F

7. OBLIQUE PROJECTION OF CIRCULAR OBJECTS

When a circle appears on an oblique surface, it appears as an ellipse.
Steps:
1. Draw the true circle on the front face or top view.
2. On the oblique plane, construct a square enclosing the circle.
3. Transfer all points of tangency (top, bottom, left, right) to the oblique surface.
4. Connect them smoothly to form an ellipse (using the oblong method).

ILLUSTRATION 2: OBLIQUE PROJECTION OF A CYLINDER

Given: Diameter = 50 mm, Height = 70 mm.
Steps:
1. Draw the front circle (true size).

31
 2. From its diameter ends, draw receding lines at 45° to represent depth.
3. Draw the top ellipse using transferred points.
4. Join the visible sides with vertical lines.
________ ← top ellipse
/ /
/_______/
| |
| | ← height
|_______|

8. ADVANTAGES OF OBLIQUE PROJECTION

1. Easy to construct — only one face is drawn in true shape.
2. The front face retains true dimensions.
3. Simple to understand visually.
4. Easier to measure directly from the front face.
5. Useful for quick sketches and presentations.

9. DISADVANTAGES
1. Receding faces appear distorted (especially in Cavalier type).
2. Less realistic than isometric or perspective projections.
3. Circles on receding planes must be drawn as ellipses — more complex.
4. Not suitable for engineering working drawings.

10. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF OBLIQUE DRAWINGS

 Used in furniture design (Cabinet Oblique).
 Used in woodwork and carpentry for visual presentation.
 Used in architectural sketches for early visualization.
 Used in technical illustrations and assembly manuals.
 Used in engineering sketches for quick communication.

EVALUATION
1. Define Oblique Projection.
2. List two types of oblique projection and state their differences.
3. State three characteristics of oblique projection.
4. Draw a rectangular block using the Cavalier Oblique method (given dimensions).
5. Explain why the Cabinet Oblique projection is preferred for realistic drawings.
6. Describe how a circle is represented in an oblique projection.

32
ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw a Cavalier Oblique projection of a cube with 40 mm sides.
2. Draw a Cabinet Oblique projection of a rectangular block 100 mm × 60 mm × 50 mm.
3. Construct the oblique projection of a cylinder (diameter 40 mm, height 60 mm).

33
WEEK 9
TOPIC:
PICTORIAL DRAWINGS – ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION
In Technical Drawing, pictorial drawings are used to represent three-dimensional (3D)
objects on a two-dimensional (2D) surface such as paper. They allow a viewer to visualize the
object as it appears in reality.
There are three major forms of pictorial drawing:
1. Isometric Projection
2. Oblique Projection
3. Perspective Projection
This lesson focuses on Isometric Projection, which is one of the most widely used in
engineering, architectural, and design drawings.

2. DEFINITION OF ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

Isometric Projection is a form of pictorial drawing in which the object is tilted so that all three
dimensions (length, breadth, and height) are shown in one view.
The projection is based on the isometric axes, which are three lines inclined at 120° to one
another. In this type of projection:
 The three principal axes (X, Y, Z) represent the length, width, and height of the object.
 The angles between these axes are equal (120° each).
 The dimensions along these axes are drawn at the same scale but foreshortened by a
constant factor (0.816).

3. MEANING OF "ISOMETRIC"
The word “Isometric” comes from Greek words:
 Iso = Equal
 Metron = Measure

34
Hence, "isometric" means equal measure — because all axes are scaled equally and at equal
angles.

4. CHARACTERISTICS OF ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

1. The three isometric axes are 120° apart from each other.
2. Each axis represents one of the three dimensions of the object (length, breadth, height).
3. All edges parallel to these axes are drawn to the same scale.
4. Lines parallel to any isometric axis are shown in true length.
5. Circles appear as ellipses in isometric projection.
6. Angles and shapes on inclined planes appear distorted because of the projection.

5. TYPES OF ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS

Type Description Remarks
Isometric Drawn using isometric scale More technically accurate.
Projection (foreshortened dimensions).
Isometric Drawn using full (true) dimensions. More common in practice for
Drawing simplicity.

6. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ISOMETRIC PROJECTION AND

ISOMETRIC DRAWING
Feature Isometric Projection Isometric Drawing
Scale Reduced to 0.816 of true length (Isometric scale) Full (true) length
Appearance Smaller, more accurate Slightly larger, less accurate
Use Technical projections General pictorial representation
Lines Foreshortened True size

7. ISOMETRIC AXES AND PLANES

Isometric Axes
Three lines meeting at one point (the isometric centre) and equally inclined at 120° to one
another:
 One vertical axis (height)
 Two at 30° to the horizontal (length and width)

35
Illustration 1: Isometric Axes Diagram
Z (Vertical)
↑
|
|
•———→ X (30°)
/
/
Y (30°)

Isometric Planes
The isometric planes are imaginary planes formed by any two of the isometric axes:
1. Horizontal Plane (X–Y)
2. Left Vertical Plane (Y–Z)
3. Right Vertical Plane (X–Z)
These planes help locate features like holes, edges, and inclined surfaces.

8. ISOMETRIC SCALE
Because the isometric projection foreshortens the actual dimensions, an isometric scale is used
to transfer the true lengths to the reduced (foreshortened) lengths.
Construction of Isometric Scale
Step-by-step:
1. Draw a horizontal line AB.
2. At A, draw a line AC at 45° and AD at 30°.
3. Mark true lengths along AC (10 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm, etc.).
4. From each division, draw vertical lines to meet line AD.
5. The distances measured on AD represent isometric lengths (0.816 × true length).

Illustration 2: Isometric Scale Construction

D
|\
| \
| \
| \ ← AD (30° line)
| \
| \
A------C
←45°→

36
Note: The isometric scale is mainly used in isometric projection, not in isometric drawing.

9. STEPS FOR CONSTRUCTING AN ISOMETRIC DRAWING

Example: Rectangular Block (100 mm × 60 mm × 40 mm)
Step 1: Draw the isometric axes — one vertical and two lines at 30° to the horizontal.
Step 2: From the isometric centre, mark:
 100 mm along one 30° axis (length)
 60 mm along the other 30° axis (width)
 40 mm along the vertical axis (height)
Step 3: Complete the isometric box using parallel lines to the three axes.
Step 4: Use darker lines for visible edges and lighter dashed lines for hidden edges.

Illustration 3: Isometric Drawing of a Rectangular Block

C----------D
/| /|
/ | / |
G--|-------H |
| A-------|--B
| / | /
|/ |/
E----------F

(Axes at 120°; all sides parallel to isometric axes)

10. ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF CIRCLES

A circle in isometric projection appears as an ellipse.
Steps to Draw a Circle in Isometric View (Oblong Method)
1. Draw the square that encloses the true circle.
2. Draw the same square in isometric projection.
3. Locate the midpoints of each side of the square.
4. Join these midpoints diagonally to locate tangential points.
5. Use a compass to draw four arcs that smoothly form an ellipse.

37
Illustration 4: Isometric Circle (Ellipse) Construction
_______
/ \
| |
\_________/

(Appears as an ellipse in the isometric view)

11. ISOMETRIC PROJECTION OF COMBINED SOLIDS

When two or more solids (e.g., cylinder on a block, cone on a cube) are combined:
1. Draw the isometric box for the base solid first.
2. Add the top solid in the correct position.
3. For circular solids (cylinders, cones), use the ellipse method for top and bottom.

Illustration 5: Cylinder on a Block

________
/ /|
/________/ |
| | |
| () | |
|________|/

12. ADVANTAGES OF ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

1. Provides a clear 3D view of the object.
2. Shows all three dimensions (length, width, height) in one view.
3. Measurements can be taken directly along the isometric axes.
4. Easy to construct with simple geometrical tools.
5. Useful for visual communication between designers and manufacturers.

13. DISADVANTAGES
1. Cannot represent true shapes of inclined surfaces.
2. Circles appear as ellipses — more difficult to construct.
3. Angles other than 90° are distorted.
4. Not used for precise engineering production drawings.

14. APPLICATIONS OF ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS

 Engineering and manufacturing: machine parts and assemblies.

38
  Architecture: presentation of rooms, buildings, and components.
 Furniture design: visual representation of products.
 Graphics and animation: 3D modeling and design visualization.
 Education: teaching and learning visualization of solid geometry.

EVALUATION
1. Define isometric projection.
2. Explain the meaning of “isometric axes.”
3. Distinguish between isometric drawing and isometric projection.
4. State the angle between isometric axes.
5. Describe how circles appear in isometric drawings.
6. Draw the isometric projection of a cube of 40 mm sides.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Construct an isometric projection of a rectangular block 80 mm × 60 mm × 40 mm.
2. Using the oblong method, draw the isometric view of a circle of diameter 50 mm.
3. Draw the isometric projection of a cylinder (base diameter 40 mm, height 70 mm).

DIAGRAM SUMMARY
Diagram Description
Fig. 1: Isometric Axes Three 120° axes showing X, Y, and Z directions.
Fig. 2: Isometric Scale 45° and 30° line showing true and isometric lengths.
Fig. 3: Isometric Block 3D rectangular solid with all edges parallel to axes.
Fig. 4: Isometric Circle Ellipse representing a circular hole or cylinder top.
Fig. 5: Combination of Solids Cylinder placed on a rectangular block (complex solid).

39
WEEK 10
TOPIC:
FREEHAND SKETCHING

CONTENT
1. Meaning and importance of freehand sketching
2. Materials and instruments for freehand sketching
3. Basic principles and techniques of freehand sketching
4. Steps in freehand sketching
5. Proportion in sketching
6. Types of freehand sketches
7. Freehand sketching of simple objects
8. Care and presentation of sketches

1. MEANING OF FREEHAND SKETCHING

Freehand sketching is the process of drawing objects without the use of drawing instruments
such as rulers, compasses, or protractors. It is done manually, using only the hand and eye to
represent an object’s shape, proportion, and appearance.
In technical drawing, freehand sketching serves as a quick visual tool to communicate ideas
before producing a detailed instrument drawing.

Illustration 1: Example of a Freehand Sketch of a Simple Object

_______
/ /|
/______/ |
| | |
| |/
|______|

(A freehand sketch of a rectangular block – drawn without instruments)

2. IMPORTANCE OF FREEHAND SKETCHING

1. Communication Tool: Helps engineers, designers, and students express ideas quickly
and clearly.

40
 2. Speed: Saves time — no need for instruments or long setups.
3. Flexibility: Useful in the field or during brainstorming sessions.
4. Foundation for Design: Serves as a preliminary step before detailed mechanical or
architectural drawings.
5. Visual Thinking: Develops the ability to visualize and proportion objects accurately.
6. Problem-Solving Aid: Enables visualization of modifications, mechanisms, or design
alternatives.

3. MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENTS USED IN FREEHAND

SKETCHING
Although no measuring tools are used, basic materials are needed:

MATERIAL USE
HB or 2B Pencil For light sketching lines.
Eraser For correcting mistakes.
Plain or Graph Paper Surface for sketching.
Sharpener Keeps pencil point fine.
Drawing Board (Optional) Provides stable drawing support.

4. BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES OF FREEHAND

SKETCHING
To produce neat, proportionate, and legible sketches, the following techniques are applied:
(a) Good Posture and Grip
 Sit upright with the forearm supported.
 Hold the pencil lightly but firmly about 25–30 mm from the point.
 Move the pencil freely from the wrist and elbow, not the fingers alone.
(b) Line Quality
 Use light lines first for construction, then darken the outlines.
 Lines should be uniform in thickness and smooth, not shaky.
(c) Proportion
 Ensure the parts of the object relate correctly to one another in size.
 Avoid exaggeration of any dimension.
(d) Observation
 Observe the object carefully before sketching.
 Identify main shapes, axes, and relative dimensions.
(e) Simplicity
 Avoid unnecessary details.

41
  Focus on the essential shape and structure.

5. STEPS IN FREEHAND SKETCHING

Step 1: Observation
Study the object and note its general shape and main dimensions.
Step 2: Enclosing Box
Visualize or lightly sketch an imaginary box around the object (also called the “proportion
box”).
Step 3: Light Construction Lines
Draw the main outlines lightly, indicating height, length, and width.
Step 4: Refine the Shape
Add minor features — edges, corners, holes, etc.
Step 5: Final Outlining
Darken the final lines neatly and erase unnecessary construction marks.

Illustration 2: Stages in Freehand Sketching of a Block

STAGE 1: Outline Box
______
/ /|
/_____/ |

STAGE 2: Add Details

______
/ /|
/____/ |
| | |
|____|/

STAGE 3: Final Outline

______
/ /|
/____/ |
| |/
|____|

42
6. PROPORTION IN SKETCHING
Proportion is the correct relationship between the sizes of different parts of an object. It ensures
that no part of the sketch looks too big or too small compared to others.
Example:
If a box is twice as long as it is high, the same ratio must appear in the sketch.

Actual Object Proportion in Sketch

Length = 100 mm Draw length twice the height
Height = 50 mm Maintain ratio 2 : 1
Illustration 3: Proportion Comparison
Correct Proportion: Wrong Proportion:
_______ ________
/ /| / /|
/______/ | /______/ |
| | | | | |
|______|/ |______|/

7. TYPES OF FREEHAND SKETCHES

Type Description Example
Orthographic Sketch showing different views (front, top, Front and top view of a
Sketch side) on flat planes. block.
Pictorial Sketch Shows object in 3D form (Isometric or Cube or cylinder drawn
Oblique). in 3D.
Exploded Sketch Parts of an assembly are separated to show Exploded view of a nut
how they fit together. and bolt.
Diagrammatic Simplified sketch showing relationships or Circuit layout, linkage,
Sketch principles. etc.

Illustration 4: Types of Freehand Sketches

(a) Orthographic Views: (b) Pictorial (3D) View:
______ ______
| | / /|
|______| /_____/ |
| | /
|_____|/

43
8. FREEHAND SKETCHING OF SIMPLE OBJECTS
Example 1: Freehand Sketch of a Cube
_______
/ /|
/______/ |
| | |
| |/
|______|

Example 2: Freehand Sketch of a Cylinder

_______
/ \
| |
\_________/

Example 3: Freehand Sketch of a Simple Machine Part

_______
| |___
| | |
|______|___|

(Each sketch is approximate but proportionate and recognizable.)

9. TIPS FOR IMPROVING FREEHAND SKETCHING SKILL

1. Practice drawing straight lines without rulers.
2. Draw boxes and geometric shapes repeatedly to develop control.
3. Sketch real-life objects (e.g., books, cups, tools) in 3D.
4. Focus on accuracy and proportion, not perfection.
5. Keep a sketchbook for daily practice.

10. CARE AND PRESENTATION OF FREEHAND SKETCHES

 Keep sketches clean and smudge-free.
 Use sharp pencils for clarity.
 Label all parts neatly and legibly.
 Present sketches in logical arrangement — front, side, top views.
 Use light guidelines to align titles and annotations.

EVALUATION
1. Define freehand sketching.
2. List five materials required for freehand sketching.
3. Mention four techniques for producing good freehand sketches.

44
 4. State three advantages of freehand sketching.
5. Explain the meaning of proportion in freehand sketching.
6. Draw a freehand pictorial sketch of a cube or cylinder.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Sketch in freehand the orthographic views (front, top, side) of a rectangular block of 80
mm × 50 mm × 30 mm.
2. Draw in freehand a pictorial sketch of a mug or cup.
3. Produce a freehand sketch of a simple mechanical part, showing proper proportion and
line quality.

DIAGRAM SUMMARY
Figure No. Description
Fig. 1: Example of a freehand sketch (block)
Fig. 2: Stages in freehand sketching
Fig. 3: Proportion comparison (correct vs wrong)
Fig. 4: Orthographic vs pictorial sketches
Fig. 5: Freehand sketches of simple objects (cube, cylinder, part)

45
WEEK 11
TOPIC:
FREEHAND SKETCHING (CONTINUED)

CONTENT OUTLINE
1. Meaning and importance of freehand sketching
2. Revision of basic sketching principles
3. Sketching of complex geometric and mechanical objects
4. Sketching of objects with curves, holes, and irregular details
5. Representation of fillets, chamfers, and rounds
6. Sectional freehand sketches
7. Shading, proportion, and line control
8. Labeling, dimensioning, and presentation of sketches
9. Common mistakes and how to correct them
10. Practical exercises

1. MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF FREEHAND SKETCHING

Freehand sketching is the rapid drawing of objects without using technical instruments. It
is the first step in transforming an idea into a visible concept. It is mainly used in engineering,
architecture, and design as a means of visual communication before precise drawings are made
with instruments or CAD.
It allows a designer to:
 Visualize and communicate ideas quickly.
 Develop creativity and spatial reasoning.
 Record design observations conveniently.
 Produce preliminary drawings for discussion and modification.

46
Illustration 1: Example of a Freehand Technical Object
________
/ /|
/_______/ |
| | |
| __ | |
|__/__| |/
|_______|

Fig. 1 – A freehand sketch of an L-block (complex shape made of prisms).

2. REVISION OF BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FREEHAND

SKETCHING
Before advancing to complex sketches, recall that a good freehand sketch must demonstrate:

Feature Description
Accuracy Correct shape, proportion, and relative dimensions
Clarity Neat, readable lines without clutter
Proportion Proper ratio of parts
Balance Symmetrical and stable appearance
Line Quality Uniform, confident lines with variation for edges and outlines

Essential Techniques:
 Draw from shoulder and wrist, not fingers only.
 Start with light guiding lines; darken only final outlines.
 Observe and visualize before drawing.
 Use consistent light source direction for shading.
 Practice frequently — skill improves with repetition.

3. SKETCHING COMPLEX GEOMETRIC OBJECTS

Complex forms are built by combining simple shapes such as cubes, prisms, cylinders, and
cones. For example, a block with a cylindrical hole, or a base joined to a vertical plate, are
complex objects.

Step-by-Step Method
1. Study the Object: Identify geometric elements (e.g., cuboid + cylinder).
2. Outline the Enclosing Box: Draw a light rectangular or cubic boundary.
47
 3. Mark Major Dimensions: Estimate length, width, and height proportionally.
4. Draw Major Edges: Sketch the main outlines lightly.
5. Add Secondary Features: Holes, curves, chamfers, fillets, recesses, or notches.
6. Darken Visible Edges: After confirming shapes, darken outlines neatly.
7. Erase Unwanted Lines: Remove all construction marks.
8. Label Key Parts: Add neat, horizontal annotations.

Illustration 2: Complex Object – L-Shaped Block with Slot

________
/ /|
/_______/ |
| | |
| __ | |
|__/__| |/
|_______|

Fig. 2 – Freehand pictorial sketch of an L-block showing internal slot detail.

4. SKETCHING OBJECTS WITH CURVES, HOLES, AND

IRREGULAR FEATURES
Objects often contain rounded corners, curved surfaces, or circular holes. These require
careful observation to keep them proportional and realistic.

(a) Representing Holes

 Use ellipses (not circles) to represent circular holes in 3D view.
 Align both ends of the hole correctly.
 The inner ellipse is drawn lighter to represent hidden curvature.
_______
/ \
| ○ |
\_______/

Fig. 3 – Hole shown as ellipse in freehand sketch.

(b) Representing Fillets and Rounds

Fillet: a small, rounded interior corner. Round: a small, rounded exterior corner.
Technique:
 Observe where edges meet.
 Replace the corner with a smooth curve drawn using free wrist motion.
48
  Ensure the curve is tangent to both adjoining edges.
Sharp corner: ┐ Correct fillet: ⌒

Fig. 4 – Comparison between sharp and rounded corner.

(c) Representing Chamfers

Chamfers are beveled edges connecting two surfaces at an angle (often 45°).
______
/ /|
/_____/ |
|______/ |

Fig. 5 – Chamfered top edge in freehand sketch.

5. FREEHAND SECTIONAL SKETCHES

When an object has internal details (holes, slots, cavities) that cannot be clearly shown from the
outside, we use sectional sketches.

Types of Sections
Type Description Purpose
Full Section The object is cut entirely in half Shows complete interior
Half Section Only one-half is sectioned Shows both interior and exterior
Offset Section Cutting plane changes direction Reveals multiple features in one view

Principles:
 Section lines (hatching) are drawn at 45°, evenly spaced.
 Hidden lines inside the sectioned part are omitted.
 External uncut features remain visible.

Illustration 6: Half-Section of Cylindrical Part (Freehand)

______
/|/////|
/_|/////|
| |/////|
|/______|

Fig. 6 – Simplified freehand sectional sketch showing hatching on cut surface.

49
6. SHADING, PROPORTION, AND LINE CONTROL
To make freehand sketches realistic, students must master line weight and tonal variation.

(a) Shading
Used to indicate light, form, and depth.
 Assume light falls from top-left direction.
 Surfaces facing light are lightly shaded; opposite surfaces are darker.
 Use parallel lines or light strokes to apply tone.
______
///////|
////////|
|///////|
|_______|

Fig. 7 – Example of light and dark shading to indicate depth.

(b) Proportion
Proportion ensures each part maintains correct relative size. For instance, if an object’s length is
twice its height, the sketch must reflect a 2:1 ratio.
Tips:
 Visualize or mark equal divisions.
 Compare parts by eye before darkening lines.

(c) Line Quality and Control

Line Type Appearance Use
Construction line Light, thin Initial outline
Visible edge Thick, dark Object boundaries
Hidden edge Dashed Hidden features (if not sectioned)
Centre line Long-short-long Axis or symmetry indicator

7. LABELING, DIMENSIONING, AND PRESENTATION

Every freehand technical sketch should be self-explanatory through neat labeling and basic
dimensions.

50
Labeling Rules
 Use uppercase lettering.
 Keep all text horizontal.
 Avoid crossing lines over labels.
Dimensioning Rules
 Dimension lines must be thin and parallel to the feature measured.
 Arrowheads touch the outline neatly.
 Figures are placed above the dimension line, clearly legible.
_______
|<--50-->|
| |
|_________|

Fig. 8 – Example of dimensioning in freehand sketch.

8. COMMON ERRORS AND CORRECTIONS

Common Error Cause Correction
Shaky or broken lines Poor hand control Draw from shoulder; relax hand
Poor proportion Wrong visual judgment Use reference lines or grids
Over-shading Excessive strokes Keep tone even and light
Crooked labels Careless placement Use imaginary horizontal guide
Cluttered drawing Lack of organization Arrange views clearly

9. PRACTICAL CLASS EXERCISES

Exercise 1: Sketch in freehand an L-shaped bracket with a circular hole and filleted corners.
Label all visible parts.
Exercise 2: Draw a sectional freehand sketch of a flanged base with a central cylindrical
hole. Show hatching for the cut area.
Exercise 3: Produce a freehand pictorial sketch of a combined object — cube and half-
cylinder joined at one face. Indicate shading to show depth.

10. APPLICATIONS OF FREEHAND SKETCHING IN

INDUSTRY
 Design concept sketches before production drawings.
 Field sketches of components for repair or modification.

51
  Workshop instructions for fabricators and machinists.
 Architectural site sketches for space layout.
 Communication between engineers, builders, and clients.

EVALUATION
1. Define complex freehand sketching.
2. Describe the steps involved in sketching a mechanical part with holes.
3. Explain how fillets and chamfers are represented in freehand sketches.
4. Differentiate between full, half, and offset sections.
5. Draw a sectional freehand sketch of a hollow block showing internal detail.
6. Explain the use of shading in freehand sketches.
7. State five rules for labeling and dimensioning.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Sketch in freehand a complex object made of a rectangular prism with a semicircular
hole through it.
2. Produce a sectional freehand sketch of a piston showing bore, crown, and skirt.
3. Draw a flanged bracket in freehand, showing top and side views, proportionally shaded
and labeled.

ILLUSTRATION SUMMARY
Figure Description
Fig. 1 Example of a freehand L-block
Fig. 2 Complex L-block with slot
Fig. 3 Freehand representation of hole
Fig. 4 Fillet and round representation
Fig. 5 Chamfered edge
Fig. 6 Sectional sketch of cylindrical part
Fig. 7 Shading example
Fig. 8 Dimensioning and labeling in freehand sketch

52
SS2 TECHNICAL DRAWING LESSON NOTES
SECOND TERM

WEEK 1: REVISION OF FIRST TERM’S WORK

CONTENT OUTLINE
1. Overview of First Term topics
2. Summary of key concepts
3. Revision of geometrical constructions
4. Review of scale drawing (plain and diagonal scales)
5. Revision of pictorial drawings (oblique and isometric projections)
6. Revision of freehand sketching techniques
7. Application exercises and problem-solving
8. Common errors and corrections
9. Evaluation and assignment

1. OVERVIEW OF FIRST TERM TOPICS

In the first term, SS2 students were introduced to advanced geometric and pictorial
construction methods which are foundational for technical drawing at higher levels. The major
topics covered include:
1. Geometrical Constructions

o Construction of triangles, quadrilaterals, and polygons.

o Division of lines into equal parts.
o Tangents to circles.
2. Scale Drawing

o Plain and diagonal scales.

o Construction of scales to represent real-life dimensions accurately.
3. Pictorial Drawings

o Oblique and isometric projections.

o Visualization and construction of 3D objects from orthographic views.
4. Freehand Sketching

o Basic and complex sketching.

o Proportion, shading, labeling, and presentation techniques.
1
These topics together form the foundation of technical representation, bridging theory,
visualization, and practical drawing skills.

2. SUMMARY OF KEY CONCEPTS

(a) Geometrical Construction
Geometrical constructions involve using compass, ruler, and set squares to create exact shapes
without measurement. These skills are vital in producing accurate, standardized, and
reproducible designs.
Examples of constructions:
 Bisecting lines and angles
 Drawing perpendicular and parallel lines
 Constructing regular polygons (hexagon, pentagon, octagon)
 Constructing tangents to circles

Illustration 1: Bisection of a Line

A-------------------------B
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ /
\_______/
M

Fig. 1 – The line AB bisected at point M.

Procedure:
1. With A and B as centers, draw arcs above and below AB with equal radius.
2. Join the intersection points of arcs — line passes through M, the midpoint of AB.

(b) Division of a Line into Equal Parts

Used when a line must be split proportionally into specific segments — important for scale
construction and object dimensioning.

(c) Tangents to Circles

A tangent is a line that touches a circle at one point only. Applications include mechanical
design (e.g., pulleys, wheels).

2
Illustration 2: Tangent to a Circle
*
* *
* O * <— Circle
* *
*
\
\
\
\
P <— Tangent line touching at one point

3. REVIEW OF SCALE DRAWING

Scale drawing allows large or small objects to be represented accurately on paper.

(a) Plain Scales

A plain scale shows two units or a unit and its subunit (e.g., metres and decimetres).
Steps:
1. Choose a suitable Representative Fraction (R.F.).
2. Convert actual length to drawing length.
3. Construct a straight line and divide it according to R.F.
4. Label major and minor divisions.

(b) Diagonal Scales

Used to show three units or fractional parts of the smallest division (e.g., metres, decimetres,
and centimetres).

Illustration 3: Diagonal Scale Layout

|------------------------------------------------|
| 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | (metres)
|-----------------------------------------------|
| | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__| (decimetres)
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ (centimetres)

3
4. REVIEW OF PICTORIAL DRAWINGS
(a) Oblique Projection
 Drawn with one face of the object parallel to the picture plane.
 The receding axes are drawn at 45°, and dimensions along these axes are half their true
lengths to avoid distortion.

(b) Isometric Projection

 All three axes (X, Y, Z) are inclined at 120° to each other.
 Used for realistic 3D representation.
 All sides are drawn at their true lengths.

Illustration 4: Isometric Projection Axes

Z
|
|
|_______ Y
/
/
X

Illustration 5: Isometric View of a Cube

________
/ /|
/_______/ |
| | |
| | |
|_______|/

5. REVIEW OF FREEHAND SKETCHING

Freehand sketching helps in quickly visualizing ideas without the use of drawing tools.

Key Features:
 Correct proportion and line control.
 Clear labeling and dimensioning.
 Ability to convey shape and function.

4
Illustration 6: Freehand Pictorial Sketch of a Block
________
/ /|
/_______/ |
| | |
|_______|/

6. APPLICATION EXERCISES
Exercise 1:
Construct a triangle ABC, given that AB = 70 mm, BC = 60 mm, and ∠ABC = 45°.

Exercise 2:
Draw a plain scale to represent 1 metre, showing decimetres and centimetres. R.F. = 1/20.

Exercise 3:
Sketch freehand an isometric block with a circular hole through it.

Exercise 4:
Construct tangents to a circle of 30 mm radius from an external point 60 mm from the centre.

7. COMMON ERRORS IDENTIFIED IN FIRST TERM

Error Cause Correction
Unequal sides in Inaccurate compass Use firm, precise arcs
polygons setting
Poor proportion in Lack of visualization Practice estimation and balance
sketches
Misaligned isometric Wrong angles Maintain 30° from horizontal on each side
axes
Distorted scales Wrong R.F. calculation Review formula R.F. = Drawing Length /
Actual Length

8. CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Why is geometrical construction important in technical drawing?
2. Differentiate between oblique and isometric projections.
3. What are the main differences between plain and diagonal scales?
4. Explain why freehand sketching is necessary for a technical designer.

5
 5. How can errors in proportion be avoided during freehand sketching?

9. EVALUATION
1. Define geometrical construction.
2. What is a tangent, and how is it constructed on a circle?
3. Explain the term "Representative Fraction" (R.F.).
4. Draw and label the isometric axes.
5. List three advantages of freehand sketching.
6. Differentiate between full and half sections.
7. Construct a line 80 mm long and divide it into 5 equal parts.

10. ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw a diagonal scale to represent 4 metres, showing metres, decimetres, and
centimetres. (R.F. = 1/25)
2. Sketch an isometric view of a cube with a hole through its centre.
3. Construct tangents from a point outside a circle of radius 25 mm and state all steps
clearly.

11. TEACHER’S INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE

 Begin the lesson by reviewing students’ notebooks and exercise books from the previous
term.
 Use chalkboard and drawing instruments to re-demonstrate geometric constructions.
 Ask students to reproduce diagrams from memory before correction.
 Encourage group work on pictorial drawings and scales.
 Conduct a short test at the end of the class to assess readiness for the new term.

12. TEACHING AIDS

 Drawing board and T-square
 Set squares and compass
 Ruler and divider
 Model objects (cubes, prisms, cylinders)
 Chalkboard diagrams
 Prepared freehand and isometric sketches for display

13. SUMMARY OF LESSON OBJECTIVES

By the end of this revision class, students should be able to:
6
1. Recall and explain all first term topics.
2. Demonstrate geometric constructions using appropriate instruments.
3. Apply scale drawing methods accurately.
4. Distinguish between oblique and isometric projections.
5. Produce neat, proportionate freehand sketches.
6. Identify and correct common drawing errors.

7
WEEK 2
TOPIC:
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

CONTENT OUTLINE
1. Definition of projection and orthographic projection
2. Importance and uses of orthographic projection
3. Types of orthographic projection
4. Explanation of first-angle and third-angle projection
5. Differences between the two methods
6. Conventional symbols used in orthographic projection
7. Step-by-step procedures for drawing objects in both methods
8. Practical examples and exercises
9. Evaluation
10. Assignment

1. DEFINITION OF PROJECTION
Projection is the method of representing a three-dimensional object on a two-dimensional
surface (paper) by imagining lines, called projectors, drawn from various points on the object
to the plane of projection.
In simple terms, it is the process of transferring the shape of an object from space onto paper.

Types of Projection
Projection can be classified into:
 Pictorial projections (e.g., isometric, oblique)
 Orthographic projections
 Perspective projections

2. DEFINITION OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Orthographic projection is a method of drawing an object by projecting its features onto
different planes perpendicular (at right angles) to one another.

8
It shows different views of the same object as seen from:
 The front
 The top (plan)
 The side (end view)
Each view is a true shape of the object’s surface, not distorted by perspective.

Illustration 1: Basic Concept of Orthographic Projection

(Top View)
↑
|
(Left Side) ← Object → (Right Side)
|
↓
(Front View)

This shows how an object is imagined to be placed inside a transparent box, where each face of
the box represents a plane of projection.

3. IMPORTANCE AND USES OF ORTHOGRAPHIC

PROJECTION
Orthographic projection is vital in:
1. Engineering and Architecture: For creating working drawings for manufacturing or
construction.
2. Design and Drafting: To express design details precisely.
3. Technical Communication: It eliminates misunderstanding between designers,
engineers, and builders.
4. Dimensioning and Detailing: Provides accurate views for measurement and assembly.

4. TYPES OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

There are two main types based on the position of the object relative to the projection planes:
1. First Angle Projection
2. Third Angle Projection
Both are standardized internationally by ISO (International Organization for
Standardization).

9
5. FIRST-ANGLE PROJECTION
Definition:
In first-angle projection, the object is placed in the first quadrant, that is, between the
observer and the plane of projection.
The views are arranged as follows:
 Front view – on the vertical plane (V.P.)
 Top view – below the front view (on the horizontal plane, H.P.)
 Side view – on the opposite side of the object

Illustration 2: First-Angle Projection Layout

___________________________
| |
| Front View |
|____________________________|
↑
|
__________________
| |
| Top View |
|__________________|
↑
|
_______________________
| |
| Left Side View (right of front) |
|_____________________|

Note:
 The plan (top view) is drawn below the front view.
 The left side view is drawn on the right side of the elevation.

First-Angle Projection Symbol (as used in title blocks):

[Truncated Cone Symbol]
┌───────────────┐
│ ◯ │ ← Front view (circle)
│ / \ │ ← Side view (trapezium)
└───────────────┘
1st ANGLE

This symbol shows the viewing relationship of the object.

10
6. THIRD-ANGLE PROJECTION
Definition:
In third-angle projection, the object is placed in the third quadrant, i.e., the plane of
projection is between the observer and the object.
The views are arranged as follows:
 Front view – on the vertical plane
 Top view – above the front view
 Side view – on the same side as it appears to the observer

Illustration 3: Third-Angle Projection Layout

___________________________
| |
| Top View |
|____________________________|
↓
|
___________________________
| |
| Front View |
|____________________________|
↓
|
___________________________
| |
| Left Side View (left side) |
|____________________________|

Note:
 The plan (top view) is drawn above the front view.
 The left side view is drawn on the left side of the elevation.

Third-Angle Projection Symbol:

[Truncated Cone Symbol]
┌───────────────┐
│ / \ │ ← Side view (trapezium)
│ ◯ │ ← Front view (circle)
└───────────────┘
3rd ANGLE

11
7. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FIRST AND THIRD ANGLE
PROJECTION
S/N Feature First Angle Projection Third Angle Projection
1 Position of object Between observer and plane Between plane and observer
2 Position of top view Below the front view Above the front view
3 Position of left side Drawn on the right side Drawn on the left side
view
4 Symbol representation Circle on left, cone on right Circle on right, cone on left
5 Common usage Widely used in Europe, Asia, Widely used in the USA and
Africa Canada

8. CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS AND LABELS

In every technical drawing that uses orthographic projection, one of the following symbols must
be used in the title block:
Symbol for First Angle Projection: Symbol for Third Angle Projection:
◯│▱ ▱ │◯

These symbols help the reader know how the drawing views are arranged.

9. STEPS IN ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION DRAWING

Step 1: Choose a simple object (e.g., a rectangular block or L-shaped object).
Step 2: Decide which face should be the front view.
Step 3: Draw the front view (elevation) on the vertical plane.
Step 4: Project construction lines at 90° to locate other views.
Step 5: Draw the top view (plan) and side view accordingly.
Step 6: Label each view neatly — Front View, Top View, Side View.
Step 7: Apply line conventions (thick for outlines, thin for construction).

12
Illustration 4: Orthographic Projection of a Simple Block
3D Object (Pictorial View):
________
/ /|
/_______/ |
| | |
|_______|/

First Angle Projection Layout:

____________ ____________
| | | |
| FRONT VIEW | ----> | END VIEW |
|____________| |____________|
↓
____________
| |
| TOP VIEW |
|____________|

Third Angle Projection Layout:

____________
| TOP VIEW |
|____________|
↓
____________ ____________
| FRONT VIEW | ---> | END VIEW |
|____________| |____________|

10. APPLICATIONS OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Orthographic drawings are used for:
 Manufacturing: To produce exact shapes and dimensions of components.
 Architecture: To show elevations and plans of buildings.
 Engineering Design: To prepare working drawings and assembly details.
 Communication: Between designer, manufacturer, and client.

11. PRACTICAL CLASS EXERCISES

Exercise 1: Draw a cube (40 mm sides) in first-angle projection, showing front, top, and right-
side views.
Exercise 2: Repeat the same in third-angle projection.
Exercise 3: Sketch the symbol for both projections on the same sheet.

13
Exercise 4: Identify the arrangement of views in a given orthographic drawing and state which
projection it follows.

12. COMMON ERRORS TO AVOID

Error Cause Correction
Placing the plan above in first-angle Confusing projection Review layout rules carefully
projection types
Inconsistent projection lines Poor line discipline Use faint construction lines
Omitted side view Poor visualization Always use three main views
Wrong labeling Carelessness Double-check placement before
labeling

13. CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What is projection in technical drawing?
2. Differentiate between orthographic and pictorial projection.
3. List and explain the four principal views used in orthographic projection.
4. State the main difference between first-angle and third-angle projection.
5. Explain the importance of projection symbols in drawings.

14. EVALUATION
1. Define orthographic projection.
2. State three uses of orthographic projection.
3. Draw and label the layout of views in first-angle projection.
4. Draw and label the layout of views in third-angle projection.
5. List five differences between the two projection methods.
6. Sketch the symbol used for first-angle projection.

15. ASSIGNMENT
1. Using an L-shaped block, draw its front, top, and right-side views using both first-
angle and third-angle projections.
2. Explain the importance of the position of the object in each projection method.
3. Draw neatly the projection symbols for first and third-angle projection and label them
correctly.

14
16. TEACHER’S NOTE / INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE
 Begin with a recap of pictorial views (isometric and oblique) before introducing
orthographic projection.
 Demonstrate by placing a wooden or plastic model inside a transparent box to show
projection planes.
 Encourage students to visualize each face before drawing.
 Use chalkboard diagrams and instrument drawings for step-by-step demonstration.
 Reinforce the importance of line quality and view arrangement.

17. TEACHING MATERIALS

 Drawing board, T-square, set squares, compass
 Models of cubes, cylinders, brackets
 Transparent “glass box” model
 Sample drawings of both projection types
 Chalkboard sketches and rulers

18. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Define projection and orthographic projection.
2. Distinguish between first-angle and third-angle projection.
3. Arrange views correctly in both methods.
4. Interpret projection symbols in title blocks.
5. Produce neat and correctly arranged orthographic views of simple objects.

15
WEEK 3
TOPIC: ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION (CONTINUED)

CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION
Orthographic projection is one of the most important methods of representing three-dimensional
objects accurately on two-dimensional planes such as paper or drawing sheets. In the previous
lesson, we defined orthographic projection, studied the differences between First Angle and
Third Angle projections, and introduced their symbols.
In this lesson, we will construct orthographic views of given objects, such as the front
elevation, plan (top view), and end elevation (side view), using the correct projection method,
scales, and conventions.

2. DEFINITION AND PURPOSE

Orthographic projection is a method of representing a 3D object by projecting its features onto
a plane using perpendicular projectors.
Purpose:
 To communicate the exact shape and size of an object.
 To show different sides (views) accurately.
 To provide manufacturing and construction details.
Typical views obtained are:
 Front Elevation (Front View) — view seen from the front.
 Plan (Top View) — view seen from above.
 End Elevation (Side View) — view seen from the right or left side.

3. PRINCIPLE OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Orthographic projection works on the principle of parallel projection, where projectors are
drawn perpendicular to the projection plane.
There are two main projection systems used worldwide:

Feature First Angle Projection Third Angle Projection

Object position Between observer and plane Plane between observer and object
Layout on paper Plan below, right side view on the Plan above, right side view on the
16
Feature First Angle Projection Third Angle Projection
left right
Standard
symbol

4. STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEWS

Let us construct the orthographic views of a simple object — for example, a rectangular block
with a slot.
Step 1: Study the Object
Examine the shape and decide which side gives the best description of the object. This will be
taken as the front view.
Step 2: Draw Projection Lines
Lightly draw construction lines (horizontal and vertical) to help position the views properly.
Step 3: Draw the Front Elevation
Project the outline of the object as seen from the front. Use a continuous thick line for visible
edges and dashed lines for hidden parts.
Step 4: Project the Plan (Top View)
From the front elevation, draw vertical projectors downward (in first angle) or upward (in third
angle) to locate the plan view.
Step 5: Project the Side View
Extend horizontal projectors to the side (usually the right). Use a 45° miter line to align height
and depth dimensions between views.
Step 6: Add Dimensions and Title Block
Label each view — Front Elevation, Plan, and End Elevation — and dimension all necessary
features.

5. EXAMPLES OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Example 1: Simple Block
Object: A rectangular block measuring 60 mm × 40 mm × 30 mm.
Required Views:
1. Front Elevation
2. Plan
3. End Elevation
17
Procedure:
1. Draw the front rectangle (60 × 40 mm).
2. Project downwards for the plan (60 × 30 mm).
3. Project sideways for the end elevation (40 × 30 mm).
4. Label each view appropriately.
Illustration:
Front View (Elevation)
+--------------------+
| |
| | 40mm
| |
+--------------------+
60mm

Top View (Plan)

+--------------------+
| |
| | 30mm
+--------------------+
60mm

Side View
+---------+
| | 40mm
| |
+---------+
30mm

Example 2: Object with Hole

Object: A block 70 mm × 50 mm × 40 mm with a 20 mm diameter hole at the center.
Procedure:
1. Draw the front elevation as a rectangle (70 × 50 mm).
2. Mark the center point and represent the hole using center lines and a hidden circle in the
plan view.
3. Draw the plan below the elevation, showing the hole as a visible circle.
4. Project the right-side view.

18
Illustration (Simplified):
Front Elevation (with hidden hole)
+----------------------------------+
| |
| -- -- |
| -- -- | 50mm
| |
+----------------------------------+
70mm

Top View (Plan)

+----------------------------------+
| ○ |
+----------------------------------+

6. HINTS FOR GOOD ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWING

 Use light construction lines before finalizing outlines.

 Maintain alignment between views.

 Ensure dimensions are consistent across all views.

 Use appropriate line types:

o Thick lines for visible outlines.

o Dashed lines for hidden edges.
o Thin lines for projection.
o Chain lines for center marks.

7. APPLICATIONS OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

Orthographic drawings are used in:
 Engineering design and manufacturing.
 Architectural building plans.
 Machine component detailing.
 Furniture and product design.
They provide clear, measurable, and interpretable details that guide production and assembly.

EVALUATION
1. Define orthographic projection.
2. Mention three types of views obtained in orthographic projection.
19
 3. Differentiate between first-angle and third-angle projection.
4. Explain the purpose of using construction lines in orthographic drawing.
5. Sketch the layout arrangement of views in first-angle projection.
6. Sketch the layout arrangement of views in third-angle projection.
7. List four applications of orthographic projection in engineering practice.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw the orthographic projections (front, plan, and side views) of a cube of 40 mm
sides.
2. Construct the first-angle projection of a rectangular block 80 mm × 60 mm × 40 mm
with a central hole of 20 mm diameter.
3. Differentiate between visible, hidden, and center lines and draw the correct line types
used for each.

20
WEEK 4
TOPIC: SECTIONAL VIEWS

CONTENT
1. Meaning and Purpose of Sectional Views
2. Types of Sectional Views
3. Conventions Used in Sectional Drawing
4. Procedure for Drawing Sectional Views
5. Examples of Sectional Drawings
6. Applications of Sectional Views in Engineering and Design
7. Evaluation and Assignment

1. MEANING AND PURPOSE OF SECTIONAL VIEWS

In technical drawing, sectional views are used to show internal features of an object that are
not visible in standard orthographic views.
When complex objects contain holes, cavities, slots, or recesses, these hidden details cannot be
fully understood from external views. Therefore, we imagine cutting through the object along a
cutting plane to reveal its interior.
The view obtained after the cut is called a Sectional View.
Definition:
A sectional view is an orthographic projection of an object that shows the internal features as if
part of the object has been cut away by an imaginary plane.
Purpose of Sectional Views:
 To expose internal details of an object for clear understanding.
 To avoid confusion caused by numerous hidden (dashed) lines.
 To enhance accuracy in manufacturing and assembly.
 To reduce complexity in interpretation.
 To improve neatness and legibility of drawings.

2. TYPES OF SECTIONAL VIEWS

There are several types of sectional views used depending on the nature and complexity of the
object.

21
(a) Full Section
A full section occurs when the object is cut completely along a single cutting plane, and one
half is removed to expose the interior. This gives a complete view of the internal shape.
Illustration (simplified):
Object before section: After full section:
___________________ ___________________
| | |////| |////|
| | |////| |////|
|_________________| |////|_____|////|

Hatched area represents the cut surface.

(b) Half Section

A half section is used for symmetrical objects, such as cylinders or brackets. The cutting plane
passes halfway through, and one-quarter of the object is removed. This shows both the inside
and outside details in the same view.
Illustration:
Half Section of a Cylinder
___________________
|////| | |
|////| | | → One half sectioned, one half external
|////|_______|______|

(c) Offset Section

An offset section is used when the features to be shown are not in a straight line. The cutting
plane is bent or offset to pass through important features, and the bends are not shown in the
final drawing.
Illustration:
Top View Showing Offset Cutting Plane:

______________________
| ________ |
|____|__ __|________|
↑ ↑
Offset cutting plane passing through key points

22
(d) Broken-Out Section
A broken-out section shows only a small portion of the interior, obtained by breaking away
part of the view with an irregular freehand line. This saves time and space.
Illustration:
____________
| |
| /////// | ← small area broken out to show inside
|____________|

(e) Revolved Section

A revolved section is drawn directly on the view of the object to show the cross-sectional shape
at a particular point. It is often used for shafts, rods, and ribs.

(f) Removed Section

A removed section is drawn outside the main view. The cross-section is projected and placed
nearby, usually identified with a label (e.g., Section A–A).
Illustration:
Main View Sectional View
| | ___
| |← Section A–A → |///|
| | |___|

3. CONVENTIONS USED IN SECTIONAL DRAWINGS

When drawing sectional views, certain standard conventions must be followed to ensure
uniform interpretation.
(a) Cutting Plane Line
 Represented by a chain thin line with thick ends and arrows.
 The arrows indicate the direction of sight.
 It is usually labeled A–A, B–B, etc.
(b) Hatching (Section Lines)
 Used to represent cut surfaces.
 Drawn as thin lines at 45° angles to the main outline.
 Spacing: 2–3 mm apart.
 Adjacent parts are hatched in opposite directions for clarity.

23
Example:
Hatching pattern:
/////// (45° thin lines)
\\\\\\\ (Opposite 45°)

(c) Hidden Details

Hidden lines are omitted in the area being sectioned, since the cut reveals those internal features
directly.
(d) Center Lines
Center lines are retained to show the axes of holes, cylinders, and symmetry.

4. PROCEDURE FOR DRAWING SECTIONAL VIEWS

To draw sectional views correctly, follow these steps:
1. Draw the orthographic views (front, plan, and side) of the given object.
2. Identify the section plane — where the object is to be cut.
3. Represent the cutting plane line (e.g., A–A) in the appropriate view using chain lines.
4. Project the sectional view in the direction of the arrows.
5. Remove the cut portion to reveal the interior.
6. Apply hatching to the surfaces cut by the plane.
7. Label the sectional view as Section A–A, Section B–B, etc.
8. Dimension the drawing as necessary.

5. EXAMPLES OF SECTIONAL DRAWINGS

Example 1: Full Section of a Hollow Cylinder
Given: A cylinder 60 mm in diameter and 80 mm high with a hole of 30 mm diameter.
Required: Front elevation in full section and plan.
Steps:
1. Draw the outer and inner circles (60 mm and 30 mm) in plan.
2. Project the front elevation as a rectangle (80 mm height).
3. Show the hole by cutting through the object.
4. Hatch the cut surfaces.
5. Label Section A–A.

24
Illustration (simplified ASCII):
Front View (Section A–A)
____________________
|/////| |/////| ← hatched section shows wall thickness
|/////| |/////|
|/////|______|/////|
80mm

Top View
__________
| ○ | ← circular hole visible from top
|_______|
60mm

Example 2: Half Section of a Symmetrical Block

Given: A square block 80 mm × 80 mm with a circular hole of 20 mm at the center.
Steps:
1. Draw the front and plan.
2. Divide the object vertically.
3. Hatch one half only.
4. Leave the other half external.

Example 3: Offset Section of an L-Block

When the features are not aligned, an offset cutting plane is drawn through the major features,
producing an accurate sectional view.

6. APPLICATIONS OF SECTIONAL VIEWS

Sectional views are used in:
 Engineering drawing: To show holes, slots, and cavities.
 Machine design: To represent interior mechanisms (e.g., pistons, valves).
 Architectural drawing: To show the internal layout of walls, beams, and floors.
 Assembly drawings: To illustrate how parts fit and interact.
They are indispensable in production, fabrication, and inspection processes.

25
7. EVALUATION
1. Define sectional view.
2. State three purposes of sectional drawings.
3. Mention and explain four types of sectional views.
4. What is the purpose of a cutting plane line?
5. State the standard hatching angle and spacing used in sectional drawings.
6. Draw and label a full section of a cylindrical block 60 mm in diameter and 80 mm high.
7. What type of sectional view is suitable for a symmetrical object?
8. Why are hidden lines usually omitted in sectional views?

ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw the front and plan views of a hollow cylinder (outer Ø70 mm, inner Ø40 mm,
height 90 mm) and show the front elevation in full section.
2. Draw a half-sectional view of a solid cube (60 mm side) with a cylindrical hole (20 mm
Ø) at its center.
3. Sketch and label the symbols and line conventions used in sectional drawings (cutting
plane line, hatching, and center line).

SUGGESTED DIAGRAMS TO INCLUDE

 Diagram 1: Symbol and representation of cutting plane line (A–A)
 Diagram 2: Full sectional view of a hollow cylinder
 Diagram 3: Half section of a symmetrical block
 Diagram 4: Offset section with labeled cutting plane
 Diagram 5: Hatching pattern and conventions

26
WEEK 6
TOPIC: SECTIONAL VIEWS (CONTINUED)

CONTENT OUTLINE
1. Review of Sectional Views
2. Complex and Composite Solids
3. Principles of Sectioning Complex Solids
4. Types of Sectioning in Combined Solids
5. Step-by-Step Construction of Complex Sectional Views
6. Illustrative Examples and Diagrams
7. Hatching Conventions
8. Common Errors in Sectional Drawings
9. Applications of Complex Sectional Drawings
10. Evaluation
11. Assignment

1. REVIEW OF SECTIONAL VIEWS

A sectional view shows the internal features of an object when it is cut by an imaginary cutting
plane. It replaces hidden details (dotted lines) with clear, visible internal outlines.
Previously, we studied full, half, and offset sections. Now we’ll focus on complex or combined
solids, such as when a cylinder rests on a cube or a cone joins with a prism.

2. COMPLEX AND COMPOSITE SOLIDS

Composite solids are combinations of two or more simple solids, such as:
 Cube + Cylinder
 Cone + Prism
 Pyramid + Cylinder
They are commonly found in machine parts, joints, and assemblies.

27
Illustration 1 – Examples of Composite Solids
Cylinder on Cube Cone on Prism
_____ /\
/ \ /__\
| | | |
___|_____|___ ___|____|___

3. PRINCIPLES OF SECTIONING COMPLEX SOLIDS

When a cutting plane passes through complex solids:
1. The plane must reveal internal details clearly.
2. Each solid is considered separately for how it intersects the cutting plane.
3. Hatching differentiates the material or component cut.
4. Hidden lines within the cut area are not drawn.
5. Cutting plane lines are labeled (e.g., A–A) using chain thin lines with thick ends and
arrows.

4. TYPES OF SECTIONING IN COMBINED SOLIDS

Type Description Illustration
Vertical Plane passes vertically through object.
Section
Horizontal Plane passes horizontally (used for Circle or rectangle cut shown from
Section layers, bases). top view.
Inclined Plane inclined to the base; shows Oblique cut across cone or prism.
Section slanted features.
Offset Section Plane changes direction to pass through Stepped cutting plane shown as one
several features. straight view.

5. STEP-BY-STEP CONSTRUCTION OF COMPLEX

SECTIONAL VIEWS
Example 1 – Cylinder on a Cube (Vertical Section)
Given: A cylinder (Ø50 mm × 40 mm) placed centrally on a cube (60 mm sides), cut by a
vertical plane through the axis.
Steps:
1. Draw plan view: a square for cube base with a circle for cylinder base.

2. Project elevation: a rectangle (cube) and cylinder above it.

28
 3. Draw cutting plane line A–A through the center in plan.

4. Project sectional elevation:

o Cube = rectangle with inner rectangular cut area.

o Cylinder = rectangle with semi-circular cut at top.
5. Hatch the cut surfaces at 45° (opposite directions for different parts).

Illustration 2 – Sectional Cylinder on Cube

SECTION A–A
_________
/////////| ← Cylinder section
|//////// |
|//////// | ← Cube section (opposite hatching)
|_________|

Example 2 – Prism Joined to a Cylinder (Vertical Section)

Given: A hexagonal prism (side 30 mm, height 60 mm) joined to a cylinder (Ø40 mm, height
40 mm) below it. A vertical plane passes through their common axis.
Steps:
1. Draw the plan view (hexagon with inscribed circle).
2. Draw front elevation showing both shapes.
3. Indicate cutting plane line A–A through center.
4. Project sectional front elevation — showing how the plane cuts the prism faces and the
cylinder.
5. Hatch cut areas with opposite angles for clarity.
Illustration 3 – Prism on Cylinder (Sectional View)
________
/////////\ ← Prism top cut
|//////////|
|//////////|
|//////////| ← Cylinder body cut
|__________|

Example 3 – Offset Section through an L-Shaped Block

Given: An L-block (80 × 60 × 40 mm thick) with a vertical slot on one arm. A cutting plane is
offset to pass through both the slot and opposite face.
Steps:

29
 1. Draw plan view and elevation of the L-block.
2. Mark offset cutting plane using thin chain lines.
3. Project the sectional front elevation.
4. Hatch all regions cut by the plane, omitting hidden lines.
Illustration 4 – Offset Section through L-Block
SECTION A–A
________________________
| //////// \\\\\\\\\\ |
| //////// \\\\\\\\\\ |
|___________|___________|
← offset section path →

6. HATCHING CONVENTIONS
 Hatch lines drawn at 45° angles.
 2–3 mm apart, thin continuous lines.
 Adjacent parts have opposite directions.
 Avoid hatching over dimensions or labels.
Illustration 5 – Hatching Directions
Part A: ////////
Part B: \\\\\\\\

7. COMMON ERRORS IN SECTIONAL DRAWINGS

❌ Misalignment of sectional views ❌ Forgetting to label the cutting plane ❌ Incorrect or
uneven hatching spacing ❌ Leaving hidden lines in the sectioned area ❌ Using thick hatching
lines ❌ Failing to alternate hatch directions for different components

8. APPLICATIONS OF COMPLEX SECTIONAL DRAWINGS

Sectional views are applied in:
 Machine design: pistons, valves, shafts, gears
 Building construction: walls, beams, columns
 Automotive drawings: engines and pump assemblies
 Woodwork: joints and furniture sections
 Pipework: flanges and elbows

30
9. EVALUATION
1. Define a sectional view.
2. Distinguish between full and offset section.
3. State three rules for hatching.
4. Explain why hidden lines are omitted in sectional views.
5. Draw and label the sectional elevation of a cylinder on a cube cut by a vertical plane.
6. Describe the steps in producing a complex sectional drawing.
7. Draw the offset section of an L-shaped block showing both arms.

10. ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw a sectional front view and plan of a cone (Ø60 mm, height 70 mm) placed on a
cube (side 60 mm) when cut by a vertical plane through the axis.
2. Draw the half-sectional elevation of a cylinder with a central hole.
3. A hexagonal prism (base 30 mm, height 50 mm) rests on a rectangular block (60 × 40
mm). Draw its sectional elevation on A–A.

SUMMARY
Complex sectional drawings require:
 Understanding of combined solids
 Clear representation of cutting planes
 Proper use of projection and hatching
 Clean line work and consistent dimensions
Through practice and neatness, students can master accurate, professional technical sectioning.

31
WEEK 8
TOPIC: AUXILIARY VIEWS

CONTENT OUTLINE
1. Definition of Auxiliary Views
2. Importance of Auxiliary Views
3. Differences Between Orthographic and Auxiliary Projections
4. Types of Auxiliary Views
5. The Principles of Auxiliary Projection
6. Construction of Auxiliary Views (Step-by-Step Procedures)
7. True Shape of Inclined Surfaces
8. Auxiliary Planes and Reference Lines
9. Practical Examples and Exercises
10. Common Mistakes and Precautions
11. Industrial and Engineering Applications
12. Evaluation
13. Assignment

1. DEFINITION OF AUXILIARY VIEWS

An auxiliary view is a special orthographic projection used to show the true shape and size
of an inclined surface or an oblique face that cannot be shown accurately in the principal
orthographic views (front, top, and side).
It is obtained by projecting the object onto a plane that is parallel to the inclined surface and
perpendicular to the line of sight.
In simple terms, when an object has an inclined or slanted surface, its true shape appears
foreshortened in the normal orthographic projection. To view it accurately, an auxiliary plane is
introduced.

2. IMPORTANCE OF AUXILIARY VIEWS

Auxiliary views are important because they:
 Reveal the true size and shape of inclined or slanted surfaces.
 Aid in accurate dimensioning and machining of parts.
 Provide clarity in complex designs with non-perpendicular faces.
32
  Eliminate confusion caused by foreshortened or distorted projections.
 Are essential in engineering design, architecture, and manufacturing, where accuracy
is crucial.

3. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORTHOGRAPHIC AND

AUXILIARY PROJECTIONS
Feature Orthographic Projection Auxiliary Projection
Projection Plane Perpendicular to one principal plane Parallel to the inclined surface.
(HP, VP, or PP).
View Type Shows standard front, top, and side Shows true shape of inclined or
views. oblique surfaces.
Purpose Represents object from main viewing Clarifies the shape and size of
directions. slanted faces.
Accuracy of Appears distorted (foreshortened). Appears true to scale and
Inclined Faces proportion.

4. TYPES OF AUXILIARY VIEWS

1. Primary Auxiliary View:

o Drawn from one of the principal views (front, top, or side).

o Used when a surface is inclined to one reference plane.
o Example: A wedge with a slanted top face visible in front view.
2. Secondary Auxiliary View:

o Constructed from a primary auxiliary view.

o Used when a surface is inclined to two reference planes.
o Example: A surface slanted both to the horizontal and vertical planes.
3. Partial Auxiliary View:

o Shows only the inclined surface or portion of the object of interest.

o Saves time and drawing space.

5. PRINCIPLES OF AUXILIARY PROJECTION

 Projection lines (projectors) are perpendicular to the auxiliary plane.
 The auxiliary plane is parallel to the inclined surface.
 Reference lines (labeled x₁–y₁, x₂–y₂, etc.) represent auxiliary reference planes.
 Distances and dimensions are transferred accurately from the primary views.
 The true shape of the surface is obtained only when the auxiliary plane is parallel to it.

33
6. CONSTRUCTION OF AUXILIARY VIEWS (STEP-BY-STEP)
Example 1: Primary Auxiliary View of an Inclined Plane
Given: A rectangular plate ABCD (60 mm × 40 mm) is inclined at 45° to the horizontal plane
(HP) and parallel to the vertical plane (VP).
Procedure:
1. Draw the top view of the plate as a rectangle ABCD on the HP.
2. Project its front view, showing it inclined at 45° to HP.
3. Draw a new reference line (x₁–y₁) perpendicular to the inclined surface in the front view.
4. Project perpendiculars from each corner (A, B, C, D) to the auxiliary plane.
5. Transfer the corresponding distances from the top view using a compass or dividers.
6. Join points A₁, B₁, C₁, and D₁ to form the auxiliary view — the true shape of the
rectangle.
Illustration:
Front View Auxiliary View
_________ _________
| /| ← 45° Inclination / /
|_______/ | Projected → /________/
| | / (True Shape)
|_______|/

Example 2: Auxiliary View of a Wedge Block

Given: A wedge block (80 mm × 50 mm × 40 mm) rests on HP with its top surface inclined at
30° to HP.
Steps:
1. Draw the top and front views showing the inclined top face.
2. Draw a new reference line x₁–y₁ parallel to the inclined face.
3. Project perpendicular lines from all key points (A, B, C, D) to the reference line.
4. Transfer the vertical distances from the top view.
5. Connect the transferred points to get the auxiliary elevation, which shows the true
shape of the inclined surface.

Example 3: Secondary Auxiliary View

Given: A hexagonal lamina (side 30 mm) inclined at 30° to HP and 40° to VP.
Steps:
1. Draw front and top views.
2. Construct primary auxiliary view to show the true shape with respect to HP.
34
 3. Draw secondary reference line x₂–y₂ perpendicular to the primary auxiliary view.
4. Project perpendiculars to this line and transfer distances from the primary auxiliary view.
5. Join the points to get the secondary auxiliary view, which shows the true shape of the
surface inclined to both planes.

7. TRUE SHAPE OF INCLINED SURFACES

When a surface is inclined to one or more reference planes, its true shape can only be revealed
through an auxiliary view. The auxiliary projection shows the actual dimensions without
distortion or foreshortening.

8. AUXILIARY PLANES AND REFERENCE LINES

 Each auxiliary plane has its own reference line (x₁–y₁, x₂–y₂, etc.).
 These lines represent the intersection of the auxiliary plane with the previous projection
plane.
 They serve as datum lines for transferring measurements accurately.
Illustration:
Front View
_________
/ /| ← Inclined face
/________/ | ← Reference line x₁–y₁
| | /
|________|/

9. PRACTICAL EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES

1. Draw the auxiliary view of a pentagonal lamina resting on HP, inclined at 40° to HP and
parallel to VP.
2. Construct the primary auxiliary view of a rectangular prism whose top face is inclined
at 35° to HP.
3. From the auxiliary view of an oblique plane, determine its true area and shape.

10. COMMON MISTAKES AND PRECAUTIONS

Mistakes:
 Using wrong projection direction.
 Misplacing reference lines.
 Failing to transfer exact distances.

35
  Drawing the auxiliary plane at incorrect angle.
Precautions:
 Always label reference lines (x₁–y₁, x₂–y₂).
 Keep projection lines perpendicular to the auxiliary plane.
 Ensure neatness, accuracy, and correct scaling.
 Use light construction lines for projections and thick lines for outlines.

11. INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

Auxiliary views are widely used in:
 Mechanical engineering: Machine parts with slanted faces, holes, and slots.
 Architectural design: Roofs, ramps, staircases, and sloped beams.
 Aerospace and automotive design: Wing sections, control surfaces, car body panels.
 Civil engineering: Bridges, road gradients, and sloping embankments.

12. EVALUATION
1. Define an auxiliary view.
2. State four importance of auxiliary projections.
3. Distinguish between primary, secondary, and partial auxiliary views.
4. Explain why auxiliary projections are used instead of standard orthographic views.
5. Draw a rectangular plane inclined at 40° to HP and obtain its auxiliary view showing the
true shape.
6. List three common mistakes to avoid when constructing auxiliary views.

13. ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw the auxiliary view of a hexagonal lamina (side 30 mm) resting on HP and inclined
at 45° to the horizontal plane.
2. Draw the secondary auxiliary view of a block with its face inclined at 30° to HP and 40°
to VP.
3. Explain in your own words the importance of auxiliary views in real-life engineering
drawing.

ILLUSTRATIVE DIAGRAMS (TEXT-BASED

REPRESENTATION)

36
Figure 1 – Auxiliary Plane Orientation
FRONT VIEW
______
/ /| ← Inclined surface (true size unknown)
/_____/ |
| | / ← Projected to auxiliary plane
|_____|/
HP

Figure 2 – Primary Auxiliary View

Front View Auxiliary View
________ ________
/ /| → Project → / /
/_______/ | /_______/
| | / (True Shape)
|_______|/

Figure 3 – Secondary Auxiliary Projection

HP Primary Aux. View Secondary Aux. View
────→ ───────────────→ ───────────────→
Front & Top Inclined to HP Plane Inclined to HP and VP

SUMMARY
Auxiliary views are essential techniques in technical drawing for:
 Revealing true shapes and dimensions of inclined surfaces.
 Improving clarity and precision in engineering and architectural designs.
 Enabling accurate measurement, manufacturing, and visualization of complex
components.
Through continuous practice in projection accuracy, line discipline, and geometric reasoning,
students can confidently construct any auxiliary view for both simple and compound surfaces.

37
WEEK 9
TOPIC: ASSEMBLY DRAWING

CONTENT OUTLINE
1. Meaning and Definition of Assembly Drawing
2. Purpose and Importance of Assembly Drawing
3. Types of Assembly Drawings
4. Identification of Machine Components and Fittings
5. Difference Between Working Drawing, Detail Drawing, and Assembly Drawing
6. Exploded and Assembled Views
7. Steps in Producing an Assembly Drawing
8. Sectional Assembly Drawing
9. Conventional Symbols and Standard Practices
10. Examples and Industrial Applications
11. Common Errors and Precautions
12. Evaluation
13. Assignment

1. DEFINITION OF ASSEMBLY DRAWING

An assembly drawing is a technical drawing that shows how different parts of a machine or
structure fit together to form a complete unit.
It is a graphical representation that illustrates the relationship between various individual
components (details), their positions, and methods of connection (e.g., bolts, screws, pins, nuts,
shafts, or welds).
In essence, an assembly drawing gives a complete picture of how all the parts are joined to
make a functional whole.

Illustration (Conceptual Layout)

[ Bolt ] → [ Washer ] → [ Bearing ] → [ Housing ] → [ Shaft ] → [ Nut ]
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Part A Part B Part C Part D
→→→ Combined to form →→→ COMPLETE ASSEMBLY

38
2. PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF ASSEMBLY DRAWING
Assembly drawings are essential for:
 Visualizing the entire product before manufacturing.
 Showing the relationship and order of assembly among components.
 Indicating fit and alignment of mating parts.
 Assisting in inspection, maintenance, and repairs.
 Guiding technicians and engineers during production.
 Serving as a reference for exploded views used in manuals or catalogs.
 Providing dimensional and geometric information for correct assembly.

3. TYPES OF ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS

Type Description Use
Design Assembly Shows how components fit during the Used by designers for visual
Drawing design stage. checking.
General Assembly Displays all parts in assembled position Used for documentation and
Drawing with overall dimensions. manufacturing.
Sub-Assembly Represents a smaller part of a larger Used in complex machines.
Drawing assembly (e.g., gear unit in a motor).
Installation Shows how different machines or sub- Used in construction and
Drawing assemblies are arranged for installation. factory setups.
Exploded Displays parts slightly separated to show Used in manuals, catalogs,
Assembly Drawing how they fit together. or teaching.
Sectional Assembly Shows internal details of an assembly by Used for clarity where parts
Drawing cutting through it. overlap.

4. IDENTIFICATION OF MACHINE COMPONENTS

In assembly drawing, components are represented with labels, item numbers, and a parts list
(bill of materials).
Common mechanical components include:

Component Function Typical Symbol or Description

Bolt and Nut Fasten two or more parts together. Cylindrical body with threaded end.
Washer Distributes load and prevents wear. Thin flat ring under nut or bolt
head.
Shaft Transmits torque and rotation. Long cylindrical member.
Bearing Supports rotating shafts and reduces Shown as concentric circles in

39
Component Function Typical Symbol or Description
friction. section.
Key and Prevents rotation between shaft and Rectangular section fitted into slot.
Keyway hub.
Coupling Connects two shafts together. Two hubs joined by bolts or rubber
bush.
Bush Lining for a hole to reduce wear. Cylindrical sleeve.
Pin Locates or aligns parts. Short cylindrical rod.

Diagram: Common Machine Components (Text Illustration)

Bolt → ──────▶ |======|
|| Nut ||
|______|

Shaft → ────────────O─────────── (rotating axis)

Washer → ( o )

Bearing → (◉ ) → [Inner + Outer race]

Key + Keyway → [|] inserted between shaft and pulley hub

5. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WORKING, DETAIL, AND

ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS
Aspect Detail Drawing Assembly Drawing Working Drawing
Purpose Shows a single part. Shows how all parts fit Combines detail and assembly for
together. manufacturing.
Content Dimensions, Positions, alignment, Full instructions for making and
material, finish. item numbers. assembling.
Use Machinists or Assemblers or engineers. Production and maintenance.
fabricators.

6. EXPLODED AND ASSEMBLED VIEWS

Exploded View
An exploded view shows each component slightly separated along the axis of assembly. It
makes the sequence of assembly clear and helps identify every part distinctly.
Illustration (Exploded View of a Pulley Assembly):

40
 [Nut]
↑
[Washer]
↑
[Pulley Hub]
↑
[Key]
↑
[Shaft]
↑
[Bearing Housing]
→→→ Exploded View (Parts pulled apart for clarity)

Assembled View
An assembled view shows all the parts joined together in their functional position — exactly as
they appear in the real object.
Illustration (Assembled View):
| Nut |Washer|Pulley Hub|Key|Shaft|Bearing|
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
→→→ Combined into one continuous object

7. STEPS IN PRODUCING AN ASSEMBLY DRAWING

1. Study the individual part drawings (details) carefully.
2. Understand the functional relationship between the parts.
3. Select appropriate views (front, side, top, or sectional).
4. Position each part correctly using centerlines and reference points.
5. Assemble in logical order, using projection lines for alignment.
6. Add dimensions only where necessary (overall or critical fits).
7. Label all parts with balloons or leader lines.
8. Prepare a parts list (Bill of Materials) beside the drawing.
9. Use sectional views to reveal internal components.
10. Ensure correct scale, neatness, and line types.

8. SECTIONAL ASSEMBLY DRAWING

A sectional assembly drawing is used when internal features (like holes, keys, or bearings) are
hidden by other parts. The assembly is cut along a cutting plane to show these interior details
clearly.
Illustration (Sectional Assembly of a Bearing Unit):

41
 ╔══════════╗ ← Cap
║ ◉ ◉ ║ ← Bearings (inner + outer races)
╚═══╤═══╤══╝ ← Base (bolted to foundation)
│ │
Bolts & Nuts

Key points in sectional assembly:

 Alternate hatching directions for adjacent parts.
 No hatching for fasteners (bolts, nuts, shafts, washers).
 Show centerlines for cylindrical parts.
 Label each part clearly.

9. CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS AND STANDARD PRACTICES

Item Symbol/Convention Remark
Bolt/Nut Not sectioned Standard fastener convention
Shaft Continuous hatching Axis with centerline
Bearing Concentric circles or hatching Inner and outer races
Hatching 45° thin lines Adjacent parts hatched oppositely
Section Plane Thick chain line Arrow indicates viewing direction

10. EXAMPLES AND INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

Assembly drawings are used in:
 Mechanical engineering: Engines, gearboxes, pumps, valves.
 Civil/Structural engineering: Bridges, steel joints, frame connections.
 Electrical engineering: Motors, generators, and switchgear.
 Automotive industry: Vehicle engines, clutches, and suspension systems.
 Manufacturing: Fabrication of equipment, tools, and machine parts.

11. COMMON ERRORS AND PRECAUTIONS

Common Errors
 Incorrect part alignment or positioning.
 Omission of fasteners or clearances.
 Lack of sectional details.
 Unlabeled or ambiguous parts.
 Inconsistent scales or projection methods.

42
Precautions
 Study all detail drawings carefully before assembly.
 Maintain projection alignment using centerlines.
 Label all parts and use consistent ballooning.
 Apply standard section conventions properly.
 Maintain neatness, accuracy, and scale fidelity.

12. EVALUATION
1. Define an assembly drawing.
2. State four functions of an assembly drawing.
3. Differentiate between exploded and assembled views.
4. List and describe three types of assembly drawings.
5. Explain the importance of sectional assembly drawings.
6. Identify five common components found in mechanical assemblies.
7. Describe three precautions necessary when constructing assembly drawings.

13. ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw the exploded view and assembled view of a bolted flange coupling (show all parts
labeled).
2. Explain the difference between a general assembly and a sub-assembly drawing, with
suitable examples.
3. Prepare a parts list for a shaft and bearing assembly including all standard components.

ILLUSTRATIVE SKETCHES (TEXT REPRESENTATIONS)

Figure 1 – Exploded vs. Assembled View
Exploded View Assembled View
[Cap] ╔══════════╗
[Bolt] ║ ║
[Bearing] (◉ ) Shaft (◉ )
[Housing] ╚══════════╝
Parts pulled apart → Parts joined together →

Figure 2 – Sectional Assembly of Shaft and Bearing

FRONT SECTIONAL VIEW
┌──────────────┐
│╭────────────╮│ ← Bearing cap
││ (◉ ) (◉ ) ││ ← Inner & outer races
│╰────────────╯│
└──────┬───────┘
│ Shaft Axis │
43
Figure 3 – Assembly Drawing Layout (With Parts List)
┌────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ FRONT VIEW │
├────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ ITEM | NAME | QTY | MATERIAL │
│ 1 | Bolt | 4 | Steel │
│ 2 | Washer | 4 | Mild Steel│
│ 3 | Bearing | 2 | Bronze │
│ 4 | Shaft | 1 | Alloy │
│ 5 | Housing | 1 | Cast Iron │
└────────────────────────────────────────────┘

SUMMARY
An assembly drawing:
 Combines all parts of a product into a unified representation.
 Shows relationships, positions, and functions of components.
 May include sectional and exploded views for clarity.
 Aids in manufacturing, repair, documentation, and education.
 Forms the foundation of mechanical and industrial drafting practice.

44
WEEK 10
TOPIC: ASSEMBLY DRAWING (CONTINUED)

CONTENT OUTLINE
1. Review of Assembly Drawing
2. Meaning of Assembling Parts in Orthographic Projection
3. Purpose and Importance of Assembling in Orthographic Views
4. Orthographic Projection Principles in Assembly
5. Steps in Assembling Parts into Complete Objects
6. Representation of Joints and Fasteners
7. Sectional Orthographic Assembly Drawing
8. Parts List (Bill of Materials) and Labeling
9. Industrial Applications
10. Common Mistakes and Precautions
11. Evaluation
12. Assignment

1. REVIEW OF ASSEMBLY DRAWING

An assembly drawing shows how individual parts of a machine or structure fit together to form
a complete working unit. In Week 9, we discussed exploded and assembled views (pictorial
form). This week, we focus on how the same assembled object is represented in orthographic
projection — i.e., in front, top, and side views.

2. MEANING OF ASSEMBLING PARTS IN ORTHOGRAPHIC

PROJECTION
Assembling parts in orthographic projection means representing each part of an object
accurately in 2D projection views (front, top, and side) as they appear when fully joined
together.
It transforms the 3D concept of assembly into 2D technical drawings, allowing precision in
dimensioning, alignment, and detailing.

45
Illustration (Conceptual Overview)
3D Exploded View → Orthographic Assembly
[Cap] Front View → ▭ ▭
[Bolt] Top View → ▢ ▢
[Shaft] Side View → ▯ ▯
[Base]

This process ensures that the assembly is accurately understood from different planes —
essential for manufacturing and inspection.

3. PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF ORTHOGRAPHIC

ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS
 To show how all parts appear when fitted together in true projection.
 To ensure dimensional accuracy and alignment of components.
 To serve as a reference document for engineers, machinists, and assemblers.
 To display hidden internal details through sectional orthographic views.
 To indicate the positioning of fasteners, joints, and shafts.
 To verify the functionality and fit of all parts before production.
 To create accurate working drawings for fabrication.

4. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION PRINCIPLES IN

ASSEMBLY
In assembling parts in orthographic projection, the First Angle and Third Angle Projection
principles are applied.

Aspect First Angle Projection Third Angle Projection

View Top view is placed below front Top view is placed above front view
Arrangement view
Projection Plane Object lies between observer Plane lies between observer and object
and plane
Usage Common in Europe, Asia Common in USA, Nigeria (standard in
WAEC/NECO)
Symbols ISO symbol used for ISO symbol used for identification
identification

Orthographic Views Typically Include:

 Front View (Elevation)
 Top View (Plan)
 Side View (End Elevation)

46
  Sectional View (if required)

Illustration – Basic Layout (Third Angle Projection)

┌───────────────┐
│ FRONT VIEW │
├───────────────┤
│ TOP VIEW │
└───────────────┘
↑
SIDE VIEW

5. STEPS IN ASSEMBLING PARTS INTO COMPLETE

OBJECTS
To assemble given parts into complete objects in orthographic projection, follow these steps:
1. Study the detail drawings of each part — identify mating surfaces and centers.
2. Select the appropriate views (usually front, top, and right side).
3. Determine the order of assembly — from the base or foundation upward.
4. Position the first part (base or frame) on the drawing sheet.
5. Align all other parts using projection and center lines.
6. Apply sectioning to show internal fits (if necessary).
7. Insert fasteners such as bolts, nuts, keys, or pins correctly.
8. Add dimensions only for overall and functional purposes (avoid crowding).
9. Label all parts using balloons or numbered circles.
10. Prepare a parts list (Bill of Materials) beside or below the drawing.

Example: Assembly of a Simple Bearing Unit

Given Parts:
1. Bearing base
2. Shaft
3. Bearings
4. Bearing cap
5. Bolts and nuts

(a) Exploded View (Conceptual Sketch)

[Cap]
↑
[Bearings]
↑

47
 [Shaft]
↑
[Base + Bolts]

(b) Assembled Orthographic Projection (Sectional Front View)

FRONT VIEW (SECTION)
┌────────────────────────────┐ ← Bearing Cap
│ (◉ ) Shaft (◉ ) │ ← Bearings
│────────────────────────────│ ← Base
│ Bolt Bolt Bolt │ ← Foundation bolts
└────────────────────────────┘

TOP VIEW
┌───────────────────────────┐
│ Bolt Bolt Bolt │
│───────────────────────────│
│ Shaft │
└───────────────────────────┘

SIDE VIEW
┌─────Cap─────┐
│ (◉ ) Shaft │
└─────────────┘

6. REPRESENTATION OF JOINTS AND FASTENERS IN

ORTHOGRAPHIC ASSEMBLY
In orthographic projection, fasteners (bolts, nuts, rivets, pins) are shown according to standard
conventions.

Fastener Representation in Orthographic View Remarks

Bolt and Hexagonal heads shown in top view, thread shown in Not hatched in section
Nut side view
Washer Thin ring between nut and surface Prevents damage to
material
Rivet Head shown as circle in plan, profile in elevation Used for permanent
joints
Pin Solid circular end view Used for alignment
Screw Helix indicated with thin lines For detachable joints

48
Illustrative Symbols (Textual Diagrams)
Bolt + Nut: ⬡ ===|====⬡
Washer: ( o )
Rivet: •
Screw: (—┐)

7. SECTIONAL ORTHOGRAPHIC ASSEMBLY DRAWING

Sectioning is essential to show hidden internal parts like holes, bearings, or keys.

Rules for Sectional Assembly Drawings:

 Section the object along a cutting plane passing through the axis.
 Hatch all solid parts at 45°.
 Do not hatch bolts, nuts, shafts, or screws.
 Alternate hatching directions for adjacent parts.
 Show centerlines clearly for cylindrical parts.

Illustration – Sectional Front View (Bearing Assembly)

╔══════════════════╗
║ ◉ Shaft ◉ ║
║ │ Axis │║
╚═══════╤═════╤════╝
│ │
Bolts & Nuts

8. PARTS LIST (BILL OF MATERIALS)

Every assembly drawing includes a parts list, showing all components used.

ITEM NO. NAME QTY. MATERIAL

1 Shaft 1 Mild Steel
2 Bearing 2 Bronze
3 Bearing Cap 1 Cast Iron
4 Base Plate 1 Cast Iron
5 Bolts and Nuts 4 Steel
6 Washers 4 Mild Steel

49
9. INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
Assembly in orthographic projection is applied in:
 Machine design (motors, pumps, valves).
 Automobile engineering (engines, brakes, clutches).
 Structural drawing (frame joints, supports).
 Electrical and electronic assembly (switches, terminals).
 Manufacturing industries (fabrication, inspection).

10. COMMON MISTAKES AND PRECAUTIONS

Mistakes
 Misalignment of parts in projection views.
 Incorrect sectioning of fasteners.
 Missing centerlines or projection links.
 Over-dimensioning or crowding the drawing.
 Inconsistent projection methods (mixing first and third angle).
Precautions
 Maintain strict orthographic projection alignment.
 Apply correct sectioning conventions.
 Clearly label parts using leader lines.
 Use neat, sharp lines and consistent lettering.
 Review the sequence of assembly before final drawing.

11. EVALUATION
1. Define “assembling parts in orthographic projection.”
2. State three differences between pictorial and orthographic assembly drawings.
3. List five steps in constructing an orthographic assembly drawing.
4. Explain why bolts and nuts are not hatched in sectional views.
5. Draw and label an orthographic assembly of a simple bearing unit (front, top, side).
6. Describe the role of the parts list in an assembly drawing.

12. ASSIGNMENT
1. Using orthographic projection, draw the assembled front, top, and side views of a shaft,
bearing, and cap unit.
2. Identify five standard conventions used in sectional assembly drawing.
3. Prepare a parts list for the above drawing, indicating materials and quantity.

50
SUMMARY
 Orthographic assembly drawing converts 3D assemblies into accurate 2D technical
projections.
 It helps engineers and machinists understand the fit and function of each part.
 Proper sectioning and labeling reveal both external and internal details.
 Every assembly must include a parts list and follow standard conventions.
 Accuracy, neatness, and projection discipline are vital.

TEXTUAL DIAGRAM SUMMARY

Figure 1 – Orthographic Arrangement
┌──────────────┐
│ FRONT VIEW │
├──────────────┤
│ TOP VIEW │
└──────────────┘
↑
SIDE VIEW

Figure 2 – Sectional Bearing Assembly (Front View)

╔══════════════════╗ ← Cap
║ (◉ ) Shaft (◉ ) ║ ← Bearings
╚═══╤═════════╤════╝ ← Base with Bolts
│ │
Bolts Nuts

Figure 3 – Bolt Representation

Top View: ⬡
Front View: |====⬡
Side View: |====⬡

51
WEEK 11
TOPIC:
FASTENERS

CONTENT:
 Meaning and function of fasteners
 Classification of fasteners
 Identification and description of types (nuts, bolts, screws, rivets, etc.)
 Conventional representations of fasteners in technical drawing
 Standard thread conventions (metric and British)
 Illustrative examples and labelled diagrams

DETAILED LESSON CONTENT

1. MEANING OF FASTENERS
Fasteners are mechanical devices used to join two or more parts together, either temporarily
or permanently. They are essential in engineering and construction, where components must be
assembled, maintained, and sometimes disassembled.
Examples include nuts, bolts, screws, rivets, studs, and washers.
Classification of Fasteners:
 Permanent Fasteners: Cannot be removed without damaging the parts (e.g., rivets,
welding).
 Temporary Fasteners: Can be removed and reused (e.g., bolts, screws, nuts, pins).

2. FUNCTIONS OF FASTENERS
 To hold or join machine parts together.
 To enable easy assembly and disassembly.
 To transmit forces and motion between joined parts.
 To provide alignment and structural rigidity.
 To ensure safety and stability of mechanical systems.

52
3. TYPES OF FASTENERS AND THEIR DESCRIPTIONS
A. BOLTS
A bolt is a cylindrical metal rod with an external thread and a hexagonal or square head at one
end. It is used with a nut to fasten parts together.
Parts of a Bolt:
 Head: Used to apply torque (usually hexagonal).
 Shank: The smooth part between head and threads.
 Thread: The helical ridge that engages the nut.
Illustration:
Hexagonal Head
┌──────────────┐
│ │
│ │
└────┬───────┬─┘
│ │ ← Shank
│ │
└───────┘← Threaded portion
↑
Thread

Common Types of Bolts:

 Hexagonal head bolt
 Square head bolt
 Eye bolt
 Hook bolt
 Countersunk head bolt

B. NUTS
A nut is an internally threaded component used with a bolt to hold two or more parts together.
Common Types:
1. Hexagonal Nut – Six-sided, standard type.
2. Square Nut – Four-sided, used for rough or heavy work.
3. Cap Nut – Has a domed top to protect threads.
4. Wing Nut – Has two wings for hand tightening.
5. Lock Nut – Used with another nut to prevent loosening.
Illustration:

53
 _________
/ \
/ \ ← Hexagonal faces
| _______ |
| |_______| | ← Threaded hole
\___________/

C. SCREWS
A screw is similar to a bolt but designed to be screwed directly into a tapped hole or material
(like wood, plastic, or metal).
Common Types:
 Slotted round-head screw
 Countersunk-head screw
 Cheese-head screw
 Machine screw
 Wood screw
Illustration:
┌────┐
│----│ ← Slot
│----│
└────┘
│
│ Shank
▼
/\/\/\ ← Thread
/\/\/\/\

D. RIVETS
A rivet is a permanent fastener used to join metal sheets or plates by deforming one end after
insertion.
Parts of a Rivet:
 Head: Factory-formed portion.
 Shank: Smooth cylindrical part.
 Tail: Deformed end after riveting.
Types of Rivets:
1. Snap head (or round head) rivet
2. Countersunk head rivet
54
 3. Pan head rivet
4. Flat head rivet
Illustration:
Before Riveting: After Riveting:
┌───────┐ ┌───────┐
│ Head │ │ Head │
└──┬────┘ └──┬────┘
│ Shank │ Shank
│ │
▼ ▼
┌───┐
│Tail│ (formed head)
└────┘

4. CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATIONS IN TECHNICAL DRAWING

In engineering drawings, fasteners are not always drawn in full detail — symbols and
conventions are used to represent them clearly and uniformly.

Symbolic
Fastener Representation Description
Bolt and ⊡ ────────⊡ Parallel lines with hexagonal heads represent bolts and
Nut nuts.
Screw ────▸ Line with short strokes showing thread direction.
Rivet ●───● Circles at ends of a line showing heads on both sides.

Engineering conventions:
 Threads are drawn using thin lines for the core and thick lines for the crest.
 Hidden threads are represented with dashed lines.
 Screw pitch and direction are not shown unless required.

5. THREAD CONVENTIONS
A. Metric Thread System
 Designated as M8 × 1.25, meaning 8 mm diameter and 1.25 mm pitch.
 Commonly used in modern engineering.
B. British Standard Whitworth (BSW)
 Based on inch system, e.g., ½″ BSW
 Thread angle: 55°, rounded crests and roots.

55
C. Conventional Thread Representation in Drawing
┌──────────────────────────┐
│ Thick Line (Crest) │
│ Thin Line (Root) │
│ Pitch shown by spacing │
└──────────────────────────┘

6. APPLICATIONS OF FASTENERS
 Used in mechanical assemblies like engine blocks, frames, machine beds, vehicles,
aerospace parts, and structural steel.
 Rivets are used in aircraft fuselage, bridges, and metal tanks.
 Screws and bolts are used in machines, furniture, and electronic housings.

7. ILLUSTRATIVE DIAGRAMS
A. Common Fasteners (Orthographic Sketch)
┌───────────────────────────────────────┐
│ HEXAGONAL HEAD BOLT │
│ ┌──────┐ │
│ │______│← Head │
│ │ │
│ │ Shank │
│ ▼ │
│ /\/\/\/\ Thread │
│ │
├───────────────────────────────────────┤
│ HEXAGONAL NUT │
│ ________ │
│ / \ │
│ | ____ | ← Threaded Hole │
│ \_______/ │
├───────────────────────────────────────┤
│ SNAP HEAD RIVET │
│ ●───── │
│ │ │
│ ●───── │
└───────────────────────────────────────┘

8. SAFETY AND GOOD PRACTICES

 Always select the right size and material for the job.
 Apply correct torque when tightening bolts and screws.
 Use washers to distribute pressure evenly.
 Avoid mixing metric and imperial threads.
56
  Check for corrosion and wear during maintenance.

EVALUATION
1. Define fastener and give two classes of fasteners.
2. Mention five examples of fasteners and state their uses.
3. Differentiate between a bolt and a screw.
4. Describe the conventional representation of a bolt and nut in drawing.
5. Explain the difference between metric and Whitworth threads.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw and label a hexagonal bolt and nut in orthographic projection.
2. Sketch a countersunk screw showing its conventional representation.
3. Draw the side and sectional views of a snap-head rivet joining two metal plates.

57
SS2 TECHNICAL DRAWING LESSON NOTES
THIRD TERM

WEEK 1
TOPIC:
INTERPENETRATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOLIDS

CONTENT:
 Definition of Interpenetration of Solids
 Explanation of Development of Solids
 Practical applications of interpenetration and development
 Construction of interpenetration of two solids
 Techniques of finding lines of intersection
 Illustrative diagrams and examples

1. INTRODUCTION
In technical drawing, solid objects are often combined or intersected to form complex structures.
To understand how these objects interact, we must study interpenetration and development.
These concepts are crucial in engineering, architecture, and fabrication — where parts such as
ducts, pipes, joints, elbows, and cones meet or connect.

2. DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. INTERPENETRATION OF SOLIDS
Interpenetration refers to the intersection of two or more solids that occupy the same space or
cut through each other. It shows the curve or line of intersection formed where the surfaces of
the solids meet.
For example:
 A cylinder penetrating a prism.
 A pipe intersecting another pipe at 90° (as in plumbing or ventilation).
 A cone penetrating a cylinder.
Illustration (simplified text diagram):

58
 Cylindrical Pipe A
┌───────────────┐
│ │
│ │
│ │
└─────┬─────────┘
│
│ ← Intersecting Line (Curve of Interpenetration)
┌─────┴─────────┐
│ Pipe B │
│ │
└───────────────┘

Figure 1: Two cylinders intersecting to form a curve of interpenetration.

B. DEVELOPMENT OF SOLIDS
Development is the process of unfolding or laying out the surfaces of a 3D solid on a flat plane
to show its true shape and size. It allows sheet metal workers, welders, and designers to cut
materials accurately before bending or joining.
Illustration:
3D Cylinder Development (Flat)
_______ ┌─────────────┐
/ \ │ │
| | → unfolds → │ Rectangle │
\_______/ └─────────────┘

Figure 2: Development of a cylinder showing its lateral surface as a rectangle.

3. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Interpenetration and development are used in various engineering fields:

Application Example
Pipe Fittings Junction of two pipes or ducts (T-joint or Y-joint)
Sheet Metal Work Development of cones, hoppers, or tanks
Plumbing and HVAC Designing duct elbows and intersections
Aerospace/Automobile Design Fuselage or body panel development
Structural Engineering Intersection of beams or trusses

59
4. METHODS OF CONSTRUCTING INTERPENETRATION OF
SOLIDS
The curve of interpenetration can be found using the generator or projection method
depending on the solids involved.

A. INTERPENETRATION OF TWO CYLINDERS AT RIGHT ANGLES

Example Problem: A horizontal cylinder penetrates a vertical cylinder of equal diameter at right
angles. Find and draw the curve of intersection.
Steps:
1. Draw the elevation of the two cylinders as intersecting rectangles.
2. Project the base circles in plan to show their intersection.
3. Divide one base circle (of the penetrating cylinder) into equal parts (say 12).
4. Project generators (lines) from these points to intersect the surface of the other cylinder.
5. Mark the points of intersection in both views (plan and elevation).
6. Join the points smoothly to form the curve of interpenetration.
Illustration (simplified text):
(Front Elevation)
┌───────────────┐
│ Vertical │
│ Cylinder │
└──────┬────────┘
│
│ ← Curve of Interpenetration
┌──────┴────────┐
│ Horizontal │
│ Cylinder │
└───────────────┘

B. INTERPENETRATION OF A CONE AND A CYLINDER

Example Problem: A cone penetrates a cylinder coaxially (having the same axis). Determine
the curve of intersection.
Steps:
1. Draw both solids in elevation and plan.
2. Divide the cone’s base circle into equal parts (say 12).
3. Project generators from the cone’s surface to intersect the cylinder.
4. Transfer intersection points between views.
5. Join these points smoothly to obtain the intersection curve.

60
Illustration:
(Elevation)
/\
/ \ ← Cone
/____\
||
|| ← Cylinder
||
||

The curve where the cone and cylinder meet represents the interpenetration.

5. DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES OF INTERPENETRATING

SOLIDS
When solids interpenetrate, their developments must include the curve of intersection projected
onto the flattened surface.

Steps to Develop the Lateral Surface of a Cylinder Penetrated by Another

Cylinder
1. Draw the true shape of the base circle of the cylinder.
2. Divide it into equal parts.
3. Use projection lines to mark intersection points on the curved surface.
4. Unfold (develop) the surface into a rectangle whose width equals the circumference
(πD).
5. Transfer the intersection points onto the development.
6. Join them smoothly — this gives the true shape of the penetration line.
Illustration:
(Development of Cylinder)

┌────────────────────────────┐
│ │
│ Curve of │
│ Interpenetration (true) │
│ │
└────────────────────────────┘

6. CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS AND DRAWING TIPS

 Use center lines to represent the axes of solids.
 Show hidden lines (dashed) for invisible intersections.
 Label views properly: Front Elevation, Plan, Side Elevation, Development.
61
  Use light construction lines for projections.
 Ensure all drawings are to scale.

7. PRACTICAL EXERCISE
Task: Construct the interpenetration of two equal cylinders intersecting at right angles. Then,
develop the lateral surface of one cylinder showing the curve of penetration.
Materials Needed:
 Drawing board
 Set squares
 Compasses
 T-square
 Drawing paper
 HB and 2H pencils
 Eraser and French curves

8. ILLUSTRATIVE DIAGRAMS (TEXT REPRESENTATION)

Figure 3: Cylinders Intersecting at 90°
ELEVATION:
_______
/ \
| | ← Vertical Cylinder
| |
| |
\_______/
││
││ ← Horizontal Cylinder penetrating
││
││

Figure 4: Development of Vertical Cylinder Surface

┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ Curve of Intersection │
│ (Transferred from plan) │
│ │
└──────────────────────────────┘

EVALUATION QUESTIONS
1. Define interpenetration of solids.

62
 2. Explain the difference between interpenetration and development.
3. List five applications of interpenetration in engineering.
4. Describe two methods used to determine the curve of intersection between solids.
5. Sketch the curve of interpenetration of two cylinders meeting at right angles.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Using standard drawing instruments, construct the interpenetration of a cone and a
cylinder (axes intersecting at 90°).
2. Develop the lateral surface of the cylinder, showing the true shape of the intersection
curve.
3. Submit both plan and elevation views with correct labeling and projection lines.

63
WEEK 2
TOPIC:
INTERPENETRATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOLIDS (CONTINUED)

CONTENT
1. Meaning of Development of Surfaces
Development of surfaces refers to the process of unfolding or laying out the surfaces of a solid
object on a flat plane. It is a two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional object,
showing all its surfaces in true shape and size.
Development helps in:
 Fabricating objects from sheet materials (like tins, ducts, and pipes).
 Understanding how complex solids fit together.
 Determining material quantity and cutting patterns.
 Understanding the geometry of intersection between solids.

2. Practical Applications of Development

Development of solids is used in:
 Sheet metal work (e.g., ducts, funnels, pipes).
 Packaging design (e.g., boxes, containers).
 Architecture (e.g., roofs, ventilation ducts).
 Engineering fabrication (e.g., boilers, tanks).
 Pipework intersections (e.g., where two pipes meet at right angles).

3. Interpenetration of Solids
Interpenetration occurs when two or more solids intersect each other. The line of
interpenetration is the curve formed by their intersection.
Common examples include:
 Cylinder penetrating a prism.
 Cylinder intersecting another cylinder.
 Prism penetrating a cone.

64
4. Development of Interpenetrating Solids
The development of interpenetrating solids shows how the surfaces of the two solids unfold after
intersection. This requires finding the line of intersection and projecting it onto the developed
surface.

5. Step-by-Step Construction: Cylinder Penetrating Another Cylinder at

Right Angles
Example:
A cylinder of 60 mm diameter penetrates another cylinder of 90 mm diameter at right angles.
Draw:
1. The projections of the intersection.
2. The development of the lateral surface of the larger cylinder.

Step 1: Draw the Elevation and Plan

 Draw the vertical cylinder in elevation as a rectangle (height = given, width = 90 mm).
 Draw the penetrating horizontal cylinder in plan as a circle (diameter = 60 mm).
 The point of penetration should intersect the center of the vertical cylinder.
Illustration:
ELEVATION VIEW

+-------------------------+
| |
| (A) | ← Vertical Cylinder
| |
+-------------------------+

PLAN VIEW
_______
---/ \---
/ \
\ /
---\_______/---

→ Horizontal Cylinder

Step 2: Locate the Line of Intersection

 Divide the circle (in plan) of the horizontal cylinder into 12 equal parts.

65
  From each division, project vertical lines upward to intersect the surface of the vertical
cylinder in elevation.
 The points of intersection form a curve, known as the curve of interpenetration.
Illustration:
Elevation showing curve of interpenetration
(a1)---*-------*---(a7)
* *
* *
*---*

Step 3: Development of the Vertical Cylinder

1. Draw a rectangle representing the lateral surface of the vertical cylinder.

o Length = π × Diameter = 3.142 × 90 = 283 mm.

o Height = same as the height of the cylinder.
2. Divide the base into 12 equal parts to correspond with the divisions used in the plan.
3. Transfer the intersection points from the elevation to the developed surface.

4. Join these points with a smooth curve — this represents the development of the interpenetration.

Development Sketch:
DEVELOPMENT OF VERTICAL CYLINDER

0----1----2----3----4----5----6----7----8----9----10----11----12
* * * * * * *
\________\_______\________\_______\________\_______\____ Curve of
Interpenetration

6. Development of a Prism Penetrating a Cylinder

For a square prism penetrating a cylinder, the procedure is similar:
1. Draw the projections (plan and elevation).
2. Determine the line of intersection by projecting the edges of the prism onto the
cylindrical surface.
3. Transfer these intersection points onto the developed surface of the cylinder.
4. Draw the development with the curve (or line) of interpenetration.
Illustration (simplified)
Prism edges intersecting cylinder
in elevation:

66
 /\
/ \
/----\
| |
| |
+------+

→ When developed, the curve of intersection

becomes an irregular shape on the cylinder’s surface.

7. Rules for Accurate Development

 All edges must be projected in true length.
 Divisions on circular bases must be equal.
 Lines of intersection should be transferred accurately using projection lines.
 Smooth curves should be drawn with French curves or flexible curves.

ILLUSTRATIONS (LABELLED)
Figure 1: Line of Interpenetration between Two Cylinders
(Label: A–Base of vertical cylinder, B–Horizontal cylinder, C–Curve of interpenetration)
Vertical Cylinder Penetrating Cylinder ⚫ Line of Intersection

Figure 2: Development of Interpenetrating Cylinders

(Label: D–Division lines, E–Curve transferred, F–True shape of development)

Figure 3: Development of a Prism Penetrating a Cylinder

(Label: G–Edges of prism, H–Cylinder surface, I–Projected intersection line)

EVALUATION
1. Define development of surfaces and explain its importance.
2. Differentiate between interpenetration and development.
3. Describe the procedure for constructing the development of a cylinder penetrated by
another cylinder.
4. Draw and label the development of a square prism penetrating a cylinder.
5. Mention three rules for accurate development of solids.

67
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain three practical applications of the development of interpenetrating solids.
2. Draw a neat development of two cylinders intersecting at right angles (diameters 80 mm
and 50 mm).
3. Describe step by step how to locate the curve of interpenetration in such solids.

68
WEEK 3
TOPIC:
BUILDING DRAWINGS

CONTENT
1. Meaning and Importance of Building Drawings
2. Types of Building Drawings
3. Symbols and Conventions Used in Building Drawings
4. Parts of a Building Plan
5. Reading and Interpreting Simple Floor Plans
6. Practical Example and Illustrations

1. MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF BUILDING DRAWINGS

Building Drawing is a specialized type of technical drawing used in the design and construction
of buildings. It represents the layout, dimensions, structure, and other specifications of a building
in graphical form.
Building drawings are essential communication tools between:
 Architects (who design),
 Engineers (who calculate and construct),
 Builders/Contractors (who execute), and
 Clients (who approve or fund the project).
Importance:
 They serve as blueprints for construction.
 Ensure accuracy and uniformity during building.
 Provide cost estimation data.
 Serve as records for future maintenance or renovations.
 Allow regulatory authorities to approve or reject building plans.

2. TYPES OF BUILDING DRAWINGS

Building drawings can be classified according to their purpose and view.

Type Description / Purpose

Site Plan Shows the entire building plot, including boundaries, access roads,
69
Type Description / Purpose
drainage, and the position of the building on the site.
Floor Plan A horizontal section through the building (usually 1 meter above
ground) showing room arrangement, walls, doors, and windows.
Elevation The external view of the building seen from different directions (front,
rear, left, right).
Section A vertical cut through the building showing internal details like beams,
floors, stairs, etc.
Foundation Plan Shows the layout and details of the foundation structure beneath the
ground.
Roof Plan Represents the shape, slope, and covering of the roof.
Detail Drawings Enlarged views showing specific features such as doors, windows, or
joints.
Electrical and Show the arrangement of wiring, sockets, pipes, and fixtures.
Plumbing Layouts

3. SYMBOLS AND CONVENTIONS IN BUILDING DRAWINGS

Building drawings use standardized graphical symbols and line types to represent different
components. These are governed by ISO and Nigerian Standard Organization (SON) drawing
conventions.
A. Line Types
Type of Line Purpose
Thick continuous line Outline of walls and main structural parts
Thin continuous line Dimension and projection lines
Dashed line Hidden features (e.g., overhead beams, roof edges)
Chain line Center lines and axes of symmetry
B. Symbols
Component Symbol / Representation
Door
Window
Wall Two parallel thick lines
Staircase A series of diagonal lines with arrow showing direction of ascent
Sink/Basin Small rectangle with inner circle
Water closet (WC) Oval or circle labeled “WC”
Switch Small “S” or circle with line
Socket outlet Circle with “SO”

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Illustration: Typical Floor Plan Symbols (schematic)
┌───────────────┐
│ W │ ← Window
│ │
│ D │ ← Door swing arc
│ │
└───────────────┘

4. PARTS OF A BUILDING PLAN

A floor plan is the most common and fundamental drawing in architecture. It shows the layout
of rooms and internal spaces as seen from above.
Key components include:
1. Walls – Indicate room boundaries; external walls are thicker.
2. Doors – Shown by a thin line and an arc indicating the swing direction.
3. Windows – Shown as gaps in the wall with double lines.
4. Rooms and Labels – Each room (e.g., LIVING ROOM, KITCHEN) is labeled.
5. Dimensions – Show measurements between walls and overall sizes.
6. Orientation (North Point) – Indicates direction on the plan.
7. Stairs, Columns, and Beams – Shown for multi-storey structures.
8. Scale – Usually 1:50 or 1:100 for floor plans.
9. Title Block – Contains project title, name, scale, date, and drafter’s details.

5. READING AND INTERPRETING SIMPLE FLOOR PLANS

Reading a floor plan involves understanding the layout, room functions, and circulation flow in a
building.
A. Steps to Read a Floor Plan
1. Identify the orientation – Locate the north arrow.
2. Locate external walls – Thicker lines represent external boundaries.
3. Trace the entrances and exits – Identify main and back doors.
4. Identify rooms and their labels – Each labeled according to use.
5. Observe windows and doors – Arcs show door swing; small breaks show window
positions.
6. Interpret dimensions – Read from the extension and dimension lines.
7. Note internal fittings – Such as sinks, WCs, wardrobes, etc.
8. Observe flow and circulation – How people move through spaces.
B. Example: Simple Two-Bedroom Floor Plan
(Scale: 1:100)

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 NORTH ↑
┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│ BED 1 │ LIVING ROOM │
│ │ │
│ W │ D │
│ │ │
├─────────────┼──────────────┬────────┤
│ BED 2 │ HALLWAY │ KITCHEN│
│ \ │ W │
│ \ │ │
│ \ │ │
│ \ └─────────┘
│ WC BATHROOM VERANDAH │
└───────────────────────────────────────┘

Legend: W = Window, D = Door, WC = Toilet/Bathroom

This plan shows two bedrooms, a living room, kitchen, and bathroom. The doors swing in the
direction indicated by arcs. Windows are placed along walls for ventilation and lighting.

6. SCALE AND DIMENSIONING IN BUILDING DRAWINGS

Building drawings are drawn to scale, which is the ratio between actual dimensions and drawing
size.
Common architectural scales include:
 1:50 → 1 unit on drawing = 50 units in real life
 1:100 → 1 unit on drawing = 100 units in real life
 1:200 → Used for site plans
Dimensioning Rules:
 Always dimension overall lengths and room sizes.
 Use thin lines for dimension lines and arrows.
 Write dimensions above or beside the line.
 Indicate all openings (doors/windows) on wall lines.

7. PRACTICAL EXERCISE: READING A SIMPLE RESIDENTIAL

FLOOR PLAN
Objective: Interpret and draw a 2-bedroom flat using given data.
Given Data:
 Living room: 4200 × 3600 mm
 Bedrooms: 3600 × 3000 mm each
72
  Kitchen: 3000 × 2700 mm
 Toilet/Bath: 2100 × 1500 mm
 Wall thickness: 230 mm
 Scale: 1:100
Tasks:
1. Draw the external walls.
2. Mark out the rooms according to given dimensions.
3. Add doors and windows at appropriate positions.
4. Indicate the labels of each room.
5. Add dimension lines and a title block.
Illustration: Scaled Drawing (Simplified Floor Layout)
┌────────────────────────────┐
│ LIVING ROOM │
│ D │
│ │
│ │
├───────────┬────────────────┤
│ BEDROOM 1 │ BEDROOM 2 │
│ W │ W │
├───────────┼────────────────┤
│ KITCHEN │ TOILET/BATH │
│ W │ │
└───────────┴────────────────┘

EVALUATION QUESTIONS
1. Define building drawing.
2. Mention four types of building drawings and state their uses.
3. List five symbols commonly used in building drawings and their meanings.
4. Explain the difference between floor plan and elevation.
5. Interpret the following symbols on a building drawing: (a) Arc with D inside (b) Parallel
lines with a gap (c) Circle with “WC”

ASSIGNMENT
1. Using a scale of 1:100, draw a simple floor plan for a one-bedroom flat with a living
room, kitchen, bathroom, and veranda.
2. Identify and label all doors, windows, and sanitary fittings.
3. List five reasons why scale and symbols are important in building drawings.

73
WEEK 4
TOPIC:
BUILDING DRAWINGS (CONTINUED)

CONTENT OUTLINE
1. Meaning and Purpose of Floor Plans and Elevations
2. Steps in Drawing Floor Plans
3. Steps in Drawing Elevations
4. Line Conventions and Symbols Used in Building Drawings
5. Orthographic Relationship between Floor Plans and Elevations
6. Worked Example: Floor Plan and Elevation of a Simple Two-Bedroom Flat
7. Illustrations (Vector Diagrams Descriptions)
8. Evaluation
9. Assignment

1. MEANING AND PURPOSE OF FLOOR PLANS AND

ELEVATIONS
A. Floor Plan
A floor plan is a horizontal section through a building, usually taken at a height of about 1
meter above the floor level, showing the arrangement of spaces (rooms), walls, doors,
windows, and fittings as viewed from above.
It shows:
 The layout of the building.
 Circulation pattern (movement within rooms).
 Location of openings (doors and windows).
 Relationship between different rooms.
 Dimensions and proportions of spaces.
B. Elevation
An elevation is a vertical orthographic projection of the exterior face of a building. It shows
the appearance, height, door and window placements, roof design, and materials used.
Types of elevations include:
 Front Elevation (View from main entrance)

74
  Rear Elevation (Opposite the front)
 Left/Right Side Elevations (Lateral views)
Purpose of Elevations:
 To visualize the appearance and style of the building.
 To determine heights and levels of different components.
 To specify external finishes and openings.
 To serve as guidelines for masons and builders during construction.

2. STEPS IN DRAWING FLOOR PLANS

To draw a floor plan correctly, the following systematic steps are followed:

Step 1: Choose a Scale

Select an appropriate scale (usually 1:50 or 1:100). E.g., at a scale of 1:100, 1 cm on the drawing
represents 1 meter on site.

Step 2: Draw the External Walls

 Start by drawing a rectangular or L-shaped outline of the building.
 Indicate wall thickness (e.g., 230 mm for external, 115 mm for internal).
 Use thick continuous lines for walls.
Step 3: Mark Internal Partitions
 Divide the internal spaces into rooms using thinner lines for partition walls.
 Label each room (e.g., LIVING ROOM, BEDROOM, KITCHEN).
Step 4: Add Doors and Windows
 Represent doors by thin lines and arcs indicating the direction of swing.
 Windows are shown as thin double lines across walls.
 Use standard door/window symbols according to conventions.
Step 5: Add Sanitary Fittings and Fixtures
 Include WCs, basins, sinks, wardrobes, and staircases using correct symbols.
Step 6: Dimensioning
 Dimension external and internal walls.
 Indicate room sizes and overall building dimensions using thin continuous lines and
arrowheads.
Step 7: Add the Title Block and North Arrow
 Include the project title, scale, drafter’s name, and date.
 Add the north arrow for orientation.

75
3. STEPS IN DRAWING ELEVATIONS
To project an elevation from a floor plan:

Step 1: Select Viewpoint

Decide which side of the building to view — typically Front Elevation from the main entrance.

Step 2: Project Vertical Lines Upward

 From the corners of the floor plan, project vertical projection lines upwards.
 These form the outline of the elevation.
Step 3: Add Doors and Windows
 Transfer door and window positions from the floor plan using projection lines.
 Show heights and lintel levels (standard door height = 2100 mm).
Step 4: Indicate Roof Type
 Choose appropriate roof design (flat, gable, or hipped).
 Show roof slopes with ridge lines and eaves projections.
Step 5: Add Finishing Details
 Include plinth level, floor level, and roof level lines.
 Represent materials (brick, glass, block, etc.) with standard symbols.

4. LINE CONVENTIONS AND SYMBOLS USED

Type of Line Purpose
Thick continuous line Visible outline of walls and building parts
Thin continuous line Dimension lines and hatching
Dashed line Hidden features (e.g., roof edges, beams)
Chain thin line Center lines
Zigzag line Cutting plane in section views

Common Building Symbols

Component Symbol / Representation
Door Thin line with arc swing
Window Double thin parallel line
Stairs Series of diagonal lines with an arrow indicating ascent
WC Oval or circle labeled “WC”
Wash Hand Basin Small rectangle with a circle inside

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Component Symbol / Representation
Wall Two parallel thick lines

5. ORTHOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FLOOR PLAN

AND ELEVATION
In architectural drawing, floor plan and elevation are related as orthographic projections of
the same structure:
 The floor plan is a horizontal cut.
 The elevation is a vertical projection.
 Both share projection lines — vertical from plan to elevation. This helps visualize the
complete 3D form of the building.
Illustrative Diagram: Orthographic Relationship
FRONT ELEVATION
----------------
▲
│
│
FLOOR PLAN ───┼─────────────→
│
│
▼
RIGHT SIDE ELEVATION

6. WORKED EXAMPLE: FLOOR PLAN AND FRONT

ELEVATION OF A SIMPLE TWO-BEDROOM BUNGALOW
Given Data:
 Living Room: 4200 × 3600 mm
 Bedrooms: 3600 × 3000 mm each
 Kitchen: 3000 × 2700 mm
 Bath/WC: 2100 × 1500 mm
 Wall thickness: 230 mm (external), 115 mm (internal)
 Scale: 1:100

Step-by-Step Floor Plan Construction

1. Draw a rectangular outline 9 m × 7 m (scaled to 90 mm × 70 mm).
2. Divide into rooms according to given dimensions.

77
 3. Insert doors (width 900 mm) and windows (width 1200 mm).
4. Label each room and add door swing arcs.
5. Add dimension lines and north arrow.
Illustration (Simplified ASCII Plan):
┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ LIVING ROOM │
│ D │
│ │
├────────────┬─────────────────┤
│ BEDROOM 1 │ BEDROOM 2 │
│ W │ W │
├────────────┼─────────────────┤
│ KITCHEN │ TOILET / BATH │
│ W │ │
└────────────┴─────────────────┘

Legend: W = Window, D = Door, 230mm = External wall, 115mm = Internal partition.

Step-by-Step Front Elevation Construction

1. Project vertical lines upward from the floor plan corners.
2. Draw the base (ground) line and roof line.
3. Insert doors and windows in correct positions.
4. Add lintel and roof slope (gable type shown below).
5. Label height dimensions (e.g., door height 2100 mm, window sill 900 mm, wall height
3000 mm).
Simplified Illustration of Front Elevation (ASCII):
/\ ← Roof (Gable Type)
/ \
____/____\____
| [ W ] [ W ] | ← Windows
| D | ← Door
|_________________| ← Ground line

7. ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES (VECTOR DIAGRAMS –

DESCRIPTIONS)
Figure 1: Typical Floor Plan Symbols
Shows graphical symbols for door swings, window lines, wall thicknesses, stairs, WC, and
kitchen fittings.

78
Figure 2: Orthographic Projection Relationship
A 3-view projection linking the plan to the front and side elevations.

Figure 3: Front Elevation Rendering

Depicts architectural elements — plinth, windows, doors, roof slope, fascia board, and floor level.

Figure 4: Dimensioning of a Floor Plan

Displays properly spaced dimension lines, arrowheads, and annotated room sizes.

8. EVALUATION
1. Define a floor plan and elevation.
2. Differentiate between a front elevation and a side elevation.
3. State the purpose of drawing floor plans in building design.
4. List the steps involved in producing an elevation from a plan.
5. Explain the orthographic relationship between floor plan and elevation.
6. Draw and label the front elevation of a simple one-room apartment using a given floor
plan.

9. ASSIGNMENT
1. Using a scale of 1:100, draw the floor plan and front elevation of a 2-bedroom
bungalow with a veranda, kitchen, and bath/WC.
2. Include doors, windows, and appropriate architectural symbols.
3. Label all rooms, add dimension lines, title block, and north arrow.

✅ TEACHER’S NOTE:
For demonstration:
 Use drawing instruments (T-square, set squares, compasses).
 Begin with a constructional layout, then trace in ink or fine liner for clarity.
 Discuss architectural symbols and room labeling conventions in class.
 Display a printed vector illustration of a simple bungalow for visual aid.

79
WEEK 6
TOPIC: PICTORIAL DRAWING OF BUILDINGS

CONTENT
1. Meaning of Pictorial Drawing of Buildings
Pictorial drawing is a three-dimensional (3D) representation of an object or building that shows
height, width, and depth in a single view. In building drawing, pictorial representation helps
architects, builders, and clients visualize what the final structure will look like before
construction begins.
There are three main types of pictorial drawings used in architecture and technical drawing:
1. Isometric Projection – The building is drawn with its axes inclined at 120° to each
other, allowing equal scaling along all three dimensions.
2. Oblique Projection – The front view is drawn in true shape while the sides are projected
at 45°, showing depth.
3. Perspective Projection – The most realistic type, where lines converge at one or more
vanishing points to simulate the way the human eye sees.

2. Uses of Pictorial Drawings in Building Design

 To give a realistic appearance of the structure.
 To help in client presentation and architectural visualization.
 To serve as a reference for 3D modeling and construction planning.
 To assist in estimating materials and spatial arrangement.

3. Basic Steps in Constructing Pictorial Drawings of Buildings

A. Isometric Projection Method
1. Draw the Isometric Axes: Three lines at 120° to each other — one vertical, two inclined
at 30° to the horizontal.
2. Mark Out the Plan: Reproduce the building plan on the isometric base using the
isometric scale.
3. Project the Walls Vertically: From each corner of the base, project vertical lines equal
to the wall height.
4. Draw the Roof: Connect roof edges according to the building’s roof design (gable, flat,
hipped, etc.).
5. Add Openings: Show doors, windows, and ventilations in correct proportion and
placement.
6. Finalize with Details: Include the staircase, veranda, columns, and boundary lines.

80
Illustration (Vector Description):
/\ Roof line (Hip roof)
/ \
/____\ ← Roof top
/| |\
/_|____|_\ ← Wall outline
| | | |
| | | | ← Door and window openings
| |____|_|

(Isometric pictorial of a simple rectangular building)

B. Oblique Projection Method

1. Draw the front elevation in true shape.
2. Project the sides backward at 45° to represent depth.
3. Complete the roof, windows, and door outlines using proper projection distances.
4. Use cavalier (full depth) or cabinet (half depth) projection depending on scale accuracy.
Illustration (Vector Description):
Front view (true shape)
+-----------+
| |\
| | \
| | \
+-----------+---+ ← 45° receding lines (depth)

C. Perspective Projection Method

Used mainly for architectural renderings and visual presentations.
Steps:
1. Establish the ground line (GL) and horizon line (HL).
2. Mark the station point (SP) and vanishing points (VP1, VP2).
3. Draw the plan of the building and project its corners toward the vanishing points.
4. Raise verticals to show height and connect tops to corresponding vanishing lines.
5. Add doors, windows, and roof in perspective view.
Illustration (Vector Description):
/|
/ | Roof ridge
/__|
/ /
/___/ ← Vanishing lines to VP1 and VP2

81
(Two-point perspective of a simple rectangular building)

4. Proportion and Scale

 Ensure correct proportion between walls, roof height, and openings.
 Use architectural scales (e.g., 1:100, 1:50) for accurate dimensions.
 Apply isometric scale correction (multiply true length by 0.816) when necessary.

5. Conventions in Building Pictorials

 Walls: Drawn thick and dark to indicate solid masonry.
 Openings: Shown with thinner lines.
 Hidden parts: Dashed lines (if necessary).
 Ground line: A bold base line representing floor level.
 Roof edges: Shown lighter unless sectioned.

6. Applications
 Residential building representation
 Classroom or office layout sketches
 3D concept visualization for architectural projects
 Technical project submission and modeling

EVALUATION
1. Define pictorial drawing of buildings.
2. List and explain the three main types of pictorial drawings.
3. Outline the steps involved in constructing an isometric view of a simple building.
4. Differentiate between isometric, oblique, and perspective projections.
5. Why are pictorial drawings important in building design and construction?

ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw the isometric pictorial of a two-room building with a gable roof using given plan
dimensions (6 m × 4 m).
2. Using oblique projection, draw the front and side of a simple store building with doors
and windows.
3. Produce a two-point perspective view of a classroom block based on a provided plan.

ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS
1. Isometric Building Sketch

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 /\
/__\ ← Roof
/| |\
/_|__|_\ ← Wall and window outlines
| | | |
| |__|_| ← Door position

2. Oblique Projection of Building

Front elevation (true shape)
+------------+
| |\
| | \
| | \
+------------+---+

3. Two-Point Perspective
VP1 VP2
\ /
\ /
\ /
+-------+ ← Building base
/| |\
/ | | \

83
WEEK 8
TOPIC: PICTORIAL DRAWING OF BUILDINGS (CONTINUED)

CONTENT
1. Meaning of Complex Pictorial Drawings of Buildings
A complex pictorial drawing is a three-dimensional (3D) graphical representation of a
building that includes multiple components such as verandas, staircases, roofs with varying
slopes, balconies, extensions, or annexes.
These drawings go beyond simple rectangular structures to illustrate the interconnection of
several parts of a building in a single, realistic view.
They provide a complete spatial visualization that aids architects, builders, and clients in
understanding the building’s form, design, and function before construction.

2. Types of Complex Pictorial Projections Used in Building Drawings

1. Isometric Projection (Advanced Application)

o Uses 120° angles between the axes.

o Shows complex details like roofs with dormers, porches, columns, stairs, and
multiple levels.
o All dimensions along the axes are drawn to scale (isometric scale = 0.816 × true
length).
2. Oblique Projection (Advanced Application)

o The front elevation is drawn true, while the sides are projected backward at 45°.
o Best used when the front face of the building must remain undistorted.
o Commonly used for buildings with wide frontages or visible depth in extensions.
3. Perspective Projection (Advanced Application)

o Produces the most realistic view of the building as seen by the eye.
o Incorporates one-point or two-point vanishing systems.
o Used for architectural presentations and renderings.

3. Steps in Drawing Complex Pictorial Views of Buildings

A. Isometric Projection of a Complex Building

Procedure:

84
 1. Draw the isometric axes:

o A vertical axis and two inclined axes at 30° to the horizontal.

2. Reproduce the building plan:

o Draw the floor plan using isometric scale, marking room partitions and walls.
3. Project wall heights:

o Project verticals from each plan corner equal to wall height (e.g., 3000 mm).
4. Outline the roof structure:

o For a hipped or gable roof, locate ridge points, slopes, and junctions accurately.
5. Add architectural features:

o Doors, windows, veranda posts, columns, railings, and step projections.

6. Indicate hidden or recessed features:

o Use light dashed lines to indicate hidden walls, beams, or internal openings.
7. Finalize:

o Add textures for roofing, wall bricks, and floor tiling.

o Darken visible outlines and erase construction lines.
Illustrative Sketch (Isometric Building View):
/\ ← Roof ridge
/__\___
/| /|
/_|____/_| ← Roof slopes and wall outlines
| | | |
| | | | ← Door and window openings
| |____|_|

B. Oblique Projection of a Complex Building

Steps:
1. Draw the front elevation in true shape.
2. Project the sides backward at 45°.
3. Transfer dimensions of side walls and roof slopes along the receding axes.
4. Construct additional structures like porches, steps, and balconies in their correct
positions.
5. Add openings (doors, windows) to both front and side elevations.
6. Darken visible edges and apply tonal shading to emphasize depth.
Illustrative Sketch (Oblique Projection):

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 Front View (true shape)
+------------+
| |\
| Door | \
| & Window | \
+------------+---+
←45° lines represent receding sides

C. Perspective Projection of a Complex Building

Types of Perspective Used:
 One-point perspective: For frontal buildings such as halls or offices.
 Two-point perspective: For corner views or buildings with visible depth.
Steps:
1. Draw the ground line (GL) and horizon line (HL).
2. Place the station point (SP) and vanishing points (VP1, VP2).
3. Draw the plan of the building on the GL.
4. Project the plan points toward VP1 and VP2.
5. Raise vertical lines for the walls, and connect top corners to VPs to define the 3D form.
6. Add the roof, windows, doors, and other architectural details.
Illustrative Sketch (Two-Point Perspective):
VP1 VP2
\ /
\ /
+--------------+ ← Building base
|\ |\
| \ | \
| \ | \
+---\----------+---+

4. Proportion and Detailing

 Maintain consistent scaling and proportion among building components.
 Ensure roof angles, window positions, and door heights are realistic.
 Include balustrades, steps, columns, fence walls, and canopies.
 Label parts properly, e.g.:
Example Labels (Isometric House):
 A – Main building wall
 B – Veranda

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  C – Roof ridge line
 D – Door opening
 E – Window opening

5. Line Work and Shading Techniques

 Thick continuous lines: Visible outlines
 Thin continuous lines: Construction lines
 Dashed lines: Hidden or internal edges
 Shading: Apply lighter tones on the right side and darker tones below for depth
 Roof texture: Slanted hatch lines at 45°

6. Applications of Complex Pictorial Building Drawings

 Architectural visualization and 3D modeling
 Client presentation for housing projects
 Town planning documentation
 Design evaluation in technical colleges
 CAD modeling and rendering reference

EVALUATION
1. What is a complex pictorial drawing?
2. Mention and explain the three types of complex pictorial projections used in building
drawing.
3. List five important steps in constructing an isometric view of a complex building.
4. Differentiate between isometric, oblique, and perspective projections.
5. Explain three advantages of using pictorial drawings in building design.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw the isometric projection of a three-room building with a central veranda and a
gable roof (use 1:100 scale).
2. Construct the oblique projection of a two-storey office block, showing the main
staircase and balcony.
3. Draw the two-point perspective projection of a bungalow with hip roof and front porch.

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SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS
1. Isometric Projection of a Multi-Room House
/\___/\
/__\_/__\ ← Complex roof planes
/| |\
/_|_______|_\ ← Walls and partitions
| | _ | |
| | _| |_ | | ← Doors and windows
| |_______|_|

2. Oblique Projection with Depth

Front Elevation
+--------------+
| Main Door |\
| | \
| Windows | \
+--------------+---+

3. Perspective View of a Complex Structure

VP1 VP2
\ /
\ /
+-------------------------+ ← Building base
|\ Balcony |\
| \ | \
| \ | \
+---\---------------------+---+

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WEEK 9
TOPIC: FREEHAND SKETCHING
SUBTOPIC: SKETCHING BUILDING COMPONENTS AND FITTINGS
ACCURATELY

CONTENT OUTLINE
1. Meaning and importance of freehand sketching
2. Materials and techniques used in freehand sketching
3. Common building components and fittings
4. Procedures for sketching building components accurately
5. Shading, proportion, and line application
6. Evaluation and practice tasks

1. MEANING OF FREEHAND SKETCHING

Freehand sketching is the process of drawing without the use of drawing instruments, using
only the hand and pencil to represent an object quickly and accurately. In technical drawing,
especially in building design, it is used to communicate ideas, record observations, and design
components before producing instrument drawings.
In architecture and building construction, freehand sketching is essential for:
 Making quick design concepts.
 Recording details of building fittings (windows, doors, hinges, staircases).
 Visualizing shapes, forms, and proportions of structures.
 Communicating ideas between architects, builders, and clients.

2. IMPORTANCE OF FREEHAND SKETCHING IN BUILDING

DRAWINGS
 Helps to visualize design concepts before detailed working drawings.
 Allows quick expression of ideas on-site or during discussions.
 Serves as a foundation for later instrument or computer-aided drawings.
 Enhances creative ability and line confidence.
 Useful in field sketches for recording construction details.

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3. MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES USED IN FREEHAND SKETCHING
Materials:
 Soft pencil grades (HB, B, 2B, 4B)
 Sketch pad or plain drawing paper
 Eraser and sharpener
 Ruler (for guidance only, not for drawing lines)
Techniques:
 Hold the pencil loosely and comfortably.
 Use short, light strokes for initial outlines.
 Maintain correct proportions of height, width, and depth.
 Add details gradually—doors, handles, hinges, and glazing.
 Shade or tone to give a sense of depth and realism.
Illustrative Sketch — Pencil Grip and Line Practice:
/ Pencil held at 45°
__/_____________________
( ) → free movement of wrist

LINE PRACTICE
–––––––– (continuous)
– – – – (broken)
____ (thick)

4. COMMON BUILDING COMPONENTS AND FITTINGS TO BE

SKETCHED
1. Doors – panel door, flush door, glazed door, double door.
2. Windows – casement window, louver window, sliding window.
3. Roofs – gable, hip, flat, and combination roof types.
4. Staircases – straight flight, dog-leg, open-well.
5. Columns and Beams – structural members of a building.
6. Wall Sections – block walls, partition walls, cavity walls.
7. Sanitary fittings – wash-hand basins, water closets (WC), sinks, bathtubs.
8. Electrical fittings – light switches, sockets, ceiling fittings.

5. PROCEDURE FOR SKETCHING BUILDING COMPONENTS

(A) Sketching a Panel Door
1. Draw a rectangle to represent the frame.
2. Divide it vertically and horizontally to form panels.

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 3. Add the rails and stiles (top, middle, and bottom rails).
4. Include the handle and hinges.
Illustrative Sketch (Panel Door):
+----------------+
| | | |
|---+------+-----| ← Rails and panels
| | | |
+----------------+

(B) Sketching a Casement Window

1. Draw a rectangle representing the frame.
2. Divide it into two equal vertical parts.
3. Sketch the hinges on one side and handles on the opposite side.
4. Indicate the glass panes using light diagonal lines.
Illustrative Sketch (Casement Window):
+----+----+
| / | \ | ← Glass panes
| / | \ |
+----+----+
Hinge Handle

(C) Sketching a Gable Roof

1. Draw the base rectangle of the building.
2. Project the ridge line at the centre.
3. Join roof slopes from ridge to eaves.
4. Add fascia and roof edge details.
Illustrative Sketch (Gable Roof):
/\
/ \
/____\ ← Roof planes
| | ← Wall below
|______|

(D) Sketching a Staircase (Straight Flight)

1. Draw two parallel inclined lines for the stringers.
2. Divide into equal steps (treads and risers).
3. Add handrails and balusters if required.

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Illustrative Sketch (Staircase):
________
|_______| ← Tread
|_______|
|_______|
|_______| ← Stringer

(E) Sketching a Wash-Hand Basin

1. Draw a curved bowl shape.
2. Add a tap on the top and waste pipe below.
3. Indicate wall bracket or pedestal support.
Illustrative Sketch (Wash-Hand Basin):
________
/ \
| O O | ← Taps
\________/
| |
|__| ← Waste pipe

6. RULES FOR ACCURATE FREEHAND SKETCHING

 Always start with light construction lines before darkening outlines.
 Keep proportions correct; compare heights and widths visually.
 Add labels where necessary (e.g., "door frame", "handle", "hinge").
 Practice different line types: outline, hidden, and sectional.
 Maintain neatness and clarity—technical sketches must be legible.

7. SHADING AND TONING

 Shading gives depth and a sense of light direction.
 Use parallel strokes (hatching) for darker areas.
 Apply lighter tones where light falls directly.
 Cross-hatching may be used for texture representation (e.g., wood grain, masonry).
Illustration (Shading Technique):
/////// ← Light hatch
\\\\\\\ ← Cross hatch

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8. APPLICATION OF FREEHAND SKETCHING IN BUILDING
DRAWING
Freehand sketching is applied to:
 Architectural concept design – initial sketches of buildings.
 Site analysis – quick representation of land features.
 Interior design – furniture, fittings, and decor sketches.
 Building detailing – on-site explanations and modifications.

9. PRACTICAL EXERCISES
Students should sketch the following:
1. A panel door with frame and handle.
2. A casement window showing glazing bars and hinges.
3. A staircase with four risers and two treads.
4. A wash-hand basin in elevation view.
5. A gable roof over a rectangular building.

EVALUATION
1. Define freehand sketching.
2. State five importance of freehand sketching in technical drawing.
3. Mention five building components that can be represented through freehand sketching.
4. List three materials required for freehand sketching.
5. Explain the steps involved in sketching a casement window.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Sketch in freehand a panel door showing rails, stiles, and panels.
2. Draw a staircase in elevation and plan views using freehand technique.
3. Sketch and label a louver window showing its components.

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ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS
1. Door Components
+----------------+
| Top Rail |
| | | |
| |Panel |Panel |
|--+------+------|
| Bottom Rail |
+----------------+

2. Window Components
+----+----+
| Pane|Pane|
|____|____|
|Frame |

3. Staircase Elements
___
|___| ← Tread
| |
|____| ← Riser

✅ TEACHER’S NOTE: Encourage students to develop line confidence through repeated

sketching. Begin with large, bold outlines, then refine to include details. Incorporate both
orthographic (flat) and pictorial (3D) sketches for each component.

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WEEK 10
TOPIC: FREEHAND SKETCHING (CONTINUED)
CONTENT: SKETCHING MORE COMPLEX BUILDING COMPONENTS

CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION
Freehand sketching is an essential skill in technical drawing and architecture. It allows designers,
builders, and students to quickly represent ideas, construction details, and architectural
components without using drawing instruments.
In this lesson, we focus on complex building components — those that contain multiple
elements, curves, or structural details — and learn how to represent them accurately and
proportionally by hand.

2. MEANING OF COMPLEX BUILDING COMPONENTS

Complex building components are architectural parts that involve more than one geometric
shape, compound curves, or interacting structural members. They are often parts of the
building that require precision, visual communication, and craftsmanship.
Examples of complex building components include:
 Archways and vaults
 Staircases and balustrades
 Roof trusses and gables
 Window assemblies (with frames and glazing)
 Door frames and moldings
 Columns and capitals
 Ceiling cornices and beams
 Cupolas and domes
These components form critical structural and aesthetic parts of buildings.

3. PRINCIPLES OF FREEHAND SKETCHING COMPLEX BUILDING

COMPONENTS
To ensure accuracy and clarity in freehand sketching:

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 1. Observation: Study the object carefully to understand its form, proportions, and
symmetry.
2. Simplification: Break down the complex object into simple geometric forms (cubes,
cylinders, cones, spheres).
3. Proportioning: Ensure the relative sizes of parts are correct.
4. Guidelines: Lightly draw reference lines to maintain symmetry and alignment.
5. Contours and Details: Gradually add secondary features such as edges, frames, and
joints.
6. Shading and Texturing: Add tonal values to indicate depth and materials.
7. Annotations: Label parts (e.g., “beam,” “arch keystone,” “handrail”).

4. PROCEDURE FOR SKETCHING COMPLEX BUILDING COMPONENTS

Let’s consider some examples:
A. Sketching a Staircase (with Balustrade)
1. Start with the outline of the flight using light lines to establish the angle of ascent.
2. Divide the flight into equal treads and risers.
3. Add the stringer line along the underside of the stairs.
4. Sketch the handrail parallel to the flight.
5. Add balusters evenly spaced between the treads and handrail.
6. Add light shading to show form and direction.
Illustration:
_________ Handrail
/|_|_|_|_| Stair Treads
/_|_|_|_|_|
/ Stringer Line

B. Sketching an Arched Doorway

1. Draw the vertical jambs (door sides) first.
2. Locate the springing line — the point where the curve begins.
3. Lightly sketch the semi-circular or segmental arch connecting the jambs.
4. Add voussoirs (wedge-shaped stones or bricks forming the arch).
5. Indicate the keystone at the top center.
6. Add the door frame and leaf below the arch.

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Illustration:
Keystone
/‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾\
/ \
| Doorway |
|_____________|

C. Sketching a Roof Truss

1. Draw the base line (span).
2. Sketch two inclined rafters meeting at the apex.
3. Add the tie beam, struts, and king post (or queen posts) as internal supports.
4. Label all members clearly.
Illustration (King Post Truss):
Apex
/\
/ \
Strut Strut
/ \
Rafter——King Post——Rafter
\______Tie Beam______/

D. Sketching a Classical Column (with Capital and Base)

1. Draw the vertical axis line to maintain alignment.
2. Sketch the cylindrical shaft using light guidelines.
3. Add the base (square or circular plinth).
4. Sketch the capital — Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian style.
5. Indicate fluting (vertical grooves) along the shaft for realism.
Illustration (Ionic Column):
~~~~~~~ Volute ~~~~~~~
( ) ( )
||||||||
|||||||| Shaft
||||||||
========= Base

5. IMPORTANCE OF FREEHAND SKETCHING COMPLEX BUILDING

COMPONENTS
 Facilitates communication of design ideas on-site or in meetings.

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  Helps architects and engineers visualize and modify details quickly.
 Useful for recording construction details and measurements.
 Essential in preliminary design stages before formal drafting.
 Aids craftsmen in interpreting architectural details.

6. MATERIALS AND TOOLS FOR FREEHAND SKETCHING

Even though no instruments are used, the following materials enhance presentation:
 Drawing paper or sketch pad
 Pencil grades (HB, 2B, 4B)
 Eraser and sharpener
 Ruler (for rough guiding lines)
 Shading tools (stump or tissue)

7. TECHNIQUES FOR PRESENTATION

 Use varying line weights (thicker outlines, lighter inner lines).
 Apply consistent proportioning across all sketches.
 Add titles and part labels neatly.
 Include shadows and hatching for a 3D effect.

EVALUATION
1. Define complex building components.

2. List five examples of complex building components.

3. Sketch neatly, in freehand, any two of the following:

o A staircase with handrail

o A king post truss
o An arched doorway
o A classical column with base and capital
4. Explain the steps involved in sketching a roof truss.

5. State three reasons why freehand sketching is important in building design.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Sketch a semi-circular arched doorway showing voussoirs and keystone.
2. Draw a king post truss in freehand and label all the parts.

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 3. Sketch an Ionic column with fluted shaft and volute.

ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS (for inclusion in the lesson note)

 3D perspective of a staircase
 Roof truss assembly (king post and queen post types)
 Doorway elevation with arch detail
 Freehand sketch of window frame and sill
 Column and entablature details

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WEEK 11
TOPIC: SPECIFICATION WRITING
CONTENT: DEFINITION OF SPECIFICATION WRITING; WRITING SIMPLE
SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION WORKS

CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION
In building and construction, technical drawings alone are not sufficient to describe the full
intent of a design. Drawings provide graphical representation, while specification writing
provides written details about materials, workmanship, quality, finishes, dimensions, and
methods to be used in construction.
Together, drawings and specifications form a complete communication tool between the
designer, builder, and client.
Specification writing is therefore an essential skill in technical drawing, architecture, and
engineering.

2. DEFINITION OF SPECIFICATION WRITING

Specification writing is the detailed written description of the materials, workmanship, and
methods required for a construction project.
It provides information that cannot be conveniently or clearly shown on drawings.
In simple terms:
Specification writing defines “what” and “how” a construction task should be
executed to achieve the desired quality and standard.

3. PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF SPECIFICATION WRITING

Specification writing plays a critical role in the construction process. It ensures that everyone
involved understands exactly what is required.
The main purposes include:
1. To complement drawings — by describing aspects not clearly represented graphically.
2. To guide construction — ensuring materials and workmanship meet required standards.
3. To ensure uniformity and quality control.

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 4. To aid cost estimation and budgeting — since specifications define material types and
quantities.
5. To serve as a contractual document — forming part of the agreement between client
and contractor.
6. To reduce ambiguity and disputes — by providing clear, written instructions.

4. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SPECIFICATION

A well-written specification should possess the following qualities:
1. Clarity: The description should be simple, direct, and unambiguous.
2. Completeness: It should cover all necessary details about materials, dimensions, finishes,
and workmanship.
3. Accuracy: Technical terms, measurements, and material grades must be correct.
4. Consistency: It must not contradict the accompanying drawings.
5. Standardization: Should conform to recognized building codes and standards (e.g., SON,
ISO, BSI).
6. Brevity: Should be concise but complete—no unnecessary words or repetition.
7. Legibility and Proper Layout: Should be neatly organized under headings and
subheadings.

5. TYPES OF SPECIFICATIONS
Specifications may be classified based on purpose and detail level. The main types include:
A. General Specifications
 Describe the general quality and nature of materials and workmanship.
 Do not include precise quantities or dimensions.
 Used in preliminary stages or small-scale projects.
Example:
“The walls shall be constructed with sandcrete blocks of good quality, properly bonded
and plastered with cement-sand mortar.”

B. Particular Specifications
 Give detailed, precise, and measurable information about materials and methods.
 Used for large or complex projects.
 Include brand names, sizes, proportions, finishes, and installation techniques.
Example:

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 “External walls shall be constructed of 225 mm sandcrete blocks (1:8 cement-sand
mix), plastered with cement mortar (1:4 mix), and finished with two coats of oil-based
paint over one coat of primer.”

C. Detailed Specifications
 Include all technical and quantitative details.
 State tests, standards, and tolerances for quality control.
 Often used in tendering and contract documents.
Example:
“Cement shall conform to NIS 444:2003 (Portland cement standard). Sand shall be
clean, well-graded, and free from clay. Reinforcement shall be mild steel rods of 12
mm diameter with yield strength of 250 N/mm².”

6. COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING SPECIFICATION

A complete specification document should include:
1. Title Page: Project name, client, date, and preparer’s name.
2. Table of Contents: Lists sections and page numbers.
3. General Conditions: Definitions, scope, and legal framework.
4. Materials: Description, grade, and source of materials.
5. Workmanship: How materials are to be handled, mixed, and installed.
6. Tests and Standards: Codes or tests for verifying material quality.
7. Measurements: Units, dimensions, and tolerances.
8. Finishes: Type, colour, and quality of surface finishes.
9. Approval: Space for signatures of the architect, engineer, and client.

7. EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION

WORKS
A. Brickwork
Brickwork shall be executed with well-burnt red clay bricks of uniform size and colour.
Mortar shall consist of 1 part cement to 6 parts clean sand by volume. The brick joints
shall not exceed 12 mm in thickness and shall be neatly struck flush.

B. Concrete Work
Concrete shall be made using one part of cement, two parts of clean sharp sand, and
four parts of coarse aggregate by volume. Water shall be clean and free from

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 impurities. Reinforcement shall be placed as shown in the drawings and covered with
at least 25 mm of concrete.

C. Plastering and Finishing

All plastering shall be carried out in cement-sand mortar (1:4). Surfaces shall be
finished smooth, even, and free from cracks. Painting shall include one coat of primer
and two coats of emulsion paint.

D. Carpentry Work
All timber shall be well-seasoned, free from defects, and conform to NIS standards.
Joints shall be tight and properly secured. Exposed wood surfaces shall be sanded
smooth and polished.

E. Roofing
Roofing sheets shall be aluminium, 0.45 mm thick, fixed with aluminium nails and
washers. Trusses shall be made of seasoned hardwood or mild steel sections according
to drawings.

8. LAYOUT AND PRESENTATION OF A SPECIFICATION DOCUMENT

Section Details to Include
Title Page Project name, location, designer, client, date
General Description Type of building, overall purpose
Materials Types, grades, and proportions
Workmanship Methods of application and finishing
Tests and Standards Required codes (NIS, BS, ISO, etc.)
Finishes Paint types, coatings, or polish
Notes Safety, environment, or maintenance instructions

9. ILLUSTRATIVE DIAGRAMS
Below are diagrams showing how specification writing supports construction drawings:
A. Relationship Between Drawing and Specification
[Architectural Drawing] + [Specification Document]
↓
Complete Design Instruction
↓
Accurate Construction
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B. Example of Specification Sheet Layout
-----------------------------------------------------
PROJECT TITLE: BUNGALOW HOUSE PLAN
CLIENT: MR. JOHN DOE
DATE: 10/11/2025

SECTION 1: MATERIALS
Cement: Portland (NIS 444:2003)
Sand: Clean, sharp, well-graded
Aggregate: Granite 20 mm max

SECTION 2: WORKMANSHIP
Concrete mix ratio 1:2:4 by volume
Reinforcement: Mild steel rods 12 mm dia
Cover: Minimum 25 mm

SECTION 3: FINISHING
Paint: Emulsion, two coats, white colour
-----------------------------------------------------

10. COMMON MISTAKES IN SPECIFICATION WRITING

 Using vague terms like “good quality” without definition.
 Contradicting the drawings.
 Failing to specify standards or test requirements.
 Over-specifying materials (unrealistic for budget).
 Poor grammar or unclear sentence structure.

11. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPECIFICATION AND DRAWINGS

Aspect Drawings Specifications
Representation Graphical Written
Focus Size, shape, layout Materials, quality, workmanship
Nature Visual Descriptive
Use To visualize To explain
Combined Role Ensure full understanding of design intent Ensure correct execution

EVALUATION
1. Define specification writing.
2. State five characteristics of a good specification.
3. Differentiate between general and detailed specifications.

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 4. Write a simple specification for: a. Brickwork b. Concrete work
5. Explain three purposes of specification writing in construction.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Write detailed specifications for a one-bedroom bungalow, covering:

o Foundation
o Walling
o Roofing
o Finishing
2. Prepare a simple specification sheet layout for a school classroom block.

3. Explain how drawings and specifications complement each other in a building project.

ADDITIONAL VISUAL AIDS (recommended for inclusion)

 Diagram showing sample specification sheet format
 Flowchart showing relationship between design, specification, and construction
 Sample extract from a construction contract specification
 Comparison chart of general vs. particular specification

105