What is Memory?
– Definition
Memory is the mental ability to store, retain, and recall information.
Simple Definition:
Memory is the process by which we take in information (encoding), keep it in the brain
(storage), and bring it back when needed (retrieval).
Everything we learn, remember, or forget depends on how our memory works.
Types of Memory
Memory is divided into three main types based on how long the information is stored and how
it is processed:
1. Sensory Memory
This is the first stage of memory.
➤ Definition:
Sensory memory briefly holds the information we get from our senses (what we see, hear, touch,
etc.) for a very short time.
➤ Features:
• Duration: Very short.
o Iconic (Visual) memory: lasts up to 0.5 seconds
o Echoic (Auditory) memory: lasts about 3–4 seconds
• Capacity: Very large, but we are not consciously aware of it.
• Function: Acts as a filter – allows only the important information to pass on to the next
stage (short-term memory).
➤ Function:
• Registers raw sensory input for a very short time.
• Acts as a buffer before attention selects information for further processing.
• Helps us perceive a continuous world, not a jumble of disconnected sensations.
➤ Example:
When you see a picture and then close your eyes, you can "see" it in your mind for a moment.
That’s iconic sensory memory.
2. Short-Term Memory (STM)
Also called Working Memory.
➤ Definition:
Short-term memory is where the brain temporarily holds information we are currently thinking
about or working on.
➤ Features:
• Duration: About 15 to 30 seconds (unless we rehearse it)
• Capacity: Very limited – about 7 ± 2 items (George Miller)
• Function: Helps us hold and use information for a short time.
➤ Function:
• Holds and manipulates information for immediate tasks (e.g., solving a math problem,
remembering a phone number long enough to dial it).
• It's like the "mental workspace" of the brain.
➤ Example:
When someone tells you a phone number and you repeat it to yourself before writing it down —
that’s short-term memory at work.
➤ Key Point:
If we don’t rehearse the information, it fades away quickly.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
➤ Definition:
Long-term memory stores information permanently so we can remember it later — sometimes
for a lifetime.
➤ Features:
• Duration: Can last from minutes to a lifetime
• Capacity: Practically unlimited
• Function: Stores all the knowledge, experiences, and skills we have.
➤ Function:
• Stores knowledge, skills, personal experiences, and facts.
• Allows us to recognize people, understand language, make decisions, and learn from
the past.
➤ Types of Long-Term Memory:
• Explicit (Declarative) – Conscious recall
o Episodic: Personal experiences
o Semantic: Facts and knowledge
• Implicit (Non-declarative) – Unconscious memory
o Procedural: Skills (e.g., riding a bike)
o Priming: Influence of prior exposure
➤ Types of Long-Term Memory:
Type What it stores Example
Episodic memory Personal experiences Your last birthday
Semantic memory Facts and knowledge Capital of France is Paris
Procedural memory Skills and habits Riding a bicycle
How Memory Works: Step-by-Step Process
The process of memory goes through three stages:
1. Encoding – Taking in the information (like typing on a keyboard)
2. Storage – Keeping the information in the brain (like saving the file)
3. Retrieval – Getting the information when needed (like opening the file)
How Information Moves Between Memory Types
Let’s break down the process of how a stimulus becomes a long-term memory:
Stage What Happens What Helps It Move Forward
Receives raw data (e.g., sound,
Sensory Memory Attention helps it move to STM
light)
Short-Term
Holds info briefly Rehearsal, repetition
Memory
Long-Term Meaning, understanding,
Stores info permanently
Memory organization
Simple Example: Remembering a Name at a Party
1. You hear someone’s name = Sensory Memory
2. You repeat it to remember = Short-Term Memory
3. You associate it with something (e.g., "John who looks like my uncle") = Long-Term
Memory
How Memory Works: Flow of Information
Memory works like a multi-stage system. Information flows from one type of memory to
another through specific mental processes.
1. Sensory Memory → Short-Term Memory
This transition happens through the process of ATTENTION.
➤ What happens?
• Every second, your senses take in a huge amount of information (light, sound, smell,
etc.).
• Most of it is discarded immediately unless you pay attention to it.
• Only the information you focus on moves into short-term memory.
KEY PROCESS: Attention
When you consciously notice something in your environment, you "select" it from sensory
memory to keep it in short-term memory.
➤ Example:
• You're walking and see many people, but suddenly your friend calls your name — you
focus on that voice. That sound passes into short-term memory, while everything else
fades.
2. Short-Term Memory → Long-Term Memory
This transition happens through ENCODING – especially deep processing.
➤ What happens?
• Short-term memory holds information temporarily.
• If you want to remember it permanently, you must encode it into long-term memory.
KEY PROCESSES:
1. Rehearsal – Repeating information mentally or aloud (e.g., repeating a phone number).
2. Elaboration – Making connections, finding meaning, or relating it to things you already
know.
3. Organization – Grouping info into categories, making mind maps, etc.
➤ Types of Rehearsal:
• Maintenance Rehearsal: Simple repetition. Keeps info in STM, but may not transfer it
to LTM.
• Elaborative Rehearsal: Thinking about the meaning, making associations. This leads
to long-term storage.
➤ Example:
• You hear a new word (STM). If you repeat it once, you may forget.
• If you link it to a similar word you know or make a sentence with it, you're using
elaborative rehearsal — now it's more likely to enter LTM.
Summary of Transitions
Stage Key Process Goal
Sensory → Select relevant sensory
Attention
STM info
Encoding via Rehearsal, Elaboration,
STM → LTM Store info permanently
Organization