GENERAL ZOOLOGY

NSGZY02L 3rd TERM | MIDTERMS | A.Y 2025 – 2026

[Boxed or purple texts indicate personal notes :] • Heterotrophs: Not capable of manufacturing their
TOPIC 01: INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY own food and must rely on external food sources.
o Autotrophs: Produce their own energy
The Science of Zoology using substances from their environment,
usually sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide.
▪ Most autotrophs use a process
• Zoology is the study of animal life.
called Photosynthesis, where
o Zoon – animals
sunlight is used to turn carbon
o Logos - study
dioxide and water into food (sugar)
• Zoologists strive to understand:
and oxygen.
o The origin of animal diversity.
• Cells lack cell walls
o How animals perform basic life processes.
o Animal lacks cell walls, plants have it.
o How they are able to inhabit various
ecosystems.
Characteristics of Life
The Uses of Principles
Molecules in living organisms are more complex than those
• Principles of modern zoology are derived from: in non-living things, although non-living things also contain
o Laws of physics and chemistry molecules.
o Scientific method
• Because life shares a common evolutionary origin, 1. Chemical Uniqueness – Living systems demonstrate a
principles learned from the study of one group often unique and complex molecular organization.
pertain to other groups as well.
Living organisms assemble large molecules –
macromolecules – that are more complex than molecules
Zoology As Part of Biology found in nonliving matter.

• Biology is the study of living organisms. Four categories of biological macromolecules:

• Zoology focuses on the Kingdom Animalia.
• In this course we'll be studying the diversity of animals • Nucleic acids
on our planet, how they are related, how they work, • Proteins
and how they interact with each other. • Carbohydrates
• Lipids
The study of animals shows that all living organisms have
common origins. Before, insulin used for people with diabetes These 4 groups differ in their:
came from cows and pigs, so it was not exactly the same as
• Components
human insulin. Today, scientists use genetic engineering to
• Types of bonds holding them together
solve this. They take the human insulin gene and place it into • Functions
bacteria. When the bacteria multiply, they also produce insulin
that is very similar to human insulin, making it safer and more In biomolecules, there are monomers and polymers.
suitable for people.
• Monomer – a single small unit
Why bacteria? Bacteria are used because they grow and o (Mono – 1)
reproduce very fast. • Polymer – many monomers joined together
o (Poly – many)
Animals originated in the Precambrian seas over 600 million
When monomers join together, they form polymers, which
years ago.
make up the four major biomolecules.
Geologic Time Scale – a timeline used by scientists to
organize the history of Earth. Simple idea:
One unit = monomer → many joined units = polymer → forms
During the Precambrian, the earliest life forms began to major biomolecules.
appear. Evidence suggests that life already existed around 600
million years ago. Macromolecules Monomers Examples
Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Glucose, Fructose
Characteristics of Animals: Lipids Fatty Acids & Fatty Acids,
Glycerol Glycerol
• Eukaryotes: cells contain membrane-enclosed Proteins Amino Acids Alanine, Serine,
nuclei. (all animals are made up of Eukaryotes) Glycine
o Prokaryotes: organisms made of simple Nucleic Acids Nucleotides Adenine,
cells that do not have a nucleus. Thymine,
o Their DNA floats freely inside the cell. Guanine,
Examples include Bacteria and Archaea. Cytosine, Uracil
2. Hierarchical Organization - Living systems demonstrate • Organisms reproduce to produce new
a unique and complex hierarchical organization organisms.
• Macromolecules, cells, organisms, populations, o Heredity - faithful transmission of traits
and species from one generation to the next.
• Ex: Atoms form molecules, molecules form cells, o Variation - production of differences
cells form tissues, tissues form organs, and among the traits of individuals.
organs form an organism (like a human body). o Result: offspring are similar to - but not
exactly like parents.
3. Regulation - The environment outside the body of an • Example: Children may have the same eye
organism may change drastically, but the organism can color as parents but different height or
adjust its internal environment, keeping it within personality.
appropriate limits for the organism to survive.
• Ex: When it is hot, the body sweats to cool down 7. Evolution - as defined by Darwin, is the change of an
and keep the body temperature normal. organism over time as influenced by adaptation for
survival, hence the "survival of the fittest".
4. Energy Utilization - Organisms take in energy and us it
to perform all of life's activities including metabolism. A > Evolution is the change in organisms over time,
cheetah eat its prey there by obtains energy which is influenced by adaptation for survival.
converted and used as energy for running, mating, and > This idea was explained by Charles Darwin, who proposed
other biological activities. the concept of survival of the fittest.
> This means organisms with traits better suited to the
> Energy usually comes from food. environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.
> The main energy unit used by cells is ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate). (Personal Notes):
> ATP provides energy for body activities like movement, cell Living organisms are capable of evolving over many
repair, and building molecules. generations.

Example: Humans eat rice → body converts it to glucose → Example: Some bacteria become antibiotic-resistant over
glucose becomes ATP → ATP powers body activities. time.

5. Metabolism - Living organisms maintain themselves by 8. Development - All organisms pass through characteristic
acquiring nutrients from their environments. stages in their life cycle.
• Metabolism includes all of the chemical reactions • Development includes characteristic changes an
occurring within an organism. organism passes through from its beginning
• Digestion - breaking down food (usually as a fertilized egg) through adulthood
• Cellular Respiration - converting nutrients into • Metamorphosis - transformation from one life
energy stage to another.
• Synthesis of molecules and structures - o Tadpole to frog
building important molecules and structures o Caterpillar to butterfly
Metabolism has two types of reactions: Growth – measurable increase in size or mass.
Development – changes in form or function that may not
1. Catabolic reactions (Destructive) – breaking down always be measurable.
molecules to release energy
2. Anabolic reactions (Constructive) – building
Example:
complex molecules using energy
> Growth: baby becoming taller
These processes also involve the formation and breakdown > Development: baby learning to walk or speak
of the four macromolecules.
9. Environmental Interaction – Living organisms interact
These reactions include synthesis of the 4 types of with their environments.
macromolecules as well as breakage of bonds to recover the • Ecology is the study of this interaction between
energy stored there. organisms and between organisms and their
environment.
> Metabolism is not only digestion. o This includes how organisms get food,
> It includes both breaking down and building processes. shelter, and survive in ecosystems.
Flow Example: Food → broken down into glucose → glucose Living organisms respond to their surroundings.
converted to ATP (catabolic).
ATP → used to build proteins and molecules (anabolic) Example:
> Plants grow toward sunlight.
6. Reproduction - Living systems can reproduce > Humans wear jackets when it is cold.
themselves. Life does not arise spontaneously but comes
only from prior life, through reproduction. At each level of 10. Movement - Living systems and their parts show precise
the biological hierarchy living forms reproduce to generate and controlled movements arising from within the system.
others like themselves. • Living systems extract energy from their
• Genes replicate themselves forming new genes. environments permitting the initiationof controlled
• Cells divide to produce new cells. movements.
Movements at the cellular level are required for: Perpetual Change - The world and the organisms living in it
are always changing.
• Reproduction
• Growth • Supported by the fossil record.
• Responses to stimuli • The properties of organisms undergo transformation
• Development in multicellular organisms across generations throughout time.
• Theory upon which the remaining 4 are based.
On a larger scale:
> This theory is the foundation for the other four theories.
• Entire populations or species may disperse from one > Life is always changing and evolving.
geographic location to another over time. > Species today are different from species in the past.
o Populations may move or migrate to new
locations over time. Example: Fossils show that ancient horses were much smaller
than modern horses
Movement of nonliving matter:

• Not precisely controlled by the moving objects. Common Descent - All forms of life descended from a
common ancestor through a branching of lineages.
• Often involves external forces.
• Life’s history has the structure of a branching
> Not all movements are visible. evolutionary tree, known as a phylogeny
> Some movements happen inside the body or cells.
• Serves as the basis for our taxonomic classification of
animals
Example:
• Descent with modification.
> Sperm moving toward an egg cell during reproduction.
> Blood circulating in the body. • Supported by molecular work

This concept is the basis of biological classification.

Living movement: controlled internally (muscles, cells).
Nonliving movement: caused by outside forces (wind moving
(Personal Notes):
a rock).
> All organisms share a common origin.
Memory Tip: > Evolution works like a family tree of life.

1. Chemical Uniqueness – living organisms have Example: Humans, monkeys, and apes share a common
complex macromolecules ancestor.
2. Hierarchical Organization – arranged from small to
bigger systems Multiplication of Species - New species are produced by the
splitting and transforming of older species.
3. Regulation – organisms maintain stable internal
conditions (homeostasis) One species can divide into different species over time.
4. Energy Utilization – using energy for life processes
5. Metabolism – all chemical reactions in the body Example: Different species of Darwin’s finches evolved from
6. Reproduction – producing new organisms a common ancestor bird.
7. Evolution – change over generations
8. Development – life cycle changes Gradualism - Large differences result from the accumulation
9. Environmental Interaction – interacting with of small changes over long periods of time.
surroundings
• Occasionally, changes can happen more quickly
10. Movement – controlled movement in organisms
Sometimes, changes may happen faster, but evolution usually
Evolutionary Perspective of Zoology occurs gradually.

Evolution and Heredity (Personal Notes):

> Evolution happens little by little (unti-unti).
• Powerful theories that guide extensive research are > Small changes build up over time.
called paradigms.
• Two major paradigms that guide zoological Example: A population slowly develops longer beaks across
research. many generations.
o 1.) Darwin's Theory of Evolution
o 2.) The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance Natural Selection - Differential success in the reproduction of
different phenotypes resulting from the interaction of organisms
Theory of Evolution
with their environment
Charles Darwin – On the Origin of Species by Means of
Natural selection requires:
Natural Selection. 1859.
• Variation within the population.
Five Related Theories:
• This variation must be heritable.
1. Perpetual Change • Organisms with a particular variation will have more
2. Common Descent offspring.
3. Multiplication of Species
4. Gradualism Over time, these successful variations will spread through the
5. Natural Selection population.
This leads to differential survival and reproduction. • Think of a cell as the building block of life, like bricks that
make a house.
(Personal Notes):
> Often called “survival of the fittest.” Example:
> It does not always mean the strongest, but the best Muscle cells help your body move
adapted to the environment. Nerve cells send signals in your brain.

Example: Camouflaged insects survive more easily because 2. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
predators cannot easily see them. • Every living thing is made of cells.
• Some organisms have only one cell, while others have
Adaptation many cells.
• Natural selection explains why organisms are Examples:
constructed to meet the demands of their Bacteria – only one cell (unicellular).
environments. Humans, plants, animals – many cells (multicellular).
• Adaptation results when the most favorable variants
accumulate over evolutionary time.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Unity in Diversity • New cells come from cells that already exist.
• Cells divide to produce new cells.

Example: When you get a cut, your body makes new skin cells
to heal it.

"There is no life without cells!" This means all living things

depend on cells to live, grow, and reproduce.

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

All vertebrate forelimbs share an underlying structure utilizing
the same parts, but have evolved a diverse array of All cells:
adaptations, as seen in the wing of a bat, the flipper of a whale,
& a human arm. • Have DNA
• Use the same genetic code
Mendelian Heredity • Synthesize proteins
• Use ATP in similar ways
• Darwin knew that some traits were heritable, but he
didn’t have an understanding of the mechanism of This implies common ancestry.
heredity.
• Gregor Mendel performed experiments on garden • All cells have basic cellular components, especially
peas leading to an understanding of how genetic material (DNA).
chromosomal inheritance works. Two main types of cells:
Mendel’s Peas 1. Prokaryotic cells – simple cells without a nucleus
• Mendel chose peas to study inheritance because they (example: bacteria).
possess several contrasting traits without 2. Eukaryotic cells – more complex cells with a nucleus
intermediates. (example: human cells, plant cells).
o Green vs. yellow peas Even though they are different, both use the same genetic
o Tall vs. short plants code.
o Wrinkled vs. smooth peas
o Purple vs. white flowers Example: Human genes can work inside bacteria, which is
• The peas can self-fertilize or outcross. why bacteria can produce human insulin in biotechnology.
o Mendel could control who the parents were.
• Mendel always started with true breeding parents. • Both types of cells use ATP as their main energy
o E.g. self-fertilized white flowered parents source.
always produced white flowered offspring. • Because of these similarities, scientists believe all
organisms came from a common ancestor.
TOPIC 02: CELL AS UNIT OF LIFE

Cell Theory

1. Cells represent the basic structural and functional unit

of life.

• A cell is the smallest unit that can perform life processes

(like using energy, growing, and reproducing).
Life is commonly grouped into 3 domains: Organelles

1. Bacteria – simple prokaryotic organisms (example: E. • Organelles are tiny, specialized structures inside a
coli). cell that perform specific tasks necessary for cell
2. Archaea – prokaryotes that often live in extreme survival. Each organelle has a unique function, such
environments (example: hot springs, salty lakes). as producing energy, making proteins, or removing
3. Eukarya – organisms with eukaryotic cells (includes waste.
plants, animals, fungi, and protists).
Organelles are like small organs inside the cell that perform
Some organisms can make their own food through different jobs.
photosynthesis, mainly plants and some protists.
Examples:
Prokaryotic cells - no nucleus or other membrane-bound • Mitochondria – produces energy (ATP).
organelles. • Ribosomes – make proteins.
• Nucleus – contains DNA and controls cell activities.
• Kingdom Archaebacteria
• Kingdom Eubacteria
Components of Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryotic cells - do have nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles.
The Plasma Membrane The Nucleus
• Kingdom Protista surrounds the cell. The membrane-bound
• Kingdom Fungi organelle found in
• Kingdom Plantae eukaryotic cells
• Kingdom Animalia
Cytoplasm refers to Organelles such as
Animal Cell
the cellular material the mitochondria,
• An animal cell is a type of eukaryotic cell that makes between the cell golgi complex,
membrane and centrioles, and
up the tissues and organs of animals. Unlike plant
nuclear envelope. endoplasmic
cells, animal cells do not have a cell wall or
reticulum
chloroplasts, but they contain specialized structures
Plasma Membrane are found in the
called organelles. cytoplasm.
• It is also frequently called the cell membrane, is a
fundamental biological structure.
• Plasma membrane structure is described using the
fluid mosaic model.

Functions

• Selective permeability
• Protection and barrier
• Cell Signaling
• Transport of Substances
• Structural support
Plant Cells • Cell-to-cell Interaction
• Have a cell wall which gives them structure and Two layers of phospholipid molecules oriented with
protection. hydrophilic heads toward the outside and hydrophobic tails
• Usually have a more rectangular or box-like shape. inside.
• Contain chloroplasts.
• Fluid-like - flexible
Animal Cells

• Do not have a cell wall, only a cell membrane.

• Usually have a more round or irregular shape.
• Do not have chloroplasts.

Chloroplast

• The organelle responsible for photosynthesis.

• It allows plants to produce their own food using
sunlight.
• The nonpolar nature of the hydrophobic ends in the
Example: interior of the membrane prohibits polar substances
from crossing the membrane.
• A tree leaf cell has chloroplasts to make food. • Glycoproteins embedded in the membrane function
• A human muscle cell does not have chloroplasts, so it in the transport of molecules across the membrane.
must get energy from food.
• A cell can be compared to a factory where each part DNA → RNA → Protein process
has a specific job.
1. DNA cannot leave the nucleus.
Plasma membrane = the gate or entrance of the factory 2. DNA information is copied into RNA.
3. RNA exits the nucleus and goes to ribosomes.
• It controls what enters and leaves the cell. 4. Ribosomes use the information to build proteins.
• It has selective permeability → only certain substances
can pass. Three Types of RNA

Fluid Mosaic Model

• The membrane is flexible and moving, not rigid.

• Called “mosaic” because it is made of different
molecules joined together.

Phospholipid Bilayer

Made of two layers of phospholipids:

1. Hydrophilic head – loves water (faces outside and inside

Types of RNA
of cell)
2. Hydrophobic tail – hates water (faces inward) • mRNA (Messenger RNA) – carries the genetic
instructions from DNA.
This arrangement keeps the cell balanced and protected.
• rRNA (Ribosomal RNA) – forms part of the ribosome.
Cell Communication • tRNA (Transfer RNA) – brings amino acids for protein
building.
• Cells can send signals to other cells when something is
needed. Nucleolus
Example: if a cell lacks a substance, it can signal nearby cells
for help. • Found inside the nucleus.
• Produces rRNA and ribosome components.
Cytoplasm
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The cytoplasm is like the floor of the factory.
• It is the jelly-like fluid where organelles are found and • The nuclear envelope joins with a cytoplasmic
where many cell processes happen. membranous system
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Nucleus o Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is
covered with ribosomes. Smooth (SER) is
• The nuclear envelope contains pores to allow not.
molecules to move between nucleus & cytoplasm.
• Chromosomes are contained in the nucleus. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
o Chromatin refers to loosely condensed DNA
& proteins. • Acts like a transportation system, moving materials
where they are needed.
Functions • Smooth ER (SER) has no ribosomes, makes lipids
and detoxifies harmful substances.
• Stores and protects genetic information (DNA).
• Directs all cell activities, including growth and Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
reproduction
• Rough ER (RER) – covered with ribosomes, helps in
Main Definition: protein production and transport.
• Rough ER – Assists ribosomes in making and
• The nucleus is the control center of the cell. delivering proteins.
• It contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which carries
the instructions for all cell activities. Endoplasmic Reticulum = conveyor belt or transport
• The nuclear membrane surrounds it, protecting the system
genetic material.
• Nucleoli are specialized parts of certain Two types:
chromosomes that carry multiple copies of the DNA
used to synthesize ribosomal RNA. 1. Rough ER
o This rRNA combines with protein to from the • Covered with ribosomes (looks dotted).
two subunits of ribosomes. • Helps produce and transport proteins.
o Ribosomes leave the nucleus through pores 2. Smooth ER
in the nuclear envelope. • No ribosomes.
• Produces lipids (fats).
Nucleus = control room of the cell • Helps detoxify harmful substances.

• Contains chromosomes, which contain DNA. Example: Liver cells have many smooth ER because they
• DNA holds the instructions for making proteins. detoxify chemicals.
Ribosomes = protein-making machines Lysosomes = waste disposal / cleaning system

• Responsible for protein synthesis. Break down:

Can be found: • damaged organelles

• waste materials
• Attached to rough ER • bacteria or foreign bodies.
• Floating in the cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Simple flow:
Ribosome makes protein → ER transports it. • The mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell.
• They convert glucose (sugar) into energy (ATP)
Golgi Apparatus through a process called cellular respiration.
• A stack of flattened, membrane-bound sacs found in • More active cells (like muscle cells) have more
the cytoplasm. mitochondria to produce extra energy.
• Acts as the processing and packaging center of the • Composed of a double membrane - the inner
membrane is folded into cristae.
cell.
• Mitochondria are self-replicating, containing their own
Functions circular DNA molecule.

• Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids. Functions

• Prepares materials to be sent to different parts of the
• Produces ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy
cell or out of the cell.
molecule.
Golgi Apparatus = packaging center • Helps the cell perform activities like movement,
growth, and repair.
• Receives proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum. • Uses oxygen to breakdown food for energy (aerobic
• Modifies, sorts, and packages them. respiration)

Example modification: Adds carbohydrates to proteins → Mitochondria = generator or power plant

forms glycoproteins or glycolipids.
• Produces ATP (energy) for the cell.
• Energy is used for activities like protein production and
movement.
• Can replicate independently because it has its own
DNA.

Cytoskeleton

• Eukaryotic cells have a cytoskeleton that provides

support and often locomotion and movement of
organelles.
• Composed of microfilaments, microtubules, and
intermediate filaments.

Microtubules

Vesicles = delivery trucks • Microtubules are larger tubular structures composed

of the protein tubulin.
• Small sacs that transport materials. o Functions
o Move chromosomes during cell division.
Can deliver substances: o Part of the structure of cilia & flagella.
inside the cell
outside the cell Intermediate Filaments

Lysosomes • Help in anchoring organelles (e.g., nucleus

positioning
• Small, membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive • More permanent compared to other cytoskeletal
enzymes. components.
• Help break down waste, old cell parts, and harmful
invaders like bacteria. Cytoskeleton = scaffolding or support system
• Act as the cell's garbage disposal by recycling
materials for reuse. • Maintains the shape of the cell.
• Helps organelles move within the cell.
Functions
Types:
• Break down waste, damaged cell parts, and foreign 1. Microtubules – made of tubulin.
invaders. 2. Microfilaments – made of actin.
• Help the cell stay clean and healthy. 3. Intermediate filaments – often made of keratin.
• Play a role in cell digestion and recycling materials for
reuse.
Centrioles Diffusion & Osmosis

• Cylindrical, barrel-shaped structures, composed of • Cell membranes are selectively permeable – water
microtubules, that are essential for forming can pass through, but not most solutes.
centrosomes, cilia, and flagella, playing a crucial role • Gases (oxygen & carbon dioxide), urea, lipid soluble
in cell division and organization. solutes can cross the membrane.
o Not everything can pass the membrane.
Made of microtubules. Only:
Helps organize structures during cell division. ▪ small
▪ nonpolar
Cilia & Flagella
▪ or special molecules
• Cilia & flagella are motile extensions of the cell o Big or charged ones need help (proteins)
surface.
• In many single celled organisms they are a source of Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high
locomotion. concentration to an area of low concentration. This tends to
• In multicellular animals they usually sweep material equalize the concentration.
past the fixed cell. • Down the concentration gradient.
• Solutes are molecules (e.g. salt) that are found in a
Structures used for movement (locomotion). solution.

Examples: • From crowded → less crowded

• No effort needed (automatic)
• Cilia – short hair-like structures that move substances
across the cell surface. Example:
• Flagella – long tail-like structure used for movement • Spray perfume → smell spreads
(example: sperm cell). • Because particles move from high → low

Microvilli Key idea:

The solute (particles) is the one moving
• Microvilli are small finger like projections that have Osmosis - if there is a membrane between two solutions with
bundles of actin microfilaments. unequal concentration of solutes that can not cross the
Functions membrane, water will flow toward the side with less water /
more solute until the two sides have equal concentrations.
• They serve to increase the surface area of the tissue
as in the intestine. • Movement of water through a semi-permeable
membrane
Vacuole
• Water moves low solute → high solute
• A fluid-filled sac found inside cells. Important: Depends on solute (dissolved) and solvent
• In animal cells, vacuoles are small and multiple, while (water)
in plant cells, they are large and central.
• The vacuole is like a storage unit or warehouse- it
Feature Diffusion Osmosis
keeps extra supplies and waste until needed.
Type of Solutes (e.g., Water molecules
Functions Molecule gases, nutrients)
Direction of High to low Low to high solute
• Stores water, nutrients, and waste. Movement concentration concentration
• Helps maintain the cell's shape and balance. Energy No (Passive No (Passive
• Assists in removing harmful substances from the cell. Required? Transport) Transport)
Occurs Cell membrane or Selectively
Membrane Function Through? open space permeable
membrane
• Membranes surround the outside of the cell and the
organelles inside it. Carrier Mediated Transport
• The plasma membrane acts as a selective
gatekeeper (controls what enters and exits). • Sugars & amino acids must be able to enter cells and
waste products must be able to leave.
• A substance may cross the membrane:
• These molecules cross the membrane with the help of
o By diffusion
transporter proteins.
o By a mediated transport system
o Transporter proteins are specific.
o By endocytosis
o Facilitated diffusion
o Active transport
• Think of the membrane like a security guard. It chooses
what can go in and out of the cell. Diffusion & Osmosis

• Animals utilize osmosis to control internal fluid and

solute levels.
o The blood of marine fishes has 1/3 the salt
content of the water. They are hypoosmotic
to seawater.
 o Freshwater fishes have blood that is saltier 2. Pinocytosis (Cell Drinking)
than the water. They are hyperosmotic to o Cells take in tiny amounts of liquid and small
the water. molecules.
o If the solute concentrations were the same, o The vesicles formed are called caveolae.
the two solutions would be isosmotic o Example: Cells in the intestines absorb
nutrients this way.
Examples:
• Freshwater fish: Water goes inside the fish (fish is 3. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
more salty) o Cells bring in specific large molecules using
receptors and a protein called clathrin.
• Saltwater fish: Water goes outside the fish (outside is o Example: Cholesterol enters cells using LDL
more salty) receptors.
→ they use organs to remove extra salt
Extra Notes:
Facilitated Diffusion • All types involve vesicles, which are small sacs that
carry materials inside the cell.
• In facilitated diffusion, the transporter protein binds to • Endocytosis allows cells to get nutrients, remove
the substrate molecule on one side of the plasma waste, and defend against harmful substances.
membrane then changes shape to release it on the
other side. Exocytosis (Exit)
o Takes place in the direction of the
concentration gradient. • Exocytosis - membranes of a vesicle inside the cell
can fuse with the plasma membrane to discharge the
• Movement with help of transport proteins contents of the vesicle outside the cell.
• Still high → low, no energy • Transcytosis – a substance may be picked up on
one side of the cell, transported completely across the
Example: Glucose entering cells using a protein channel cell and discharged on the other side

Exocytosis is how cells get rid of substances from the cell.

Active Transport
The vesicle membrane fuses with the cell membrane to
• Active transport requires energy (ATP) to transport release contents outside.
molecules in the direction opposite the concentration
gradient. 1. Regular Exocytosis
o Used to release hormones, neurotransmitters,
• Movement from low → high concentration or waste products.
• Needs energy (ATP) o Example: Nerve cells release
Opposite of passive (NOT natural) neurotransmitters to send signals.

Protein Pump 2. Transcytosis

o A substance is taken in on one side of the cell,
• Uses energy to move substances transported across, and released on the other
side.
Example: Sodium-Potassium Pump o Example: Antibodies in mother’s milk pass
through intestinal cells to reach a baby’s
PISO mnemonic:
bloodstream.
• Potassium IN
• Sodium OUT Extra Notes:
• Exocytosis helps cells communicate, remove
Endocytosis (Enter) waste, and maintain proper function.
• Endocytosis is the ingestion of material by cells. • It works like the opposite of endocytosis, keeping
o Phagocytosis– cell eating – method of the balance of what comes in and goes out.
feeding by single-celled organisms.
o Pinocytosis – cell drinking- small molecules Mitosis and Cell Division
or ions are enclosed in vesicles called • Mitosis is the process of nuclear cell division in
caveolae.
nonreproductive, or somatic, cells.
o Receptor - mediated endocytosis –
o A fertilized egg, or zygote, divides by mitosis
method of bringing large molecules into a to produce a multicellular organism.
cell with the help of the protein clathrin o Damaged cells are replaced by mitosis
Endocytosis is how cells bring substances into the cell by Mitosis is the process by which the nucleus of a
engulfing them.
nonreproductive (somatic) cell divides to make two
identical nuclei.
1. Phagocytosis (Cell Eating)
o Cells engulf large particles like bacteria or Purpose:
dead cells.
o Example: White blood cells eat bacteria to • Growth: A fertilized egg (zygote) divides repeatedly to
fight infection. form a multicellular organism.
• Repair: Damaged or dead cells are replaced.
• Maintenance: Keeps tissues healthy and functioning.
 Extra Note: Each new cell is genetically identical to the • S (Synthesis):
original cell. o DNA is replicated, so each chromosome has
an identical copy.
Chromosomes o Example: If a chromosome had 1 DNA strand,
it now has 2 identical strands.
• In cells that are not dividing, the DNA is loosely
organized so that individual chromosomes can’t be • G2 (Growth 2):
distinguished – it is now referred to as chromatin. o Cell grows more and makes structural proteins
• Before division, chromatin becomes more compact needed for division.
and chromosomes can be recognized. ▪ Example: Proteins for the mitotic
• All nonreproductive cells in a species have the same spindle are made.
number of chromosomes.
o 46 in humans Chromosome Structure
• Half of these chromosomes come from each parent.
o Result is two sets of chromosomes. • During the S phase, each of the 2 homologues
▪ Diploid replicates, resulting in identical copies called sister
o Chromosome 1 from Mom and chromosome chromatids.
1 from Dad are called homologous • Chromatids remain connected at a linkage site called
chromosomes. the centromere.
In cells not dividing, DNA is spread out loosely and called • During S phase, each homologous chromosome
chromatin. Individual chromosomes cannot be seen. makes an identical copy, called a sister chromatid.
• Sister chromatids are connected at a centromere.
Before cell division:
• After mitosis, each daughter cell gets one copy of
• Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes. each chromosome.
• Each chromosome is made of two identical sister
chromatids connected at a centromere. Extra Notes:
• Chromosomes go from loose chromatin →
Chromosome Count:
condensed chromosomes → sister chromatids →
• All non-reproductive cells have the same number separated chromosomes.
of chromosomes.
• Think of the centromere as the “button” holding two
o Humans: 46 chromosomes per somatic identical copies together until they are ready to be
cell.
pulled apart.
• Half come from each parent, forming two sets of
chromosomes (diploid).
• Homologous chromosomes: Pair of Cell Division
chromosomes (one from mom, one from dad)
carrying the same types of genes. • There are two phases of cell division:
o Example: Chromosome 1 from mom + • Mitosis – nuclear cell division
Chromosome 1 from dad = homologous o Prophase
pair. o Metaphase
o Anaphase
The Cell Cycle o Telophase
• Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm
• Interphase includes: • Multiple nuclear divisions not accompanied by
o G1– growth phase where RNA and cytokinesis result in a multinucleate cell
functional proteins are synthesized.
o S – DNA replication.
o G2– growth phase where structural proteins
are made.
• Mitosis - Nuclear division, where the replicated
chromosomes are separated into two nuclei.
• Cytokinesis - Cytoplasm divides, forming two
identical daughter cells.

The cell cycle is the series of events a cell goes through to

grow and divide. It has two main parts: Interphase and Cell
Division.

1. Interphase – The “preparation” phase, where the cell

grows and gets ready to divide.

• G1 (Growth 1):
o Cell grows, makes RNA and functional
proteins.
o Example: Proteins needed for cell function are
produced here.
1. Prophase (Prepare) o Haploid (n): Cells that have only 1 set of
• Chromosomes condense enough to be seen (visible) chromosomes (23 in humans).
with a light microscope. ▪ Formed by meiosis.
o Spindle fibers form between the 2 centrioles. ▪ Example: Sperm and egg cells.
o Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores (protein ▪ Function: Ensures that when
structure on chromosomes). fertilization happens, the zygote has
▪ Tip to remember: Think the correct diploid number.
“Prophase = Prepare the
chromosomes and spindle for
action.” • Chromosomes have replicated during interphase
just as in mitosis.
2. Metaphase (Middle)
• Alignment of the chromosomes along center of cell • Meiosis actually consists of two separate divisions.
(metaphase plate). o Meiosis I – serves to separate the two
o Fibers attached to kinetochores on both versions of the chromosome (homologues).
sides of each chromosome. ▪ Separates homologous
chromosomes (one from each
3. Anaphase (Apart) parent).
• Separation of the sister chromatids. ▪ Example: Mom’s chromosome 1
goes to one cell, Dad’s
• Centromere splits apart sister chromatids move
chromosome 1 goes to another.
toward opposite poles.
o Meiosis II – serves to separate the two
o Disassembly of the tubulin subunits shortens
replicas of each version (sister chromatids)
the microtubules.
▪ Separates sister chromatids of
▪ Tip to remember: “Ana = Apart” →
each chromosome.
chromatids move away from each
▪ Example: Each replicated
other.
chromosome splits so each
daughter cell gets one copy.
4. Telophase (Two)
• Re-formation of the nuclei once the chromosomes are
• Because there is only one replication of DNA but two
at opposite poles.
cell divisions, each of the four daughter cells is
o Chromosomes unwind
haploid – has only one set of chromosomes.
▪ Tip to remember: “Telophase =
Two nuclei” → preparing for Result: 4 haploid daughter cells (1 set of chromosomes
cytokinesis. each).
• Only one DNA replication occurs, but two cell
Cytokinesis
divisions happen.
• Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm. • These haploid cells are gametes (eggs or sperm).
• Two complete, diploid cells that are identical to the
original cell Extra Notes: Meiosis introduces genetic variation through
• During cytokinesis in animal cells, the cell pinches in crossing over (exchange of DNA between homologous
two. chromosomes) and independent assortment.
• A cleavage furrow produced by microfilaments
deepens until the cell splits Fertilization

Extra Notes: • Fertilization – reestablishes the diploid chromosome

number.
• After telophase, cytokinesis splits the cytoplasm, o Union of egg and sperm produces a zygote
creating two identical daughter cells. (single cell).
• Mitosis ensures each daughter cell gets the same ▪ Contains chromosomes of egg and
DNA. sperm – 2 sets of chromosomes
(diploid).
TOPIC 03: CELL DIVISION AND INHERITANCE
• Fertilization is when an egg and sperm unite, restoring
Meiosis the diploid chromosome number.

• Meiosis is the special type of cell division that Result:

produces eggs and sperm. • Formation of a zygote (single cell).
• In meiosis, a diploid cell with two sets of homologous • Zygote has 2 sets of chromosomes: one set from the
chromosomes will divide so that the daughter cells egg and one from the sperm.
are haploid and have one set of chromosomes
o Diploid (2n): Human body cells have 2 sets Extra Notes:
of chromosomes (46 total) – 23 from mom • Fertilization ensures that the offspring have the same
and 23 from dad. chromosome number as the parents.
▪ Formed by mitosis. • It also combines genetic material from both parents,
▪ Example: Skin cells, muscle cells, contributing to genetic diversity.
liver cells.
▪ Function: Maintains chromosome
number in body cells.
 • Allowing the hybrid F1 generation to self-pollinate
gives the F2 generation with 3 purple: 1 white
offspring.
• He kept careful quantitative records that allowed him
to find patterns.

Mendel’s Law of Segregation

• Alternative versions of genes account for variations in

inherited characters.
o Two versions of the flower color gene are
purple & white.
o We now call these versions alleles.
• For each character, an organism inherits two alleles,
one from each parent.
o Mendel deduced this without knowledge of
chromosomes!
• If there are two different alleles present only one of
them – the dominant allele – determines the
appearance.
Sex Determination
Mendel’s Law of Segregation – the two alleles for a
Sex chromosomes vs. autosomes heritable character separate during gamete formation and end
up in different gametes.
• Autosomes - chromosomes present in both sexes,
do not influence sex. o Each egg or sperm will contain either one of the two
• In humans, females have 2 X chromosomes, while alleles, but not both!
males have and X and a Y
Genetic Terms
Mendel’s Investigations
• Homozygous – both alleles are the same.
• Gregor Mendel was the first to closely examine o PP homozygous dominant – purple flowers.
principles of heredity. o pp homozygous recessive – white flowers.
• Mendel chose peas to study inheritance because they • Heterozygous – two different alleles.
possess several contrasting traits without o Pp heterozygous, shows dominant, purple
intermediates.
color.
Mendel’s Peas • Genotype – the alleles that are actually present.
o PP, Pp, pp
• The peas can self-fertilize or outcross. • Phenotype – the physical appearance of the
o Mendel could control who the parents were. organism.
• Mendel always started with true-breeding parents. o Purple or white flowers
o E.g. self-fertilized white flowered parents • Monohybrid cross – crossing two individuals that are
always produced white flowered offspring. heterozygous for one particular trait.
o Pp X Pp
Mendel’s Laws
• Dihybrid cross – crossing two individuals that are
• Mendel’s experiments with garden peas resulted in both heterozygous for two separate traits.
his two laws of inheritance. o YyTt X YyTt
o Law of segregation Following two traits at once:
o Law of independent assortment
• Yellow (Y) vs. green (y)
Mendel’s Investigations
• Tall (T) vs. short (t)
• Mendel was not aware of the existence of
chromosomes or genes. Cross true-breeding yellow, tall (YYTT) with true-breeding
• It is easier to get the big picture of heredity by green, short (yytt) to get F1 individuals that are dihybrids (het
combining Mendel’s results with what we know about for both traits – YyTt).
chromosomes.
The Law of Independent Assortment
Mendel’s Peas
• Each pair of alleles separates independently of
• He could cross true breeding white with true breeding other pairs during gamete formation.
purple – this is the parental generation. o At least as long as the pairs of alleles are on
• Resulting in all purple offspring this is the F1 separate chromosomes.
generation
 The Spectrum of Dominance • Color-blindness is a sex-linked trait in humans.
o Much more common in males.
• The traits that Mendel examined showed complete ▪ Males only need to inherit one
dominance. recessive allele
o The heterozygotes looked just like ▪ Females need to inherit two – one
homozygous dominant individuals. from each parent.
• Codominance occurs when both alleles affect the Experimental Evidence
phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways.
o Both phenotypes are expressed • T.H. Morgan’s experiments provided the first evidence
o Not an intermediate of the association between a specific gene &
o AB blood types chromosome.
• White eyes in fruit flies are recessive to red eyes.
• White eyes found only in males in F2
• Eye color gene located on X chromosome.

Autosomal Linkage
o
• In incomplete dominance, the phenotype of a • Linked genes are located close together on the same
heterozygote appears to be intermediate to, or distinct chromosome.
from, the homozygous dominant and homozygous o They are usually inherited together.
recessive conditions. o They do not follow the rule of independent
assortment!

Dihybrid Cross

• A man has genotype BbEE. He has brown hair and

free earlobes. This man met a woman with the
o genotype Bbee. If the man and woman mated, what
would be the genotypes and phenotypes of their
Multiple Alleles offspring?
o Genotypic Ratio: 4:8:4
• Most genes actually have more than two different ▪ 75% Brown hair w/ free earlobes
alleles. ▪ 25% Not brown hair w/ free
o Human Blood Type – 3 different alleles earlobes
▪ IA, IB, i
▪ IA IA, IAi Type A blood Be Be be be
▪ IB IB, IBi Type B blood BE BBEe BBEe BbEe BbEe
▪ IA IB Type AB blood BE BBEe BBEe BbEe BbEe
▪ ii Type O blood bE BbEe BbEe bbEe bbEe
Environmental Effects bE BbEe BbEe bbEe bbEe

• Some traits can be affected by the environment. • Diagram the Punnett square for the offspring between
o Exposure to sunlight affects skin color in the genotypes GgMM (paternal) and ggmm
humans. (maternal). G is dominant for having a widow’s peak
o Nutrition affects height in humans. and M is dominant for having rolled tongue.
o Soil acidity affects color in hydrangea o Genotypic Ratio: 8:8
flowers. ▪ 50% Widow’s peak, rolled tongue
▪ 50% No widow’s peak, rolled
The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance tongue

• Genes have specific positions (loci) on chromosomes. GM GM gM gM

o Chromosomes undergo independent gm GgMm GgMm GgMm GgMm
assortment and segregation. gm GgMm GgMm GgMm GgMm
gm ggMm ggMm ggMm ggMm
Sex Linked Genes
gm ggMm ggMm ggMm ggMm

Genes

• Gene gene product phenotypic expression

o Gene products = proteins
• A nucleic acid sequence (usually DNA) that encodes
a functional polypeptide or RNA sequence.
Nucleic Acids (mRNA-ribosome complex) where they are
assembled into a polypeptide.
• DNA and RNA both built of nucleotides containing o tRNA has a triplet – the anticodon – that is
o Sugar (deoxyribose or ribose) complementary to the codon of mRNA
o Nitrogenous base (ATCG or AUCG)
o Phosphate group

Nitrogenous Bases

• Nitrogenous bases can be double ringed purines or

single ringed pyrimidines.
• A purine will always pair with a pyrimidine.

DNA

• The phosphate group and sugar make up the

backbone of the DNA molecule.
• DNA consists of two complementary chains
connected by hydrogen bonds.
o A=T DNA
o C=G
• A=T
RNA • C=G
• RNA exists as a single polynucleotide chain. mRNA
o Ribose
o Uracil • A=U
• C=G
DNA Replication
TOPIC 04: EVOLUTION
• DNA must replicate itself prior to cell division.
• Enzymes are responsible for each step of replication, • Evolution – a change in the genetic composition of a
including proofreading. population over time.
• The helix unwinds, separates, and each half acts as a o A change in the frequency of certain alleles.
template for the formation of a new complementary • On a larger scale, evolution can be used to refer to
strand. the gradual appearance of all biological diversity.
o Reaction catalyzed by DNA polymerase.

Gene Expression Darwin’s Revolutionary Theory

• Gene expression – the use of information in DNA to • Charles Darwin presented evidence that many
direct the production of particular proteins. modern organisms descended from ancestral species
o Transcription – first stage of gene that were different.
expression. A messenger RNA (mRNA) is
Pre-Darwinian Evolutionary Ideas
synthesized from a gene within DNA.
o Translation – second stage – mRNA is used • Early Greek philosophers recorded an early idea of
to direct production of a protein. evolutionary change
DNA Coding • Aristotle recognized fossils as forms of ancient life.
o He developed the Scala Naturae (Scale of
• DNA codes for the sequence of amino acids in a Nature).
protein. ▪ A ranking system from simple to
• A codon is three base-pairs long and is a segment of complex organisms
mRNA that codes for an amino acid. ▪ Example: plants → animals →
humans
Transcription ▪ He believed species were fixed
(they don’t change)
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) transcribes the DNA and • The ancient Greeks didn’t propose an evolutionary
transports it out of the nucleus. mechanism.
Translation o The Greeks did not explain how evolution
happens
• Translation occurs on ribosomes outside the o No mechanism (no process behind the
nucleus. change)
• mRNA attaches to a ribosome and protein synthesis
begins.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) collects free amino acids from
the cytoplasm and delivers them to the polysome
 • Lyell concluded the age of the earth must be millions
of years.
• He stressed the gradual nature of geological changes.

Uniformitarianism and the Age of Earth

• Darwin studied the work of Lyell closely. He took the

first volume of Lyell’s Principles of Geology on the
Beagle. He received the second volume while on the
voyage.
o He concluded that Earth must be much older
than 6000 years.
o Perhaps these slow changes could work on
living things as well

• Lamarck was the first to suggest an explanation for Evolution in Need of a Mechanism
evolution.
o He proposed Inheritance of acquired • Darwin was not the first to have the thought that
characteristics organisms change through time.
o Did not withstand testing o His grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, and
others suggested that life evolves as
A Mechanism for Evolution environments change.
o But a mechanism for that change was
• Darwin presented a mechanism for evolution – needed
natural selection.
Darwin (1809 – 1882)
o Organisms that are in some way more
successful at reproduction will pass on more • Darwin had a lifelong love of nature.
of their genes. • His father wanted him to study medicine.
o Over time the traits responsible for that o This was not what Darwin wanted and he
success will become widespread in the didn’t finish.
population. • After leaving medical school he attended Cambridge
University with the intention of entering the clergy.
• His mentor and botany professor, John Henslow,
recommended him for a position as ship’s naturalist
aboard the Beagle.

The Voyage of the Beagle

• Darwin started out on a five year trip around the world

aboard the Beagle in 1831. He was 22.
• As ship’s naturalist he spent his time on shore
collecting thousands of plant and animal specimens
and making important observations.
• Darwin saw that the plants and animals that he found
Alfred Russell Wallace in temperate areas of South America were more
similar to tropical South American species than they
• Wallace independently developed a theory of natural were to temperate European species.
selection. • Darwin became interested in the geographic
• He sent his manuscript to Darwin, spurring him to distribution of organisms after visiting the Galapagos
finally publish his ideas. Islands.
• Both ideas were presented to the Linnean Society in
1858. After the Voyage
• Darwin finished On the Origin of Species and
• After returning, Darwin realized that adaptation to the
published it in 1859.
environment and the origin of new species were
Uniformitarianism closely linked processes.
• Galapagos finch species have evolved by adapting to
• Charles Lyell’s principle of uniformitarianism: specific conditions on each island.
o Laws of physics & chemistry present
throughout history of Earth. Natural Selection
o Past geological events similar to today’s
• Those that survive may have heritable traits that
events.
increased their chances of survival.
• Natural forces could explain the formation of fossil
o They will pass those traits on.
bearing rocks.
o The frequency of those traits will increase.
 • Natural selection occurs when organisms with • Measure ratio of remaining 40K to the amount of 40K
particular heritable traits have more offspring that originally there (remaining 40K plus 40Ar and 40Ca).
survive & reproduce.
• Natural selection can increase the adaptation of an Comparative Anatomy
organism to its environment.
• Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and
• When an environment changes, or when individuals differences in the body structures of different species.
move to a new environment, natural selection may
result in adaptation to the new conditions. Homology
o Sometimes this results in a new species
• Individuals do not evolve; populations evolve. • The phrase “descent with modification” summarizes
• Evolution is measured as changes in relative Darwin’s view of how Evolution works.
proportions of heritable variations in a population over o All organisms descended from common
several generations ancestor.
• Natural selection can only work on heritable traits. o Similar species have diverged more recently.
o Acquired traits are not heritable and are not • Homology – when similar structures result from
subject to natural selection. shared ancestry.
• Environmental factors are variable.
Anatomical Homologies
o A trait that is beneficial in one place or time
may be detrimental in another place or time • Homologous structures – variations on a structural
theme that was present in a common ancestor.
Darwinian Evolutionary Theory: Evidence • Example – vertebrate forelimbs have different
functions, but share the same underlying structure.
• The main premise underlying evolutionary theory is
that the living world is always changing. Analogy
• Perpetual change in form & diversity of organisms
over the last 700 million years can be clearly seen in • Similar functions but different anatomy
the fossil record. • Examples include the wings of a bird and the wings of
a butterfly
1. Fossil Evidence
Vestigial Organs
• Fossils are remnants of past life preserved in the
earth. • Vestigial organs – remnants of structures that
o Complete remains insects in amber. served important functions in an ancestor.
o Petrified skeletal parts infiltrated with silica or o Remnants of pelvis and leg bones in snakes
other minerals. o Appendix in humans
o Or traces of organisms such as molds, casts,
impressions, trackways, or fossilized Comparative Embryology
excrement.
• Embryology is the study of how organisms develop
The Fossil Record from fertilized eggs to fully formed organisms.

• Fossils provide support for the idea that life changes Anatomical Homologies
through time.
o Fossil intermediates • Vertebrate embryos have a tail and pharyngeal
▪ Whales descended from land pouches.
mammals. • These structures develop into different but
▪ Birds descended from one branch homologous structures in adults.
of dinosaurs. o Gills in fishes
• The oldest fossils are of prokaryotes o Part of ears & throat in humans

Dating Fossils Molecular Biology and Genetics

• Geological time can be measured in sedimentary rock • Genetic Similarities: Species that are closely related
layers. have more similar DNA sequences. Example:
o The Law of Stratigraphy Humans and chimpanzees share over 98% of their
▪ Dates oldest layers at the bottom DNA.
and youngest at the top. Homologies & the Tree of Life
• Radiometric dating methods are based on the decay
of naturally occurring elements into other elements • Darwin’s evolutionary tree of life can explain
homologies.
Examples: o The genetic code is shared by all species
because it goes back deep into the ancestral
• 40K has a half life of 1.3 billion years – meaning half
past.
of the 40K will have decayed to 40Ar and 40Ca. Half
of what remains will decay in the next 1.3 billion
years.
Evolutionary Trends Forces of Evolutionary Change

• The fossil record shows that species arise and go • Evolution occurs when allele frequencies in a
extinct repeatedly throughout geological history. population change over time. The five main forces
• Trends appear in the fossil record – directional that drive this change are:
changes in features or patterns of diversity • Mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, natural selection,
sexual selection.
Common Descent
Natural Selection
• Darwin proposed that all organisms have descended
from a single ancestral form. Natural selection - Organisms that are more adapted to their
• Life history is shown as a branching tree called a environment are more likely to survive and pass on the genes
phylogeny that aided their success. This process causes species to
change and diverge over time.
Speciation
Genetic Drift
• Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new
biological species arise. • The smaller the sample, the greater the chance of
• It occurs when a population of organisms becomes deviation from expected results.
reproductively isolated from its original group, leading o Evolution occurs due to chance events,
to genetic divergence. especially in small populations.
• Which allele was lost is due to random chance.
Why Does Speciation Matter? • Over time, drift tends to reduce genetic variation
through random loss of alleles.
• It increases biodiversity.
• It explains the diversity of life forms we see today. The Bottleneck Effect
• It helps scientists understand evolutionary
relationships. • Sometimes a catastrophic event can severely reduce
• Speciation refers to the formation of new species. the size of a population.
• Defining a species is difficult… o The random assortment of survivors may
o Descent from common ancestral population. have drastically different allele frequencies.
o Ability to interbreed. o Bottleneck effect
o Maintenance of genotypic & phenotypic • The actions of people sometimes cause bottlenecks
cohesion. in other species.
• Reproductive barriers prevent species from o N. California elephant seal population
interbreeding. reduced to 20 100 individuals in the 1890s.
o Variation drastically reduced
Allopatric Speciation
Mutation
• Allopatric derives from “allo” meaning “separate” and
“patria” meaning “country”. • New genes or alleles only result by mutations.
• Over time, genetic differences accumulate, leading to • Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of
a new species. DNA.
• The geographical separation can arise in two ways: • Beneficial mutations of any kind are very rare.
o Vicariant speciation is initiated when • Mutations that alter gene number or sequence are
climatic or geological changes fragment a almost always harmful.
species’ habitat, forming impenetrable
Point Mutations
barriers.
o Founder events occur when a small number • Point mutation – a change in a single base pair.
of individuals disperse to a distant place • Often harmless
where no other members of their species o Much of the DNA does not code for protein
exist. products.
• Happens when a new species evolves within the o Genetic code is redundant.
same geographic area. ▪ CGU, CGA, CGC, CGG all code for
• Often due to genetic mutations, behavioral arginine.
differences, or habitat preferences. • Occasionally significant
o Sickle cell disease.
Parapatric Speciation

• Parapatric Speciation – Occurs when populations

are partially separated (not completely isolated).
• Gene flow is reduced due to environmental
differences or non random mating
Gene Flow • Alvarez hypothesis bombardment of the earth by
asteroids would send debris into the atmosphere,
• The population can gain or lose new alleles through altering climate.
gene flow. o Search for evidence
• When individuals move into or out of a population, o Craters
they may carry the only copy of certain alleles in the o Atypical iridium concentrations
gene pool with them. • Catastrophic species selection would result from
• Gene flow usually reduces differences between selection by these events.
populations. o Mammals were able to use resources due to
dinosaur extinction.
Sexual Recombination

• Sexual recombination is a much more common way TOPIC 05: THE REPRODUCTIVE PROCESS
of producing variation in populations.
Reproduction
o Reshuffling of allele combinations already
present in the population is how variation is • Reproduction is one of the fundamental properties of
maintained in populations. life.
o Sexual reproduction rearranges alleles into • Evolution is inextricably linked to reproduction.
fresh combinations every generation. • Two modes of reproduction are recognized:
Sexual Selection o Asexual
o Sexual
• Sexual selection natural selection for mating success.
o May result in sexual dimorphism Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction
differences between the sexes.
o Secondary sexual characteristics – not • Asexual Reproduction – the production of offspring
directly involved in reproduction. whose genes all come from one parent without the
fusion of egg and sperm.
Intrasexual Selection o Usually diploid eggs are produced by mitosis
which then develop directly.
• Intrasexual selection – selection within the same
sex – results when individuals of one sex are Asexual reproduction means making a new living thing
competing with each other for members of the other without needing two parents.
sex.
o Features that make the male a better fighter One parent can create an offspring that is basically a
or more intimidating to other males would be copy of itself.
favored. • No mating involved
Intersexual Selection • No mixing of genes
• Offspring are usually identical (clones)
• Intersexual selection – mate choice – individuals of
one sex are choosy in selecting a mate. Example: A plant growing a new plant from its stem, or
o Features that make an individual more bacteria splitting into two.
attractive to the opposite sex would be
favored. • Sexual Reproduction – the production of offspring
• Involves one sex (usually females) choosing mates by the fusion of haploid gametes (eggs & sperm)
from the other sex based on certain traits. from two parents to form a diploid zygote (fertilized
• Showiness that results from mate choice can be risky. egg).
• Benefits of finding a mate outweigh potential costs. Sexual reproduction means making a new living thing
Mass Extinctions using two parents.

• Mass extinctions are episodic events where many A male and a female combine their cells to create a
species go extinct at the same time. baby.
o Permian extinction – 225 MYA – half the • Needs two parents
families of shallow-water marine • Genes are mixed from both
invertebrates and 90% of the marine • Offspring are not identical (they’re unique)
invertebrate species went extinct over a few Example: Humans having a baby, or animals reproducing.
million years.
o Cretaceous extinction – 65 MYA – marks Genetic variability is increased by the random combinations
the end of the dinosaurs as well as many of genes from the parents.
other species
• Many possible explanations for mass extinctions have Asexual Reproduction
been suggested. • Bacteria and many protozoa can reproduce by
Binary Fission – separating into two or more
individuals approximately the same size.
 o Bacteria and some tiny organisms can • Many invertebrates with both sexual and asexual
reproduce by splitting into two equal parts. modes enjoy the advantages of both.
• Budding is a form of asexual reproduction where new
individuals form as offshoots of a parent. Modes of Reproduction
• The offspring may separate or remain attached to
form colonies. Parthenogenesis
o A small “bud” forms on the parent, grows,
and becomes a new individual. • Parthenogenesis involves the development of an
o It can break off and live on its own, or It can embryo from an unfertilized egg or one where sperm
stay attached and form a group (colony) & egg nuclei did not fuse.
• Freshwater sponges release specialized groups of o Asexual Cloning - Making an exact copy of
cells called Gemmules that can grow into new an organism using just one parent.
individuals. o A female can have offspring without a male.
• Fragmentation results when an organism’s body is • In some animals (Daphnia) the females can produce
broken into several pieces and each piece grows into two types of eggs.
a new organism. o One must be fertilized.
o Regeneration – the regrowth of lost body o One type will develop directly into haploid
parts. adults – parthenogenesis.
▪ Fragmentation = break and make • In many social insects, like honeybees, males
new ones (drones) are haploid and are produced by
▪ Regeneration = grow back what’s parthenogenesis while females (workers & queens)
missing develop from fertilized eggs
• Sea stars can regenerate lost limbs, but only species • Parthenogenesis occurs in vertebrates in some
in the genus Linckia can form new individuals from fishes, amphibians, lizards, and has recently been
broken arms. discovered in snakes .
o After meiosis, the chromosomes are
Asexual Reproduction - Advantages doubled, creating diploid “zygotes”.
o Often mating behavior is required to
• Animals living far from members of their own species stimulate development of offspring.
can reproduce without having to search for a mate.
• Produce numerous offspring quickly – ideal for Hermaphroditism
colonizing a new area.
• Advantageous in a stable, favorable environment • Hermaphroditism occurs when an organism has
both male and female reproductive systems.
because it reproduces a successful genotype
o One organism has both male and female
precisely.
parts.
Sexual Reproduction
Sequential Hermaphroditism
• Generally involves two parents.
• In sequential hermaphroditism, an organism
• Special germ cells unite to form a zygote.
reverses its sex during its lifetime.
• Sexual reproduction recombines parental characters.
o An organism can change from male to
• In haploid asexual organisms’ mutations are
female (or female to male) during its life.
expressed and selected quickly.
• Protandy - male to female e.g. clownfish
• In sexual reproduction a normal gene on the
• Protogyny - female to male. e.g. parrot fish
homologous chromosome may mask a gene
mutation Fertilization
Why do so many animals reproduce sexually rather than • Fertilization – fusion of egg and sperm into a single
asexually? diploid cell, the zygote.
o The joining of male and female cells to form
• The costs of sexual reproduction are greater than
a new organism.
asexual methods:
o External
o More complicated.
o Internal
o Requires more time.
o Uses more energy. External Fertilization
However: • External Fertilization – fertilization takes place
outside the female’s body.
• Sexual organisms produce more novel genotypes to
o A wet environment is required so gametes
survive in times of environmental change.
don’t dry out and so sperm may swim to the
• In crowded habitats, selection is intense and
eggs.
diversity prevents extinction.
• Environmental cues (day length, temperature) or
• On a geological timescale sexual lineages with less
chemical cues may cause a whole population to
variation are prone to extinction.
release gametes at once.
o Increases likelihood of fertilization.
Internal Fertilization • Viviparous – eggs develop in oviduct or uterus,
nourishment from mother.
• Internal Fertilization allows terrestrial animals to o Mammals, some sharks, scorpions.
reproduce away from water.
o Cooperative behavior leading to copulation is Invertebrate Reproductive Systems
required.
• Many insects have separate sexes, internal
Pheromones fertilization and have complex reproductive systems.
o Female crickets use long ovipositors to
• Pheromones are chemical signals released into the deposit eggs.
environment by one organism that influence the
physiology or behavior of members of the same Gamete Production & Delivery
species.
o Effective in very small amounts. • In vertebrates, reproductive systems are similar with a
o Mate attractants. few important variations.
o Nonmammalian vertebrates usually have
Ensuring Survival of Offspring one combined opening, the cloaca
o Most mammals have a uterus where the
• Species with external fertilization produce huge embryo develops
quantities of gametes that result in lots of zygotes.
o Predation on young is high. Female Reproductive System
o Few will survive to reproduce.
• Species with internal fertilization produce fewer • Ovaries are where female gametes, egg cells, are
zygotes, but protect them more from predation. produced.
o Tough eggshells o A follicle contains one egg cell as well as
o Embryo may develop in reproductive tract of follicle cells that nurture the developing egg.
female ⚬ Most/all of the follicles a woman will
o Parental care of eggs & offspring produce have formed before birth.
• Each month from puberty through menopause one
Advantages of Sexual Reproduction follicle ruptures and releases its egg cell – ovulation.
o The corpus luteum forms from the ruptured
• Sexual reproduction has costs including finding
follicle and secretes estrogen and
mates, greater energy cost, reduced proportion of
progesterone to help maintain the uterine
genes passed on to offspring, and slower population
lining during pregnancy. If the egg is not
growth.
fertilized the lining disintegrates.
• However, sexual reproduction increases variability
• After ovulation, the egg leaves the ovary and enters
in the population – important during times of
the oviduct, which it follows to the uterus.
environmental change.
Reproductive Cycles in Female Mammals
Gamete Production & Delivery
• Humans & some other primates have a menstrual
• Gametes (eggs & sperm) are required for sexual cycle while other mammals have an estrous cycle.
reproduction. o In both, ovulation occurs at a time when the
• Usually, gametes are produced in gonads (ovaries & endometrial lining of the uterus is ready for
testes). an embryo to implant.
• Germ cells are set aside early in development. They o If no egg is fertilized, the lining is shed
will produce only gametes. (menstruation) in humans & other primates
and is reabsorbed in other mammals.
Gametogenesis • Female mammals that have estrous cycles may have
more behavioral changes.
• Gametogenesis – the production of gametes. • Estrous cycles may be more closely tied to season
o Spermatogenesis - the biological process of and climate.
sperm cell production in male organisms,
• Females will usually only mate when in estrous – the
occurring in the testes.
time surrounding ovulation.
o Oogenesis – Oogenesis is the biological
process of egg (ovum) production in female Female Reproductive Cycle
organisms, occurring in the ovaries.
• The female reproductive cycle in humans contains
Reproductive Patterns two parts:
o Uterine (menstrual) cycle
• Oviparous – animals that lay eggs.
o Ovarian cycle
o Most invertebrates, many vertebrates
• Ovoviviparous – animals that retain the eggs within
their bodies. Nourishment comes from the egg.
o Some annelids, insects, some fishes,
reptiles.
The Uterine Cycle Key Events in Development

• If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum • Development describes the changes in an organism
disintegrates, and production of estrogen and from its earliest beginnings through maturity.
progesterone drops sharply. This triggers breakdown o Search for commonalities.
of the endometrium – menstruation. • Specialization of cell types occurs as a hierarchy of
developmental decisions.
Male Reproductive System o Cell types arise from conditions created in
preceding stages.
• Testes are where male gametes, sperm cells, are
o Interactions become increasingly restrictive
produced.
o Testes contain the seminiferous tubules Fertilization
where sperm are formed.
o Sperm production can’t occur at normal body • Fertilization is the initial event in development in
temperature in mammals, so the testes are sexual reproduction.
held outside the body abdominal cavity in the o Union of male and female gametes
scrotum. o Provides for recombination of paternal and
• After leaving the testes, sperm pass through the maternal genes.
epididymis where they become motile and gain the ▪ Restores the diploid number.
ability to fertilize an egg. o Activates the egg to begin development.
• Sperm leave the body through the vas deferens and
urethra. Cleavage
• In males, the principle sex hormones are androgens, • Cleavage – rapid cell divisions following fertilization.
including testosterone. o Very little growth occurs.
o Produced mainly by Leydig cells in the o Each cell called a blastomere.
testes. o Morula – solid ball of cells. First 5-7
o Responsible for secondary sexual divisions.
characteristics.
o Important determinants of behavior in Polarity
vertebrates.
▪ Sex drive • The eggs and zygotes of many animals (not
▪ Aggression mammals) have a definite polarity.
▪ Calling in birds & frogs • The polarity is defined by the distribution of yolk.
• The vegetal pole has the most yolk and the animal
Reproductive Cycles pole has the least.
• Males produce sperm continuously, whereas females Blastula
only release one or a few eggs at certain intervals.
• A fluid filled cavity, the blastocoel, forms within the
TOPIC 06: PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT embryo – a hollow ball of cells now called a blastula.

Gastrulation
Early Concepts: Preformation vs Epigenesis
• The morphogenetic process called gastrulation
• The question of how a zygote becomes an animal has rearranges the cells of a blastula into a three layered
been asked for centuries. (triploblastic) embryo, called a gastrula, that has a
• In the 18th century, the prevailing theory was a notion primitive gut.
called preformation – the idea that the egg or sperm o Diploblastic organisms have two germ
contains an embryo. layers
o A preformed miniature infant, or • The three tissue layers produced by gastrulation are
“homunculus,” that simply becomes larger called embryonic germ layers.
during development. o The ectoderm forms the outer layer of the
• Kaspar Friederich Wolff (1759) demonstrated there gastrula.
was no preformed chick in the early egg. ▪ Outer surfaces, neural tissue
o Undifferentiated granular material became o The endoderm lines the embryonic digestive
arranged into layers. tract.
o The layers thickened, thinned, and folded to o The mesoderm partly fills the space
produce the embryo. between the endoderm and ectoderm.
• Epigenesis is the concept that the fertilized egg
contains building materials only, somehow assembled Building a Body Plan
by an unknown directing force.
• Cell differentiation – the specialization of cells in
o Although current ideas of development are
their structure and function.
essentially epigenetic in concept, far more is
• Morphogenesis – the process by which an animal
known about what directs growth and
takes shape and differentiated cells end up in their
differentiation
appropriate locations.
 • The sequence includes: Animal Body Plans
o Cell movement
o Changes in adhesion • Body plans are constrained by ancestry, major
o Cell proliferation features may become modified, but are rarely lost.
• There is no “hard-wired” master control panel • Animal body plans differ in their grade of organization,
directing development. body symmetry, number of germ layers, and type of
o Sequence of local patterns in which one step body cavity.
in development is a subunit of another.
Symmetry
o Each step in the developmental hierarchy is
a necessary preliminary for the next. • Spherical Symmetry - occurs when any plane
passing through the center divides the body into
Organogenesis
mirror image halves.
• Various regions of the three embryonic germ layers o Mostly found among the protists.
develop into the rudiments of organs during the • Radial Symmetry - applies when more than two
process of organogenesis. planes passing through the longitudinal axis can
• Many different structures are derived from the three divide the organism into mirror image halves.
embryonic germ layers during organogenesis o Jellyfish
• Biradial Symmetry - two planes will divide the
TOPIC 07: ARCHITECTURAL PATTERN OF AN ANIMAL organism.
o Comb jellies
The Appearance of Major Body Plans • Bilateral Symmetry is found in organisms where one
plane can pass through the organism dividing it into
• The Cambrian explosion marks the earliest fossil right and left halves.
appearance of all major groups of living animals plus o Better for directional movement.
some groups that are only known from fossils. o Monophyletic group called Bilateria.
o All major body plans appeared at this time.
▪ Result of extensive selection. Other Key Features of Body Plans
▪ Are limiting determinant of future
adaptational variants. • Segmentation is a serial repetition of similar body
segments along the body.
Body Plans o Each segment is a metamere or somite.
o May include external & internal components.
• One way in which zoologists categorize the diversity o Obscured in many animals, like humans.
of animals is according to general features of o Permits greater body mobility and complexity
morphology and development. of structure & function.
• A group of animal species that share the same level
of organizational complexity is known as a grade. Components of Metazoan Bodies

Hierarchical Organization – 5 Levels • Extracellular Components - noncellular components

of metazoan animals:
1. Protoplasmic Grade of Organization – protists are o Body fluids
the simplest eukaryotes, but they still carry out life o Extracellular structural elements
functions and show division of labor among the
Tissue Structure and Function
various cell structures.
2. Metazoans are multicellular animals that have cells • Cellular Components – Tissues
specialized for particular functions. • A tissue is a group of similar cells specialized for
o This is the Cellular grade of organization. performing a common function.
o Shown by the simplest metazoans Volvox, • Different types of tissues have different structures that
sponges. are suited to their functions.
3. Cell-Tissue Grade – Usually, specialized cells are • Tissues are classified into four main categories:
grouped together and perform their common function o Epithelial
as a coordinated unit, a tissue. o Connective
o Jellyfish o Muscle
4. Tissue-Organ Grade – Tissues are then assembled o Nervous
into organs like the heart (primarily muscle tissue, but
connective, nervous, and epithelial also present). Epithelial Tissue
o Flatworms
5. Organ-System Grade – In the highest level of • Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and
organization, organs work together as organ systems lines organs and cavities within the body.
like the circulatory system.
Squamous, cuboidal, columnar.

Cell Shapes (what the cells look like)

• Squamous → flat and thin
o Like tiles on the floor
o Helps with easy movement (like air in
lungs)
• Cuboidal → cube-shaped
o Like little boxes
o Found where secretion or absorption
happens (like glands)
• Columnar → tall and rectangular
o Like standing columns
o Often helps with absorption and
movement (like in intestines)

Simple vs. stratified.

Layers (how many layers of cells)

• Simple → one layer only
o Thin → good for quick exchange (like
oxygen passing through)
• Stratified → many layers
o Thick → protects underlying tissues (like
your skin)

Connective Tissue

• Connective tissue functions mainly to bind and

support other tissues.
o Contains sparsely packed cells scattered
throughout an extracellular matrix.

Muscle Tissue

• Muscle tissue is composed of long cells called muscle

fibers capable of contracting in response to nerve
signals.
o Smooth
o Skeletal
o Cardiac

Nervous Tissue

• Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals

throughout the animal.
• A neuron (nerve cell) receive signals at the
dendrites and send them out via the axons.

Complexity and Body Size

• Increased complexity allows for an increase in body

size.
• Larger size decreases the surface area to volume
ratio.
o Necessitates complex systems for
respiration, nutrition, and excretion diffusion
not adequate.
GENERAL ZOOLOGY
NSGZY02L 3rd TERM | FINALS | A.Y 2025 – 2026

[Boxed or purple texts indicate personal notes :]

• Uses a formal system to group organisms into
TOPIC 01: BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION levels.
• Taxonomy continues to develop because new
Taxonomy
species are still being discovered and organisms
• This is the branch of biology that deals with continue to evolve.
classifying, naming, and identifying organisms.
Systematics
Taxonomy vs Systematics • A related field to taxonomy.
• Broader than taxonomy because it studies not only
Taxonomy classification but also the evolutionary
relationships of organisms.
• Formal system for naming and classifying species
Difference Between Taxonomy and Systematics
Systematics
• Taxonomy → focuses on naming and classifying
• Broader science of classifying organisms based on species.
similarity, biogeography, etc. • Systematics → focuses on classification and
• Systematic zoologists have three goals: evolutionary pathways/history.
o To discover all species of animals.
o To reconstruct their evolutionary Important Processes
relationships. • Classification → process used in taxonomy.
o To classify animals according to their • Systematization → process used in systematics.
evolutionary relationships.
Who is Carolus Linnaeus?
Classification
• He developed a system of classifying living things,
• Denotes the construction of classes. which became the basis of classification and naming
• Grouping organisms with a common feature called an systems today.
essence is used to define the class • His system has EIGHT levels. These levels are
constantly being refined by scientists today.
Systematization
Linnaeus and Classification
• Places groups of species into units of common
evolutionary descent. • Names of animal groups at each rank in the hierarchy
• Character variation is used to diagnose systems of are called taxa (taxon)
common descent. • Each rank can be subdivided into additional levels of
• No requirement that an essential character be taxa, such as superclass, subclass, and suborder.
maintained throughout the system for its recognition
as a taxon. Carolus Linnaeus
• A scientist known as the Father of Taxonomy.
In classification
• Developed the system of classifying organisms into
• Taxonomist asks whether a species being classified hierarchical levels from general to specific.
contains the defining feature of a particular taxonomic • His system is still used today but is continuously
class. refined by scientists.

In systematization Taxonomic Levels

• Taxonomist asks whether the characteristics of a • Organisms are grouped into levels that go from
general → specific.
species confirm or reject the hypothesis that it
descends from the most recent common ancestor of a
Taxon
particular taxon.
• A taxon (singular) is a single classification level.
Branches of Biology • Taxa (plural) refers to multiple classification levels
• Zoology – study of animals or groups.
• Botany – study of plants
Taxonomy
• A branch of biology that focuses on:
o Classifying, Naming, Identifying
organisms
 Examples of Taxonomic Categories to Which Rep Animals Belongs Species Concept
• A species concept is a way scientists define what
a species is.
• It helps confirm if an organism is a new species or
not.
• Scientists compare new organisms with known
ones using different criteria.

Speciation
• Speciation = formation of a new species
Binomial Nomenclature • Happens when a population becomes different
enough that they can no longer reproduce
• Is the system Linnaeus used for naming species. successfully with the original group
o Genus and species
• Names are latinized and italicized, only the genus is The Typological Species Concept
capitalized.
• The morphological species concept defines species
o Ex. Common Name – Banana;
based on their physical form and structure.
Scientific Name – Musa Paradisicum
• Cons - can be misleading, subjective
o Ex. Common Name – Cat
Scientific Name – Felis Catus Typological (Morphological) Species Concept
Species • Classifies organisms based on physical appearance
and structure.
• Defining a species can be difficult.
• If organisms look similar, they are considered the
• Can you recall the different methods to infer
same species.
evolutionary relationship?
• Criteria: Cons: Can be misleading because some organisms may look
o Common descent alike but are actually different species.
o The smallest distinct groupings of organisms
sharing a pattern of descent. The Biological Species Concept
▪ Morphological & molecular
techniques Members of a species • A species is a group of members who can interbreed
must form a reproductive and produce viable, fertile offspring.
community that excludes other • “A species is a reproductive community of populations
species. (reproductively isolated from others) that occupies a
specific niche in nature.” Mayr 1982
Biomolecules / Macromolecules in Evolution • Cons - inapplicable to asexual and extinct organisms
• Biomolecules (macromolecules) like DNA,
Biological Species Concept
proteins, and RNA are used to:
o Compare organisms at the molecular level • Classifies organisms based on their ability to
o Infer evolutionary relationships interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
• This is more accurate than just physical • If they can successfully reproduce, they belong to the
appearance because it shows genetic similarity. same species.

Criteria for Defining a Species Cons: Cannot be used for:

• Common descent – organisms come from the
• Asexual organisms
same ancestor
• Extinct organisms (because reproduction cannot be
• Morphological features – physical structure and
tested
appearance
• Molecular data – DNA and proteins Example: Meadowlark
• Reproductive ability – members of the same
species can reproduce and produce fertile offspring • Eastern Meadowlark and Western Meadowlark:
o May look similar (typological concept might
group them as same species)
Species Concept
o But they are different species based on
behavior, genetics, and reproduction
• A species concept is a framework biologists use to
o This shows why appearance alone is not
define and categorize species. Since species are
always reliable
fundamental units of biological classification, multiple
o Cannot breed, different songs and behaviors
species concepts exist, each emphasizing different
criteria.
• Speciation
Evolutionary Species Concept Phylogeny
• Phylogeny = evolutionary history and relationships
• The evolutionary species concept states that a single among organisms.
lineage of ancestor-descendant populations that
maintains its identity from other such lineages and Phylogenetic Tree
that has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical
• A diagram that shows evolutionary relationships
fate.
between organisms.
o Definition accommodates both sexual and
asexual forms as well as fossils.
Parts of a Phylogenetic Tree
Evolutionary Species Concept • Branches → evolutionary lineages
• Nodes → common ancestors where groups split
• Defines a species based on its evolutionary history
and lineage. Simple Idea
• A species is a group of organisms that shares a • Phylogenetic Species Concept focuses on
common ancestor and remains different from other shared ancestry.
groups over time.
• Phylogenetic trees help visualize how organisms
• Can be used for:
evolved and are related to each other.
o Sexual organisms
o Asexual organisms Simple Difference
o Fossils/extinct organisms
• Typological Concept → based on appearance
Example: African Savanna Elephant vs African Forest
• Biological Concept → based on reproduction
Elephant
• Evolutionary Concept → based on evolutionary
• They were once thought to be the same species history and lineage
because they look similar. • Phylogenetic Concept → based on common
• Through evolutionary studies and DNA evidence, ancestry and evolutionary relationships
scientists found they have different evolutionary
Character Type Strengths Weaknesses
histories.
Can be used for Convergent
• Because of this, they are now classified as different Morphological fossils; provides evolution can
species direct anatomical mislead
evidence classifications
Phylogenetic Species Concept Helps explain Requires advanced
Chromosomal reproductive techniques; limited
• The phylogenetic species concept is defined as an isolation and detail
irreducible (basal) grouping of organisms found speciation
distinct from other such groupings and within which Highly accurate, Cannot be used for
there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent. Molecular objective, and fossils; requires
• Both asexual and sexual groups are covered. widely applicable sequencing
Helps understand Can be variable and
Phylogenetic Species Concept Behavioral/Ecological speciation and influenced by the
adaptation environment
• Defines a species based on its evolutionary
relationships and ancestry. Understanding Phylogenetic Trees and Cladograms
• A species is the smallest distinct group that shares a Phylogenetic Tree
common ancestor.
• Covers both: • A branching diagram that represents the evolutionary
o Sexual organisms history of a group of organisms, showing relationships
o Asexual organisms based on physical or genetic characteristics.
Phylogeny Cladogram

• A phylogenetic tree is one way of representing • A type of phylogenetic tree that focuses on the order
evolutionary relationships. of branching based on shared derived characteristics,
o A phylogenetic tree is a branching diagram without necessarily indicating the amount of
that illustrates evolutionary relationships. evolutionary change.
o Branches represent evolutionary lineages.
o Nodes represent common ancestors Major Divisions of Life
• Phylogenies are inferred by identifying organismal
Kingdom and Domains
features, characters, that vary among species.
Bacteria Archaea Eukarya
o Morphological → physical structures
The Six-Kingdom System
o Chromosomal → chromosome similarities
o Molecular → DNA, RNA, proteins Bacteria Archaea Protista Plantae Fungi Animalia
o Behavioral or ecological → behavior and The Traditional Five-Kingdom System
environment Monera Protista Plantae Fungi Animalia
 Example: Mitochondria
• A big cell consumed a small bacteria that could
make energy.
• It stayed alive inside the cell.
• Later, it became the mitochondria.
o Gives energy to the cell
o Has its own membrane and DNA

Chloroplast
• Some cells later consumed photosynthetic
bacteria.
• They were not digested.
• These became chloroplasts.
o helps plants make food using sunlight
(photosynthesis)
TOPIC 02: UNICELLULAR EUKARYOTES
Think of it like this:
Emergence of Eukaryotes • Big cell = house
• Small cell = helper
• First evidence of life dates to 3.5 billion years ago.
The helper stayed inside the house and worked there
o First cells were bacteria like.
permanently.
o Endosymbiotic Theory
• Origin of complex eukaryote cells Term Meaning
o Most likely symbiosis among prokaryotic Prokaryote Simple cell without nucleus
cells. Eukaryote Complex cell with nucleus
Symbiosis Two organisms living together and helping
First Evidence of Life each other
• The first evidence of life appeared around 3.5 Endosymbiosis One organism living inside another organism
billion years ago. Mitochondria Organelle that produces energy
Chloroplast Organelle used for photosynthesis
• The earliest living things were simple bacteria-like
cells, also called prokaryotic cells. Easy Summary
• Prokaryotes are simple cells that do not have a
nucleus and do not have membrane-bound • Life started with simple bacteria-like cells.
organelles. • Prokaryotic cells lived first before eukaryotic cells.
• Some large cells consumed smaller cells but did not
What are Eukaryotes? digest them.
• Eukaryotic cells are more complex cells. • The smaller cells lived inside and helped the larger
• They have: cells survive.
o a nucleus • Over time, they became organelles like:
o membrane-bound organelles like o mitochondria
mitochondria and chloroplasts o chloroplasts
• Examples of eukaryotes: • This idea is called the Endosymbiotic Theory.
o plants
o animals Kingdom Protista
o fungi
o protists • Protists are simple eukaryotic organisms that do
not belong to the categories of plants, animals, or
Endosymbiotic Theory; explains how complex eukaryotic fungi. While they are primarily unicellular, some can
cells formed from simple prokaryotic cells. exist as colonies of cells.
• They are commonly found in aquatic environments,
Simple Explanation: moist terrestrial habitats, or as parasites
1. A bigger prokaryotic cell ate a smaller prokaryotic • All (protists) are eukaryotic.
cell. o This means their cells have:
2. The smaller cell was not digested. ▪ a nucleus
3. The two cells lived together and helped each other ▪ membrane-bound organelles
survive – Symbiotic Relationship o Protists = eukaryotic
4. Over time, the smaller cell became part of the o Bacteria = prokaryotic
bigger cell. • All have cells with nuclei.
o A nucleus is the control center of the cell.
This process helped form important organelles inside o It stores the cell’s DNA or genetic material.
eukaryotic cells. o This is one reason protists are more complex
than bacteria.
• Can be unicellular or multicellular.
 o Many protists are unicellular (only one cell). • Fungus Like
o Some are multicellular and made of many o They are similar to fungi because they:
cells. ▪ absorb nutrients from dead
▪ Example: materials
▪ Amoeba = unicellular ▪ usually live in moist places
▪ Giant algae/seaweed = o Most help break down dead organisms.
multicellular
• Can be microscopic or over 100 meters (300 feet) Basis of Classification of Protists
long.
Protists are classified based on:
o Some protists are so small they can only be
seen with a microscope. • mode of nutrition (how they get food)
o Others, like some seaweeds, can grow very
• presence of cell wall (if they have a cell wall or not)
large.
• Some are heterotrophs, while others are Type of Protist Similar To How They Get Food
autotrophs. Protozoa Animals Eat other organisms
True Algae Plants Make food through photosynthesis
o Heterotrophs; Amoeba get food by eating
Fungus-like Protists Fungi Absorb nutrients from dead matter
or absorbing nutrients from other organisms.
o Autotrophs; Algae make their own food
Protozoans (Animal like Protista)
using sunlight through photosynthesis.
• Protozoans are an extremely diverse assortment of
Protists are simple eukaryotic organisms that do not
unicellular eukaryotes
belong to plants, animals, or fungi.
o Protozoans are a very varied group of
single-celled organisms with a nucleus.
• Protists are organisms with a nucleus and
complex cells. Protozoans
• They are grouped separately because they are
different from plants, animals, and fungi. • Lacks a cell wall
• Have at least one motile stage in the life cycle
• Most protists are single-celled (unicellular).
• Most ingest their food
• Some live in colonies, where many cells stay
• Carry on all life activities within a single cell.
together but still function independently.
• Can survive only within narrow environmental ranges.
Example: Amoeba, Paramecium and Algae • Very important ecologically

Protozoans (Animal-like Protists)

They are commonly found in aquatic environments,
• Protozoans are protists that are animal-like.
moist terrestrial habitats, or as parasites.
• They have no cell wall, so they are flexible like
• Protists usually live in:
animals.
o water
o wet soil • They can move from one place to another to find
o damp places food.
• Some protists live inside other organisms and may
Characteristics
cause disease. These are called parasites.
• Sensitive to environmental changes (like
Example: temperature and climate).
• Algae live in water. • Can be affected or die if the environment changes
too much.
• Plasmodium (causes malaria) is a parasitic protist.
• They help control bacteria because they eat
Protista that are classified to bacteria as food.

• Animal Like Protista called Protozoa Nutrition in Protozoans

o They are similar to animals because they:
▪ move from place to place • Heterotroph - absorb organic molecules or ingest
▪ eat other organisms for food larger food particles
o They are heterotrophs. o Get food by absorbing nutrients or eating
other organisms
• Plant Like Protista called True Algae
o They are similar to plants because they: • Phagocytosis - A way of eating where the cell
▪ contain chlorophyll engulfs or “eats” food particles
▪ make their own food using
photosynthesis • Mixotrophs - combine photosynthesis and
o They are autotrophs. heterotrophic nutrition
o Can make their own food
(photosynthesis) and also eat other
organisms (some protozoans only)
Protozoans Occur in Diverse Habitats • Others use ameboid movement to get around.
• A pseudopod is extended forward, followed by the
• Freshwater and marine species. rest of the organism
o Require moisture o Move by extending pseudopodia (false
o Habitat: Live in moist or wet environments feet).
(water or damp places) o The body flows forward after the pseudopod
extends.
• Free-living and symbiotic species.
Amoebozoa
1. Mutualistic – benefits both.
o Both organisms benefit from each other. • Amoeba are found in fresh and salt water as well as
o Ex. Protozoa living in termite gut help digest moist soil.
wood, and protozoa get food and shelter. • An amoeba feeds by wrapping a pseudopod around
its food – phagocytosis.
2. Commensalistic – one benefits, the other is neutral. o Found in freshwater, saltwater, and moist
o One organism benefits, the other is not soil
affected. o Eats food by surrounding it using
o Ex. Protozoa living on fish skin get transport, pseudopodia
while the fish is not affected. o This process is called phagocytosis

Entamoebas
3. Parasitic – one benefits at a cost to the other
o One organism benefits, while the other is • Entamoebas are parasites of vertebrates and some
harmed. invertebrates.
o Ex. Plasmodium (protozoan) causes malaria • Entamoeba histolytica causes amoebic dysentery
in humans. in humans
Categories Based on Locomotion o Are parasites that live inside animals
(vertebrates and some invertebrates)
• Flagellates o Can cause diseases in humans
o Move using a long whip-like tail called a o Entamoeba histolytica → causes amoebic
flagellum. dysentery (diarrhea, stomach pain)
o Ex:
Form & Function
▪ Euglena
▪ Trypanosoma (causes sleeping 1. Lobopodia
sickness) o Shape: Broad, blunt, finger like.
▪ Thick, finger-like projections
• Pseudopod (Sarcodines / Amoeboids) ▪ Used for movement and eating
o Move using false feet called pseudopodia 2. Filopodia
(temporary body extensions). o Shape: Slender, thread like, and pointed.
o Ex: Amoeba ▪ Thin, thread-like, pointed
extensions
• Ciliates ▪ Used for sensing and movement
o Move using tiny hair-like structures called 3. Reticulopodia
cilia. o Net like or branched, forming a complex
o Ex: Paramecium network.
▪ Branching, net-like structures
• So, the particular basis is their locomotory ▪ Used to trap food
structure. 4. Axopodia
o Shape Long, thin, stiff, and radiating like
Locomotion in Protozoan
spokes of a wheel
Protists have three main methods of locomotion. ▪ Thin, sharp, ray-like (spoke of a
wheel)
• Flagellates - Some protists, like this Giardia and ▪ Used for support and capturing food
Trypanosoma.
o Move using a long whip-like tail
(flagellum).

• Some, like this Tetrahymena (doesn’t cause

disease), are covered with numerous, but shorter,
cilia that facilitate movement and/or feeding.
o Ciliates - Covered with many small hair-like
structures (cilia) used for movement and
feeding.
Reproduction Types of Reproductive Process

• Fission is the cell multiplication process in protozoa. 1. Syngamy – gametes from two individuals fuse to
o A method where a protozoan reproduces form the zygote.
by dividing its cell to form new organisms. o Two protozoans fully join and form a new
organism.
1. Binary Fission – one individual splits into two equal o Closest form to sexual reproduction.
sized individuals.
o One cell divides into two equal-sized 2. Autogamy – gametes from one individual fuse.
cells. o A single protozoan uses its own genetic
material to reproduce.
2. Budding – progeny cell is much smaller than parent. o No partner needed.
o A new organism forms as a small
outgrowth of the parent cell. 3. Conjugation – No new cells are formed, but genetic
o The new one is smaller than the parent. recombination occurs.
o Two protozoans come close and exchange
3. Multiple Fission – multiple nuclear divisions followed genetic material.
by multiple cytoplasmic divisions producing several o They do not fully merge, just share genes
offspring for variation.
o The nucleus divides many times first, then
the cell splits into many new individuals. Simple Summary
o Produces several offspring at once.
• Binary fission → 1 becomes 2
• All of above accompanied by some form of mitosis. • Multiple fission → 1 becomes many
o Mitosis in protozoa divisions varies from • Syngamy → full fusion
metazoan mitosis. • Autogamy → self-reproduction
o All protozoan cell divisions happen with • Conjugation → exchange genes without merging
some form of mitosis (cell division
Cysts
process).
o But protozoan mitosis is different from • Many protists are able to survive harsh conditions
animals (metazoans). through the formation of cysts, dormant forms with
▪ Nuclear membrane often persists. resistant outer coverings and a shutdown of
▪ Spindle may form within the nuclear metabolism.
membrane. o Some protists can survive harsh or
▪ Centrioles not observed in ciliates. unfavorable conditions by forming cysts.
▪ Macronucleus of ciliates elongates, o A cyst is a resting (dormant) stage.
constricts, and divides without
mitosis (amitosis) What happens in a cyst?

Differences in Protozoan Mitosis • The cell forms a thick protective outer covering.
• The cell’s activity slows down or stops (low
• The nuclear membrane may stay intact during
metabolism).
division.
• It can survive until conditions become good again.
• The spindle fibers can form inside the nucleus.
• In ciliates, centrioles are not seen. Simple idea: Cyst = “sleep mode” of protists to survive
extreme conditions.
Special Case in Ciliates
Plant-Like Protist (Algae)
• The macronucleus divides in a simpler way.
• It just stretches, narrows, and splits. • Plant-like protists, also known as algae, are
• This is called amitosis (no typical mitosis process). organisms that photosynthesize like plants but lack
some of their more complex features.
Many types of protists reproduce sexually as well as • Each has chlorophyll and other photosynthetic
asexually. pigments
o Plant-like protists are called algae.
Types: o They can make their own food using
sunlight (photosynthesis).
1. Isogametes – Fusion of morphologically similar o They contain chlorophyll and other
gametes pigments, which give them different colors.
o Two gametes that are same in shape and o They are simpler than true plants.
size join together.

2. Anisogametes – Fusion of dissimilar gametes

o Two gametes that are different in shape or
size join together.
Phyla of Algae (based on pigments/color) Alveolata (Dinoflagellates group)
• Some dinoflagellates multiply quickly and cause
• Divided into groups by pigment color
red tides
o Phylum Euglenophyta
• Some are bioluminescent (glow in the dark)
▪ Green in color
▪ Can make their own food • Some live in mutualism with corals (called
▪ Can also move using a flagellum zooxanthellae) and help corals by providing food
through photosynthesis
o Phylum Dinoflagellate
Simple Summary
▪ Usually brownish to reddish
▪ Some species cause red tides • Euglenophytes → move, can eat or make food
▪ Red tides can produce toxins
• Dinoflagellates → spin, can cause red tides, some
harmful to marine life and humans
glow
▪ Ex. Some dinoflagellates affect
• Some dinoflagellates help corals live through
shellfish (like mussels and
symbiosis
oysters) by making them toxic
when consumed Phyla of Fungus-Like Protists
Simple Summary • Plasmodium Slime Molds
• Cellular Slime Molds
• Algae are plant-like protists that do photosynthesis.
• Water Molds
• They are grouped by color/pigments:
• Downy Mildews
o Euglenophyta → green
o Dinoflagellate → brown/red, can cause red Characteristics in Common
tides
• All form delicate, netlike structure on the surface of
Euglenophytes: The Survivor their food source
o They grow over their food like a thin web or
• Aquatic
film
• Move around like animals
• Obtain energy by decomposing organic material
• Can ingest food from surroundings when light is not
o They survive by breaking down dead
available
plants or animals for nutrients
Euglenophytes (The Survivor)
Plasmodium Slime Mold
• Live in water (aquatic)
• Move like animals using a flagellum • Form plasmodium, a mass of cytoplasm that contains
• Can switch food source: many diploid nuclei but no cell walls or membranes-
o make food using sunlight when available its feeding stage
o eat food from surroundings when there is • Creeps by amoeboid movement - 2.5 cm/hours
no light o During feeding, they exist as one large
mass with many nuclei
Dinoflagellates: The Spinning One o They move very slowly by flowing their
body like jelly
• Spin around using two flagella o They spread out over surfaces to search for
• Responsible for Red Tides food
• Create toxins that can kill animals and sometimes
people Cellular Slime Molds
• When agitated undergo reaction that produces light →
• Cellular slime molds are eukaryotic microorganisms
Bioluminescent
that are unicellular for most of their life cycle, but can
Dinoflagellates (The Spinning One) form multicellular structures
• Move by spinning using two flagella o They spend most of their life as separate
single cells
• Can cause red tides (rapid population growth in
o When food is low, they group together to act
water)
as one organism
• Some produce toxins that can harm or kill animals o They temporarily behave like a multicellular
and humans body
• Some can produce light (bioluminescence) when
disturbed Water Molds & Downy Mildews

Alveolata: Dinoflagellates • Live in water or moist places

• Feed on dead organisms or parasitize plants
• Rapid growth of some dinoflagellates is responsible o They feed on dead material or infect living
for causing “red tides,” which can be toxic to humans plants
• Some dinoflagellates are bioluminescent. • Fuzzy white growths; They often appear as white,
• Others live symbiotically with corals (zooxanthellae). fuzzy growth on surfaces
 TOPIC 03: SPONGES Colonial Flagellate Hypothesis

Origin of Metazoa

• Evolution of the eukaryotic cell was followed by

diversification into many lineages including: Unicellular Multiple The Specialized Cells begin to
• After eukaryotic cells evolved, they diversified into flagellated flagellates unspecialized reproductive fold in to make
protist make an flagellate cells cells form tissues
different groups (lineages) over time. aggregate form hollow (represented
o Modern protozoans → single-celled sphere by the purple
cells)
eukaryotes
o Plants → organisms that make their own
Colonial Flagellate Hypothesis – metazoans descended from
food
ancestors characterized by a hollow, spherical colony of
o Fungi → organisms that absorb nutrients
flagellated cells.
from dead matter
o Animals → organisms that eat other living Individual cells became specialized for different functions.
things
• Multicellular animals are called metazoans. • This theory says that multicellular animals
o Meaning: animals made of many cells (metazoans) came from simple colonies of
working together flagellated cells.
Main Idea of the Hypothesis
Dendrogram of Major Phyla
• Early life likely started as single cells (protozoan-
like cells).
• These cells formed a hollow colony (ball-shaped
group).
• In the colony, some cells began to specialize (do
different jobs).

Single cells → colonies → cell specialization → folding →

tissues → animals

Phylum Porifera (simplest animals)

• Sponges, Phylum Porifera, are multicellular

heterotrophs, pore bearer-have ostia
o Sponges are simple multicellular animals
that get food by filtering water through tiny
Choanoflagellates pores called ostia
• They are mostly asymmetrical.
• Choanoflagellates are solitary or colonial protozoans o Their body has no fixed shape and is usually
with a flagellum surrounded by a collar of microvilli. asymmetrical.
o Choanoflagellates are single or group- • They lack true tissues and organs.
forming protozoans with a flagellum and a o They are very simple because they do not
collar-like structure around it. have true tissues or organs.
• Molecular evidence suggests they do share a
• Choanoflagellates resemble sponge feeding cells common ancestor with other animals.
(choanocytes). o Genetic studies show they are still related to
o They look very similar to the feeding cells other animals through a common
of sponges (choanocytes). ancestor.

• Scientists are studying colony formation and cell-to

cell communication in choanoflagellates in search of
clues to the evolution of multicellularity
o Scientists study them because they are
considered close relatives of early animal
ancestors (metazoans).
o They are used as a model to understand
how multicellular animals may have
started from single cells.

Notes: Choanoflagellates are used by scientists as a clue to

understand how animals (metazoans) may have started.
Poriferans (Sponges) – Cell Types & Structures • Sponges are sessile (they don't move kung saan sila
• Sponges are very simple animals made of naka attach dun na sila) animals that have a porous
different specialized cells, each with a specific body and choanocytes.
job. o Sponges are sessile animals, meaning they
are fixed in one place and do not move.
Main Cell Types o Their body has many pores, and they have
choanocytes that help in feeding and water
1. Pinacocytes flow.
o Form the outer covering (skin-like layer) of the • Supported by a skeleton of tiny needlelike spicules
sponge and protein.
o Help in protection and some feeding (can o Their body is supported by a skeleton made
absorb particles) of tiny needle-like spicules and protein
(spongin).
2. Porocytes
• They live in both fresh and marine waters.
o Form the pores (ostia)
o They live in both freshwater and marine
o Control the entry of water into the sponge
(saltwater) environments.
3. Choanocytes
Suspension Feeders
o Also called collar cells
o Create water flow using a flagellum (tail-like • Sponges are suspension feeders capturing food
structure) particles suspended in the water that passes through
o Trap and capture food particles their body.
o Sponges get food by filtering water that
4. Amoebocytes passes through their body.
o Move inside the sponge body o They catch tiny food particles floating in
o Transport nutrients to other cells water.
o Can change into other cell types
Phylum Porifera
5. Lophocytes
o Produce collagen (support material) • Choanocytes, flagellated collar cells, generate a
o Helps maintain sponge structure water current through the sponge and ingest
suspended food.
6. Sclerocytes • Digestion occurs entirely within cells, there is no gut.
o Produce spicules (hard support structures)
Feeding Process
o Used for support and defense
• Choanocytes (collar cells) create water flow using
7. Oocytes their flagella.
o Function as reproductive (egg) cells • They also trap food particles on their collars.
• Food is then digested inside individual cells.
Body Structures
• Sponges do not have a stomach or gut.
• Ostia
o Small pores/openings where water enters Suspension Feeders
• Mesohyl
o Jelly-like layer inside the sponge • Water flows in through incurrent pores called dermal
o Contains cells and provides support + ostia.
structure • It flows past the choanocytes where food particles are
collected on the choanocyte collar.
• Absence of tissues & organs means that fundamental
Water Flow
processes occur on the cellular level.
o Since sponges have no tissues or organs, • Water enters through small pores called dermal ostia
each cell performs basic life functions on its (incurrent pores).
own. • Water moves inside the sponge, passing choanocytes
where food is collected.
• Respiration and excretion occur by diffusion in each
cell. Phylum Porifera
o Processes like respiration and excretion
happen through diffusion (movement of • Sponges range in size and shape.
substances in and out of each cell). o Up to 2 meters in diameter!
o Encrusting, boring, finger, tube or vase
• Mesohyl is the gelatinous matrix containing skeletal shaped.
elements & amoeboid cells.
o The body contains a jelly-like material called
the mesohyl, which supports the sponge
and holds its cells and skeletal structures.
Neighbors Leuconoid (Most Complex)
• Most advanced and common type.
• Many organisms (live on or inside sponges),
• Has many small chambers instead of one central
including crabs, mites, bryozoans, and fish live as
space.
commensals or parasites in sponges.
o commensals → one benefits, sponge not • Choanocytes are found in these small chambers.
affected • Allows maximum filtering and larger body size.
o parasites → one benefits, sponge is harmed • Found in most sponges
Skeletal Framework Reproduction

• The skeletal framework of a sponge may be fibrous • Sponges have remarkable regeneration capabilities.
or rigid. o Sponges can regrow lost parts easily
o Sponges have an internal support structure (regeneration).
(skeleton). • Regeneration following fragmentation is a form of
• Fibrous Skeleton as composed mainly of Spongin asexual reproduction.
(elastic and soft) o If a sponge breaks into pieces, each piece
o Soft - mainly compose of sponging can grow into a new sponge (asexual
o Sponging - is elastic and soft reproduction).
• Rigid Skeletons consist of needlelike spicules. • External Buds can break off to form new sponges.
o Calcareous → made of calcium o Small outgrowths (buds) form on the
o Siliceous → made of silica (glass-like) sponge surface.
• Composition and shape the spicules forms the basis o These buds can detach and become new
of sponge classification. sponges.
o The type and shape of spicules are used • Internal Buds (gemmules) in freshwater sponges
to classify different sponges. can remain dormant in times of drought
o Found in freshwater sponges.
Canal Systems
o These are internal survival structures.
• Asconoid – the simplest canal system. o They can stay inactive (dormant) during
o Choanocytes line the spongocoel. harsh conditions like drought and later grow
o Water enters through the ostia and exit into a new sponge.
through the large osculum.
o Usually tube shaped. • Most sponges are Hermaphrodites meaning that
o Found only in the Class Calcarea. each individual functions as both male and female.
o meaning one sponge can produce both
Asconoid (Simplest) sperm and eggs.
• Water goes straight into a central cavity. o The sex cells (gametes) are derived from
• Choanocytes line the main cavity (spongocoel). choanocytes or sometimes archeocytes.
• Water enters through ostia and exits through
• Most sponges are viviparous.
osculum.
o Most sponges are viviparous, meaning the
• Body is usually tube-shaped. young are born as larvae instead of being
• Found in Class Calcarea. released as eggs

• Syconoid – tubular body and singular osculum like

• After fertilization, the zygote is retained and is
asconoids.
nourished by the parent. Ciliated larvae are later
o The walls of the sponge are folded to form
released.
choanocyte lined canals.
o After fertilization, the zygote stays inside
o Increased area for feeding.
the parent sponge.
o Class Calcarea.
o It receives nutrients from the parent while
Syconoid (Intermediate) developing.
o Later, a free-swimming larva with cilia is
• Body wall is folded inward.
released
• This creates small canals lined with choanocytes.
• Allows better filtering of food than asconoid.
• Still has a single osculum.
• Found in Class Calcarea

• Leuconoids – most complex, permits an increase in

sponge size.
o Choanocytes line the walls of small
chambers where they can filter all the water
that flows through.
o Most sponges.
 TOPIC 04: RADIATE ANIMALS Phylum Cnidaria

• Cnidarians have diversified into a wide range of both

sessile and floating forms including jellies, corals,
and hydras.

In Phylum Cnidaria, organisms can have different lifestyles and

body forms. Some are sessile, meaning they stay attached in
one place, while others are free-floating or swimming in
water.

For example:
REST
• Corals and hydras are usually sessile and exist in
R – radial the polyp form.
E – endoderm and ectoderm • Jellyfish are free-swimming and exist mostly in the
S – sting medusa form.
T – tentacles
• Polymorphism some species exist as both polyps
Radiate Animals and medusae during their life cycles.
o which means one species can have more
• Phylum Cnidaria than one body form during its life cycle.
o Radial Symmetry - their body parts are
arranged around a central point. A cnidarian may start as a polyp (attached form), then later
o Diploblastic – 2 embryonic tissue layers develop into a medusa (swimming form). Each form has a
▪ meaning they develop from two different function:
embryonic tissue layers.
• Polyp → feeding and asexual reproduction
• All animals except sponges belong to the clade • Medusa → movement and sexual reproduction
Eumetazoa, the animals with true tissues. This alternation of forms helps cnidarians survive and
o All animals except sponges belong to this reproduce more effectively in aquatic environments.
group because sponges lack organized
tissues.

• Phylum Cnidaria is one of the oldest groups in this

clade.
• Fossil history back 700 MY.
o Phylum Cnidaria is one of the oldest groups
under Eumetazoa, with fossils dating back
about 700 million years ago.

Phylum Cnidaria (Body Forms)

Cnidarians have:

• Radial symmetry
• Tissues – derived from two embryonic germ layers
Polyp • Cnidocytes – special cells with stinging organelles
called nematocysts
• Tube-shaped body form o Their tentacles contain cnidocytes, special
• Usually attached to a surface stinging cells with nematocysts used for
• Mouth faces upward capturing prey and defense.
• Example: Sea anemones, corals • Gastrovascular cavity – extracellular digestion
• Tentacles have cells called cnidocytes
Medusa • Digestion of Cnidaria: Incomplete
o They also have a gastrovascular cavity for
• Bell or umbrella-shaped body form
digestion. Digestion is incomplete because
• Free-swimming
they only have one opening used for both
• Mouth faces downward food intake and waste removal.
• Example: Jellyfish
 o Finished inside gastrodermis cells
o Digestion is both extracellular and
intracellular

• Some cnidarians supplement their diet with nutrients

collected from algal symbionts (zooxanthellae).
o Some cnidarians get food from
zooxanthellae (algae living inside them)
o Algae provide extra nutrients through
photosynthesis

Reproduction

• Polyps can reproduce asexually by budding, fission,

or pedal laceration.
• The basic body plan of a cnidarian is a sac with a
o Budding → new individual grows from the
central digestive compartment, the gastrovascular
parent
cavity.
o Fission → body splits into two
o Cnidarians have a simple body shaped like a
o Pedal laceration → small pieces from the
sac with a central space called the
base grow into new organisms
gastrovascular cavity for digestion.
o A single (one) opening functions as both
mouth and anus

Body Wall

• Cnidarians have an outer tissue layer, the epidermis,

derived from ectoderm, and an inner gastrodermis,
derived from endoderm, with jellylike mesoglea in
between.
o Epidermis (outer layer) → protection, comes
from ectoderm
o Gastrodermis (inner layer) → digestion,
comes from endoderm • Cnidarians, typically medusae, can also reproduce
o Mesoglea → jelly-like layer in between for sexually.
support o Medusae produce eggs and sperm
• A zygote usually develops into a motile planula larva.
Feeding
o Zygote develops into a planula larva (free-
• Cnidarians are carnivores that use tentacles to swimming stage)
capture prey. o Larva settles and grows into a new cnidarian
o Carnivores → eat small animals • Some species only exist as polyps, others only as
o Tentacles → used to catch prey medusae, others alternate between the two.
• The tentacles are armed with cnidocytes– unique o Some species exist only as polyps
cells that function in defense and the capture of prey. o Some exist only as medusae
o Cnidocytes → special stinging cells on o Some alternate between polyp and medusa
tentacles stages
o Nematocysts contain toxins used for prey
capture and defense.
▪ Nematocysts → structures inside
cnidocytes
• release toxins
• help capture prey and
defense
• inject poison when
triggered
Classification
• Nematocysts are used to inject a toxin.
o Variable in form.
o May be used for prey capture or defense.

• Extracellular digestion begins in the gastrovascular

cavity, but is completed within the cells of the
gastrodermis.
o Starts in gastrovascular cavity (outside
cells)
Phylum Cnidaria Simple Summary

Class Staurozoa • Staurozoa → attached jelly-like polyps

• Hydrozoa → polyp + medusa mix
• Commonly called stauromedusans • Scyphozoa → true jellyfish (medusa dominant)
• No medusa stage. • Cubozoa → box jellyfish with eyes
• Solitary polyp body that is stalked. • Anthozoa → corals and sea anemones (polyp only)
• Uses adhesive disk to attach to seaweeds, and
objects on sea bottom.
• Polyp top resembles a medusa with eight extensions
(“arms”) ending in tentacle clusters surrounding
mouth.
• Reproduce sexually.
o Jelly-like cnidarians that stay attached to
surfaces like seaweeds or rocks.
o They do not have a free-swimming
medusa stage.
o Look like a stalked polyp with jellyfish-like
arms.
o Reproduce through sexual reproduction.

Class Hydrozoa – Typical Life Cycle

• Most hydrozoans alternate between polyp and

medusa forms.
o Some have only polyps.
o Some have only medusae
o Life cycle often switches between polyp
and medusa forms.
o Some species stay only as polyps, others
only as medusae.
o Very flexible group in terms of body form.

Class Scyphozoa – True Sea Jelly

• In the Class Scyphozoa, jellies (medusae) are the

prevalent form of the life cycle.
o Known as true jellyfish.
o The medusa stage is the main body form.
o Polyp stage is very small or temporary

Class Cubozoa

• In the class Cubozoa, which includes box jellies, the

medusa is box shaped and has complex eyes.
• Polyps are tiny and develop directly into medusae
o Also called box jellyfish.
o Medusa is box-shaped with advanced
eyes.
o Polyps are small and quickly turn into
medusae.
o Known for being very fast and venomous
swimmers.

Class Anthozoa

• Class Anthozoa includes the corals and sea

anemones which occur only as polyps
• No medusa stage.
• All marine
• Solitary or colonial
o Includes corals and sea anemones.
o Exist only in polyp form (no medusa
stage).
o Live in the ocean, either alone or in colonies.
o Important for building coral reefs.
 TOPIC 05: PHYLUM MOLLUSCA Shells

• Phylum Mollusca includes snails and slugs, oysters When present, the calcareous shell is secreted by the mantle
and clams, octopuses and squids. and is lined by it. It has 3 layers:

Common Characteristic: They all have a soft body • Periostracum - the outer organic layer helps to
("mollusks" means soft). protect the inner layers from boring organisms.
• Prismatic Layer - Middle, strong, and structural
Mollis – simply the Latin word for "soft." layer.
• Nacreous Layer - Inner, and smooth - surrounds
• Gastropod means "stomach footed" referencing the foreign objects to form pearls in some.
position of the animals "foot" beneath its gut
o Their "foot" is located right under their Mantle Cavity
belly/stomach area.
o Examples: Snails and slugs. • The mantle cavity is the space between the mantle
• A bivalve's name references its two shells or and the visceral mass.
halves, called valves o The respiratory organs (gills or lungs) are
o They have a shell made of two hinged parts generally housed here.
that open and close.
Mollusk Life Cycle / Reproduction
o Examples: Clams, oysters, and mussels.
• Cephalopod means "head footed" referencing the • Most mollusks reproduce sexually, with separate
way a cephalopods' head connects to its many arms sexes (dioecious), though some are
o Their head is directly connected to their hermaphroditic.
"foot" (which is divided into tentacles). • Fertilization may be external (e.g., bivalves) or
o Examples: Octopus, squid, and cuttlefish. internal (e.g., cephalopods and some gastropods).
• The life cycle of many mollusks includes a free-
Phylum Mollusca
swimming, ciliated larval stage called a
• Mollusks evolved in the sea, and most mollusks are trochophore.
still marine. • The trochophore larval stage is followed by a free-
o Some gastropods and bivalves inhabit swimming veliger larva in most species.
freshwater.
Mollusks Life Cycle:
o A few gastropods (slugs & snails) are
terrestrial. 1. Trochophore Larva: First 6–12 hours.
o The egg hatches into a tiny, translucent larva
Humans & Mollusks
with a ring of fine hairs (cilia) used for
• A few are pests or introduced nuisances: swimming.
o Shipworms - burrow through wood, including 2. Veliger Larva: Next Stage.
docks & ships. o The trochophore develops further, starting to
o Terrestrial snails and slugs damage garden grow a tiny shell and a swimming device
plants. called a velum.
o Mollusks serve as intermediate hosts for 3. Pediveliger Larva: Settling Stage.
many parasites. o The larva grows a muscular foot (indicated
by the prefix pedi-). It uses this foot to find a
Mollusks Body Plan (Squidward) – moody, very, miserable permanent spot to settle down.
4. Metamorphosis: Final Transformation.
• Muscular Foot o The larva undergoes a major change to look
• Visceral Mass - containing circulatory, respiratory exactly like a mini version of the adult,
and reproductive organs. dropping its swimming parts.
• Mantle houses the gills and, in some cases, secretes
a protective shell over the visceral mass. Note on Variations:

Head-Foot Region • Cephalopods (e.g., octopus, squid): No larval

stage—direct development.
• Most mollusks have well-developed head ends with
• Terrestrial gastropods (e.g., land snails) also exhibit
sensory structures, including photosensory
direct development—eggs hatch into miniature adults.
receptors that may be simple light detectors or
complex eyes (cephalopods). Major Mollusk Classes
• The radula is a feeding structure found in most
mollusks (not bivalves). 1. Class Polyplacophora
o Ribbon-like membrane with rows of tiny 2. Class Gastropoda
teeth. 3. Class Bivalvia
o Radula – structure for feeding 4. Class Cephalopoda
• The foot of a mollusk may be adapted for
locomotion, attachment, or both.
Class Polyplacophora • Cephalopods swim by expelling water from the mantle
cavity through a ventral funnel.
• Class Polyplacophora includes the chitons. o They can aim the funnel to control the
o Eight articulated plates or valves. direction they are swimming.
▪ Can roll up.
o Live mostly in the rocky intertidal. Class Cephalopoda – Communication
o Use the radula to scrape algae off rocks.
• Visual signals allow cephalopods to communicate.
Class Gastropoda o Movement of the body and arms
o Color changes are caused by
• Gastropoda is the largest of the molluscan classes. chromatophores (cells in the skin containing
o 70,000 named species. pigment granules).
o Include snails, slugs, sea hares, and sea ▪ Chromatophores can change
butterflies. shape, alternately dispersing and
o Marine, freshwater, and terrestrial. concentrating pigment.
o Has a radula for feeding • Most cephalopods have an ink sac that secretes
• The shell of a gastropod is always one piece – sepia, a dark fluid ink containing the pigment
univalve – and shells may be coiled (spiral) or melanin.
uncoiled. o When a predator tries to attack, the animal
• Shells may coil to the right or left – this is genetically ejects the ink into the water, where it hangs
controlled. between the animal and the predator,
• Many snails can withdraw into the shell and close it screening a quick escape.
off with a horny operculum (covering). • Most octopuses creep along the sea floor in search of
o They use an operculum, a hard “door” or prey.
cover, to close the opening. • Squids use their siphon to fire a jet of water, which
allows them to swim very quickly.
Gastropod Feeding Habits

• Most gastropods are herbivores and feed by TOPIC 06: PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
scraping algae off hard surfaces using the radula.
• The Greek words for the phylum Echinodermata are
• Some are scavengers of dead organisms, again ”Echinos” which means "spiny", and Derma, which
tearing off pieces with radular teeth. means "skin".
• Some are carnivores and have a radula modified into • Echinoderms include sea stars, brittle stars, sea
a drill to bore through the shells of other mollusks. urchins, and sea cucumbers.
They use chemicals to soften the shell. • Entirely marine (they can only survive in salt water or
Class Bivalvia marine water)
• Lack of ability to osmo-regulate (ex. pag nag
• Bivalved mollusks have two shells (valves). increase yung salt content of humans there is a
• Mussels, clams, oysters, scallops, shipworms. tendency na baba yan)
• Non-segmented.
• Mostly sessile filter feeders.
• No head or radula. Body Forms (Patrick)
• Part of the mantle is modified to form incurrent and
excurrent siphons. Mnemonic: Patrick, Star, Wears, Designer, Pants (PSWDP)
o Used to pump water through the organism
• Pedicellariae
for gas exchange and filter feeding.
• Spiny endoskeleton
o Sometimes used for jet propulsion.
• Water vascular system
Class Bivalvia – Locomotion • Dermal branchiae (skin gills)
• Pentaradial symmetryin adults
• Bivalves move around by extending the muscular foot o 5 arms are arranged in circle manner
between the shells.
• Scallops and file shells swim by clapping their shells Symmetry
together to create jet propulsion.
• Echinoderms are bilaterally symmetrical as larvae.
Class Cephalopoda – Locomotion o This means their ancestors were bilaterally
symmetrical.
• Cephalopods include octopuses, squid, nautiluses, • As adults they show secondary radial symmetry –
and cuttlefish. pentaradial (5 parts)
• Marine carnivores with beak-like jaws surrounded by • Today’s echinoderms are mostly motile.
tentacles of their modified foot. • Many are still radial.
• The modified foot is a funnel for expelling water from • Some have again become superficially bilateral
the mantle cavity. (skeletal & organ systems still pentaradial).
• Sea cucumbers.
• No well-defined head or brain.
Water Vascular System • They can also cast off an injured arm.
• Some species can even regenerate an entire
• Echinoderms have water vascular system. individual from a broken off arm.
• A system of canals and specialized tube feet that • Usually, a small piece of the central disc must be
functions in: included.
o Locomotion • Linckia can regenerate a whole new individual from a
o Food gathering broken arm with no central disc attached.
o Respiration
o Excretion Class Echinoidea
• The water vascular system opens to the outside
through small pores in the madreporite. • Class Echinoidea includes sea urchins and sand
o Serves as entry point of the water, yung dollars
tubig papasok siya sa madreporite. • The endoskeleton is well developed in echinoids.
• Madreporite (Sieve plate) • Dermal ossicles have become close-fitting plates.
• Radial canal • Echinoids lack arms, but still show the pentamerous
• Ampulla plan in the five ambulacral areas with pores in the test
• Tube Foot (Movement) for the tube feet.
• Some urchins have very reduced tests, and bright
Locomotion: Water Vascular System coloration.
• The pedicellariae in these species contain painful
Endoskeleton
toxins.
• Echinoderms have an endoskeleton of calcareous • Sand dollars use their short spines to move sand
ossicles, often with spines. & its organic contents to the sides, the food particles
drop between the spines, and ciliated tracts on the
Major Classes oral side carry the particles to the mouth.

Class Holothuroidea

• Sea cucumbers (Class Holothuroidea) are elongated

along the oral/aboral axis.
o Bilateral outside but when binuksan mo
pentaradial siya
• Ossicles are greatly reduced in most species
• The body wall is usually leathery with tiny ossicles
embedded but can be very thin.
• Oral tentacles are modified tube feet located
around the mouth.
Class Asteroidea (stars) • The oral tentacles gather food particles.
• Class Asteroidea includes sea stars. o Tentacles are put into the pharynx one by
one so food can be sucked off
• Common on rocky shores and coral reefs, some are
found on sandy substrates. • Sea cucumbers move using ventral tube feet and
waves of contraction along the muscular body wall
• Sea stars have arms (rays) arranged around a central
disc.
TOPIC 07: PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
• The body is flattened, flexible, and covered with a
ciliated, pigmented epidermis
• Arthropoda is the most diverse and abundant animal
• Around the base of each spine there are pincerlike phylum, comprising over 1.1 million described
pedicellariae that keep the surface free of debris and species, including insects, arachnids, crustaceans,
sometimes help with food capture. and myriapods.
Class Asteroidea: Digestion Characteristics of Arthropods (Mr. Krabs)
• The upper part of the stomach connects to a pair of Mnemonic: Aggressive, Sells Crabby Patty
digestive glands (pyloric ceca) in each arm.
• Appendages (Jointed)
Class Asteroidea: Feeding
• Segmented body with tagmata (head, thorax,
• Most carnivorous; molluscs, sea stars feeding on abdomen)
crustaceans, echinoderms, other inverts & sometimes • Chitin (Exoskeleton made of chitin)
small fish.
Present in huge number, what is the reason how they
Class Asteroidea: Regeneration succeed?

• Echinoderms can regenerate lost parts. 1. Open circulatory system

o Open - blood is “open” or loose inside the
• Sea stars can readily replace an arm if it is lost.
body, tissues with their organs may direct
• This may take several months.
siya
 2. Highly developed sensory organs • Millipedes (Diplopoda) – 2 pairs of legs/segment,
o For ex. spiders pag may pumunta na sa web slow herbivores or detritivores
nila, they can able to detect it o Dalawang pairs of legs per segment
3. Diverse respiratory systems (tracheae, book
lungs, gills) Subphylum Crustacea
o They have different respiratory systems
Aquatic Masters of Adaptation
4. Metamorphosis in many groups
• Mostly aquatic (nakatira sa freshwater and marine)
The Subphyla of Arthropoda: A Deep Dive into The Animal
• 2 pairs of antennae
Kingdom’s Largest Phylum (Largest Phylum in The Animal
Kingdom) • Compound eyes on stalks
• Mandibles for chewing
Major Subphyla of Arthropoda • Many specialized appendages for swimming,
walking, feeding
1. Trilobita (extinct marine arthropods) • Includes crabs, lobsters, shrimp, barnacles, krill,
2. Chelicerata (spiders, scorpions, ticks, horseshoe copepods
crabs)
3. Myriapoda (centipedes and millipedes) Subphylum Hexapoda
4. Crustacea (crabs, lobsters, shrimp, barnacles)
5. Hexapoda (insects and their relatives The Six-Legged Success story

Subphylum Trilobita (Tri means 3) • Three body regions: head, thorax, abdomen
• 1 pair of antennae
They have 3 lobes ang kanilang cephalon, thorax, pygidium. • 3 pairs of legs (6 total)
• Most have wings (usually 2 pairs)
• Extinct marine arthropods
• Compound eyes
• Extinct animals na sila - Dominated oceans 521
• Dominated by the Class Insecta
million years ago (Paleozoic Era)
o They have no longer descendants • Found in nearly every habitat on Earth
• Flattened, segmented body with 3 lobes (tri-lobed) Comparing the Subphyla
• 1 pair of antennae, compound eyes
• Likely bottom-dwellers or scavengers
• No modern descendants

Subphylum Chelicerata

Chelicerata (Fang-Bearers)

• Two main body regions: cephalothorax and abdomen

• 6 pairs of appendages: total of 12
o 1st: Chelicerae (fang-like, sometimes
venomous)
o 2nd: Pedipalps (sensory or reproductive)
▪ Not used for locomotion, it is for Ecological And Economic Importance
reproduction
o 4 pairs of walking legs 1. Key role in food chains and ecosystems
• No antennae 2. Decomposers in nutrient cycles
• Simple eyes 3. Pollination of plants
• Includes: spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, horseshoe 4. Some are pests or disease vectors
crabs 5. Provide products like silk, honey, and dyes

Subphylum Myriapoda (myria means many, poda means Evolution And Adaptations
legs)
• Evolved from segmented ancestors (trilobites) with
Many-Legged Wanderers hardened exoskeletons
• Extensive fossil record, including trilobites
• Elongated bodies with many similar segments • Adaptations like flight, complex behaviors, and
o Mahaba yung body nila diverse feeding habits
• 1 pair of antennae
• Simple eyes (or none) Nutrition in Arthropods
• Terrestrial only
• Varied diets: herbivores, carnivores, omnivores,
• Two main groups: parasites
• Centipedes (Chilopoda) – 1 pair of legs/segment, • Specialized mouthparts for feeding
fast predators, venomous
• Filter feeding (crustaceans), predation (spiders),
o Presence ng legs per segment
scavenging (insects)
Locomotion in Arthropods • Compound eyes and advanced chemoreceptors aid in
environmental perception
• Jointed appendages adapted for walking, swimming,
jumping, or flying Reproductive Strategies in Arthropods
• Muscles attached to exoskeleton for movement
• Insects: wings for flight, highly efficient locomotion • Mostly dioecious with internal fertilization, but some
• Crustaceans: swimmerets and walking legs exhibit external fertilization (e.g., crustaceans)
o Mag kaiba yung male and female repro
Digestion in Arthropods • Metamorphosis is common in insects:
holometabolous (complete) vs. hemimetabolous
• Complete digestive system with specialized regions (incomplete)
• Foregut (ingestion & storage), midgut (digestion & • Some arthropods (e.g., aphids) exhibit
absorption), hindgut (waste processing) parthenogenesis
• Enzymatic digestion varies among different groups • Complex mating behaviors in spiders and
crustaceans (e.g., courtship rituals, pheromone
Reproduction in Arthropods
signaling
• Mostly sexual reproduction, some parthenogenesis
TOPIC 08: THE WORMS
• Internal or external fertilization
• Metamorphosis common in insects (complete and
Worms
incomplete)
o Complete - development with four stages: • Phylum Platyhelminthes – flat body
egg, larva, pupa, and adult. • Phylum Nematoda – round worms
o Incomplete metamorphosis - development • Phylum Annelida – body have segments
where the young looks like a small adult and
gradually grows without a pupal stage. Introduction
• Complex mating behaviors and parental care in some
species • Bilateral symmetry - the simplest organisms to
exhibit this type of symmetry
• Invertebrates - lack backbone
• Made of the three germ layers: endoderm,
ectoderm, and mesoderm.
o Triploblastic
• Undergo cephalization
• Platyhelminthes - General Features
• Commonly known as flatworms
• Unique Features:
Main difference ng nymphal stages sa metamorphosis o 1. Dorso-Ventrally Flattened Body,
• Nymphal stage: hatching stage, parang lumalaki o 2. Acoelomate,
lang siya o 3. Triploblastic
• Metamorphosis: From the fertilized egg is very • Examples: Planaria, Tapeworms, Liver Flukes
different from the hatched one Platyhelminthes - Nutrition
Advanced Nutrition in Arthropods • Free-living species (e.g., Planaria): Feed on small
• Highly diversified feeding strategies: predation, organisms through a pharynx
herbivory, detritivory, parasitism • Parasitic species (e.g., Tapeworms): Absorb
• Adaptations include specialized mouthparts nutrients from the host's intestine
(mandibles, chelicerae, proboscis) • Lack a complete digestive system, only a
• Crustaceans use filter feeding mechanisms; gastrovascular cavity (Incomplete)
arachnids use external digestion via enzymatic Platyhelminthes - Locomotion
breakdown
• Some insects, like termites, have symbiotic gut • Cilia in free-living species for gliding (planaria)
bacteria for cellulose digestion • Muscular contractions allow movement in absence
of cilia
Morphological Specialization in Arthropods
• Parasitic species have reduced locomotion and
• Body segmentation (metamerism) with rely on host movement
tagmatization (fusion of segments for specialized Platyhelminthes - Reproduction
functions)
• Exoskeleton composed of protein and chitin provides • Asexual reproduction by fission and regeneration
defense and prevents desiccation (Planaria can regrow entire bodies)
• Molting (ecdysis process) regulated by ecdysteroid • Sexual reproduction: Hermaphroditic but usually
hormones allows for growth. undergo cross-fertilization.
 o Pinaka mode pa rin ng reproduction nila is Comparative Table
sexual reproduction
• Platyhelminthes:
Nematoda - General Features o Acoelomate
o Incomplete Digestion
• Commonly known as roundworms o Cilia/Muscles
• Unique Features: o Asexual & Sexual
o 1. Pseudocoelomate, • Nematoda:
o 2. Cylindrical body covered with tough cuticle o Pseudocoelomate
o Complete Digestion
• Examples: Ascaris (female) and Hookworms. o Longitudinal Muscles
• Found in diverse environments, from soil to o Sexual
parasites in animals • Annelida:
o Coelomate
Nematoda - Nutrition
o Complete Digestion
• Free-living species: Decomposers feeding on o Setae
bacteria, fungi, and detritus o Mostly Sexual
• Parasitic species:
TOPIC 09: CHORDATES
o Hookworms suck blood,
o Ascaris absorbs digested food from hosts
Phylum Chordata
• Complete digestive system with a separate mouth
and anus • By the end of the Cambrian period, 540 million years
ago, an astonishing variety of animals inhabited
Nematoda - Locomotion
Earth’s oceans.
• Hydrostatic skeleton (fluid-filled pseudocoelom) • One of these types of animals gave rise to
aids movement vertebrates, one of the most successful groups of
• Thrashing, whip-like motion animals
• Chordates are bilaterian animals that belong to the
Nematoda - Reproduction clade of animals known as Deuterostomia.
• Five distinctive characteristics define the
• Sexual reproduction: Most are dioecious (separate chordates:
male and female) o Notochord
• Internal fertilization with copulation o Dorsal tubular nerve cord
• Females can lay thousands of eggs per day o Pharyngeal pouches (gill slits)
o Endostyle
Annelida - General Features
o Postanal tail
• Commonly known as segmented worms • All are found at least at some embryonic stage in all
• Unique Features: chordates, although they may later be lost.
o 1. Metamerism (Segmentation),
Notochord
o 2. True Coelom,
o 3. Closed Circulatory System • The notochord is a flexible, rod-like structure derived
• Examples: Earthworms, Leeches, from Mesoderm.
• Segmentation allows specialization of body regions o The first part of the endoskeleton to appear
in an embryo.
Annelida - Nutrition o Place for muscle attachment.
o In vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by
• Earthworms: Eat decaying organic matter, crucial
the vertebrae.
for soil aeration
▪ Remains of the notochord may
• Leeches: Ectoparasites feeding on blood
persist between the vertebrae.
(anticoagulant enzymes)
Dorsal Tubular Nerve Cord
Annelida - Locomotion
• In chordates, the nerve cord is dorsal to the
• Earthworms: Move using setae and peristaltic
alimentary canal and is a tube.
motion
o The anterior end becomes enlarged to form
• Leeches: Use suckers for inchworm-like
the brain.
movement
o The hollow cord is produced by the infolding
Annelida - Reproduction of ectodermal cells that are in contact with
the mesoderm in the embryo.
• Earthworms & Leeches: Hermaphroditic (may egg o Protected by the vertebral column in
and sperm in one), cross-fertilization via clitellum vertebrates.
• Some reproduce by budding or fragmentation
Pharyngeal Pouches and Slits • Includes fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals.
Pharyngeal slits are openings that lead from the pharyngeal • Divided into Agnatha (jawless), Pisces (fishes), and
cavity to the outside. They are formed when pharyngeal Tetrapoda (four limbed vertebrates).
grooves and pharyngeal pouches meet to form an opening.
Key Features - Vertebrata
• The perforated pharynx evolved as a filter feeding
apparatus. • Closed circulatory system with a heart (2-4
• Later, they were modified into internal gills used for chambers).
respiration. • Paired appendages
o (fins in fishes, limbs in tetrapods).
Endostyle or Thyroid Gland
• Respiration: Gills in aquatic species, lungs in
• The endostyle in the pharyngeal floor, secretes terrestrial species.
mucus that traps food particles. Key Features - Agnatha (Jawless Vertebrates)
o Found in protochordates and lamprey larvae.
o Secretes iodinated proteins. • Lack jaws and paired fins.
• Homologous to the iodinated-hormone-secreting • Cartilaginous skeleton, no vertebral column
thyroid gland in adult lampreys and other vertebrates • Notochord Retained
• Slimy, scaleless body.
Postanal Tail
• Eel-like Body Shape.
• The postanal tail, along with somatic musculature and
Agnatha – Nutrition
the stiffening notochord, provides motility in larval
tunicates and amphioxus. • Ectoparasitic or scavengers.
o Evolved for propulsion in water. • Nutrition: Feed on blood or decaying matter.
o Reduced to the coccyx (tail bone) in
• Lampreys (parasitic or filter-feeding) and hagfish
humans.
(scavengers that produce slime for defense).
Classification of Chordata • Simple Digestive System
• Nutrients are absorbed directly as food passes
through their digestive tract.

Agnatha – Reproduction

• Agnathans reproduce sexually and typically have

external fertilization (they release eggs in their
environment)
o They lay eggs and producing sperms as well
• No Copulatory Organs - Fertilization occurs
externally in water.
• Large Egg Production – They lay many eggs, but
parental care is minimal or absent.
o They lay a lot of eggs absent yung parental
Subphylum Vertebrata
care, their way to ensure these organism to
Subphylum Vertebrata is a monophyletic group that shares continue
the basic chordate characteristics with the urochordates
Key Features – Pisces (fishes)
and cephalochordates.
• Streamlined Body – Reduces water resistance for
The animals called vertebrates get their name from
efficient swimming.
vertebrae, the series of bones that make up the backbone
• Paired Fins – Used for movement, stability, and
There are approximately 52,000 species of vertebrates which steering (e.g., pectoral, pelvic, dorsal, anal, and
include the largest organisms ever to live on the Earth. caudal fins).
• Scales – Most fishes have scales for protection and
• Agnatha – jaw less vertebrates to reduce friction.
• Fishes • Gills – Specialized organs for extracting oxygen
• Amphibians from water.
• Reptiles • Countercurrent Exchange – Enhances oxygen
• Birds absorption by maximizing diffusion.
• Mammals • Swim Bladder (in Bony Fish) – Gas filled organ that
helps regulate buoyancy.
Introduction to Vertebrata
• Oil-Filled Liver (in Cartilaginous Fish like Sharks)
• Vertebrates belong to the phylum Chordata. – Provides buoyancy since they lack a swim bladder.
• Characterized by a vertebral column, cranium, and
advanced organ systems.
Pisces - Nutrition Amphibians - Nutrition

Filter Feeders – Use gill rakers to trap plankton (e.g., whale • Larval Stage (Tadpoles) – Mostly Herbivorous or
sharks, manta rays). Omnivorous-Feed on algae, plant material, and
microorganisms.
• Suction Feeders – Expand their mouth to create a • Adult Stage – Mostly Carnivorous
vacuum (e.g., groupers). o Feed on insects, worms, spiders, small fish,
• Biting/Grasping Feeders – Have strong jaws and and other invertebrates.
teeth to bite prey (e.g., barracuda). • Some large amphibians eat small vertebrates (e.g.,
Pisces - Reproduction snakes, birds, rodents).

Fishes exhibit diverse reproductive strategies, ranging from Amphibians - Reproduction

external egg-laying to internal live birth. • Amphibians have a dual life cycle, typically involving
Their reproductive methods are mainly classified into an aquatic larval stage and a terrestrial or semi
oviparous, ovoviviparous, and viviparous types. aquatic adult stage.
• They reproduce mainly sexually, with external or
a) Oviparous (Egg-Laying Fish) - No or minimal internal fertilization depending on the species.
parental care Eggs develop outside the mother’s
body. a) External Fertilization (Most Common) - Eggs and sperm
o Examples: are released into water, where fertilization occurs. Usually
o Salmon – Lay thousands of eggs in seen in frogs and toads.
freshwater streams.
b) Internal Fertilization - Occurs in salamanders. Males
o Clownfish – Guard their eggs until they
deposit spermatophores (packets of sperm), which females
hatch.
take up. Eggs may be laid in water or on land, depending on
b) Ovoviviparous - Species that reproduce by laying
the species.
eggs, which hatch outside the mother's body.
o Example: • Cloaca in Frogs
o Some sharks (e.g., sand tiger shark) – • The cloaca is a single posterior chamber that serves
Siblings may eat each other inside the as the exit for:
womb. • Reproductive fluids (sperm in males, eggs in
o Guppies – Hatch internally and are released females).
as free-swimming young. • Urine from the kidneys.
c) Viviparous (Live-Bearing Fish) - Internal fertilization
• Feces from the digestive system.
with direct maternal nourishment (like mammals).
o Embryos receive nutrients via a placenta- Key Features - Aves
like structure.
o Fewer offspring but higher survival rates. • Feathers – Unique to birds, providing insulation and
o Examples: Some sharks (e.g., hammerhead aiding in flight.
sharks) • Hollow Bones (Pneumatic Bones) - Lightweight but
strong, making flight easier.
Key Features - Amphibians • Beak (Bill) Without Teeth – Adapted for different
feeding habits.
• Amphibians are cold blooded (ectothermic)
vertebrates that live both in water and on land. • Four-Chambered Heart – Efficient circulation,
separating oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
• They are characterized by their dual life cycle, moist
• Endothermic (Warm-Blooded) – Maintain a constant
skin, and ability to breathe through multiple
body temperature.
respiratory structure
• Thin, Moist Skin – Lacks scales and helps in Aves - Nutrition
cutaneous (skin) respiration.
• Tetrapods (Four Limbs) – Most have four limbs for Beak Shape – Varies depending on diet:
movement (except caecilians).
o Sharp and hooked (hawks, eagles) for
• Three-Chambered Heart – Consists of two atria and
tearing flesh.
one ventricle, allowing partial separation of
o Long and slender (hummingbirds) for
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
extracting nectar.
• Gills (Larvae) – Tadpoles and some aquatic species
o Short and strong (finches, pigeons) for
breathe through gills.
cracking seeds.
• Lungs (Adults) – Most develop lungs for breathing
o Broad and flat (ducks) for filter-feeding in
on land.
water.
• Skin Respiration – Many amphibians can absorb
• Specialized Tongues - Hummingbirds and
oxygen through their skin, making it essential for
woodpeckers have long, sticky tongues for feeding.
survival.
• Regurgitation for Young – Parent birds regurgitate
partially digested food for their chicks.
 o Parents eat the food then iluluwa niya Key Features - Mammalia
ipapakain niya sa mga kids
Mammals are warm-blooded vertebrates that are
Aves - Reproduction distinguished by their ability to produce milk, their hair or fur,
and their advanced brains. They inhabit diverse
• Mating and Courtship Behavior environments, from land to sea and air.
o Is difficult kasi it wont be possible for them to
mate • Presence of Mammary Glands
• Songs and Calls – Males sing to attract females • Body Covering: Hair or Fur
(e.g., nightingales). • Warm-Blooded (Endothermic)
• Bright Plumage & Displays – Males have colorful • Mammals have highly developed brains with strong
feathers or perform dances (e.g., peacocks). learning and memory abilities.
• Complex behaviors, problem-solving, and social
• Internal Fertilization structures
o Mating occurs via the cloacal kiss, where the
male and female press their cloacas together Mammalia - Nutrition
to transfer sperm.
Ruminants (Cows, Deer) – Multi chambered stomach for
• In some birds, like ducks, males have a rudimentary
digesting plant fiber.
phallus for copulation.
• Carnivores (Lions, Wolves) – Strong stomach acids
Key Features - Reptilla
to break down meat.
Reptiles belong to the class Reptilia and are cold-blooded • Omnivores (Bears, Humans) - Medium-length
(ectothermic) vertebrates adapted to life on land, although intestines for mixed diets.
some live in water. • All mammals start with milk from their mother’s
mammary glands.
• Dry, Scaly Skin – Covered in keratinized scales to • Milk provides essential nutrients for growth and
prevent water loss. development.
• Ectothermic (Cold-Blooded) – Rely on external
heat sources to regulate body temperature. Mammalia - Reproduction
• Three-Chambered Heart – Except for crocodiles,
Mammals reproduce sexually through internal fertilization,
which have a four-chambered heart.
and most species give live birth (viviparous). They provide
• Efficient Excretory System – Excrete uric acid to
parental care, with the mother feeding the young through
conserve water.
mammary glands.
Reptilla - Nutrition
Modes of Reproduction in Mammals
• Reptiles have diverse feeding habits, depending on a) Monotremes (Egg-Laying Mammals)
their species and habitat. o Lay eggs instead of giving birth to live young.
• They can be carnivorous, herbivorous, Mothers produce milk, but lack nipples;
omnivorous, or insectivorous. young lick milk from skin.
• Strong Jaws & Teeth – Carnivorous reptiles have o Examples: Platypus.
sharp teeth or fangs (snakes, crocodiles). b) Marsupials (Pouched Mammals)
• Long Digestive Tract (Herbivores) – Helps break o Give birth to underdeveloped young that
down plant material. crawl into the mother’s pouch
• Slow Metabolism – Reptiles can go days or weeks (marsupium).
without eating due to efficient digestion. o Continue developing by nursing inside the
• Most reptiles get water from food, rainwater, or dew. pouch.
Desert reptiles (e.g., horned lizards) absorb water o Examples: Kangaroo, koala, opossum.
through their skin. c) Placental Mammals (Most Mammals)
o Young develops inside the mother’s uterus,
Reptilla - Reproduction receiving nutrients via the placenta.
Reptiles reproduce sexually through internal fertilization and o Longer gestation period allows the baby to
lay amniotic eggs or give live birth. They have adapted to develop fully before birth.
reproduce on land with minimal dependence on water, making o Examples: Humans, elephants, cats, dogs,
them one of the first fully terrestrial vertebrates. whales.

• Internal Fertilization – Males use a copulatory organ

to transfer sperm:
• Hemipenes (paired reproductive organs) in snakes
and lizards.
• Single penis in turtles and crocodiles.
• Some reptiles store sperm for delayed fertilization
(e.g., female turtles can store sperm for years)