CHEMISTRY · CLASS 12 · NCERT

SOLUTIONS
Introduction • Types of Solutions • Concentration Terms • Solubility

1 Introduction to Solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more chemically non-reacting substances, whose composition
can vary within certain limits. Being homogeneous means the solution has the same composition and
properties throughout — you cannot see the individual components separately, even under a microscope.

DEFINITION
Solute — the component present in smaller quantity; its physical state usually changes to match the
solvent (e.g. sugar, a solid, dissolves and behaves like part of the liquid).
Solvent — the component present in larger quantity; it decides the physical state of the resulting
solution.

The most common type is a binary solution (only 2 components). NCERT restricts detailed study mostly to
binary solutions, though solutions can have more than two components too.

NEET TIP
A solution is always a single phase — this is what distinguishes it from a suspension or colloid, which
are heterogeneous.

2 Types of Solutions
Since solute and solvent can each be solid, liquid or gas, solutions are classified into 9 types based on the
physical state of solute and solvent before mixing:

Solute Solvent Type of Solution Example

Gas Gas Gaseous solution Mixture of gases, e.g. air (O + N )

2 2

Liquid Gas Gaseous solution Water vapour in air (humidity/moist air)

Solid Gas Gaseous solution Camphor vapours in N gas; smoke

2

Gas Liquid Liquid solution Oxygen/CO dissolved in water (soda water)

2

Liquid Liquid Liquid solution Ethanol dissolved in water

Solid Liquid Liquid solution Glucose or common salt dissolved in water

Gas Solid Solid solution Hydrogen gas absorbed in palladium metal

Liquid Solid Solid solution Amalgam of mercury with sodium/zinc

Solid Solid Solid solution Alloys — e.g. copper in gold, brass (Cu-Zn)

NCERT FOCUS
Among these 9, NCERT (Class 12) studies solid-in-liquid and gas-in-liquid solutions in the greatest
depth — the same two you're focusing on below.
 3 Expressing Concentration of Solutions
Concentration tells us the amount of solute present in a given amount of solution/solvent. NCERT covers the
following ways to express it — each has its own use-case:

(a) Mass Percentage (w/w)

Formula: Mass % = (Mass of solute / Total mass of solution) × 100
Example: A 10% (w/w) glucose solution means 10 g glucose dissolved in 100 g of solution (i.e. 10 g
glucose + 90 g water).

(b) Volume Percentage (v/v)

Formula: Volume % = (Volume of solute / Total volume of solution) × 100
Example: A 10% (v/v) ethanol solution has 10 mL ethanol in every 100 mL of solution. Commonly
used for solutions of liquids in liquids.

(c) Mass by Volume Percentage (w/v)

Formula: Mass/Vol % = (Mass of solute / Volume of solution) × 100
Example: Widely used in medicine and pharmacy, e.g. a 0.9% (w/v) saline solution has 0.9 g NaCl
per 100 mL solution.

(d) Parts Per Million (ppm)

Formula: ppm = (Number of parts of solute / Total parts of solution) × 106
Example: Used for extremely dilute solutions, e.g. dissolved O2 in a lake measured as 1 ppm means
1 part per million parts of water. Can be expressed as mass/mass, volume/volume or mass/volume.

(e) Mole Fraction (x)

Formula: xA = moles of A / total moles of all components (xA + xB = 1 for a binary solution)
Example: If a solution has 1 mol glucose and 9 mol water, xglucose = 1/10 = 0.1 and xwater = 0.9.

(f) Molarity (M)

Formula: M = moles of solute / volume of solution (in litres)
Example: 1 M NaOH solution = 1 mole (40 g) NaOH dissolved to make 1 litre of solution.

(g) Molality (m)

Formula: m = moles of solute / mass of solvent (in kg)
Example: 1 molal (1 m) NaOH solution = 1 mole NaOH dissolved in exactly 1 kg of water (solvent).

NEET TIP — MOLARITY vs MOLALITY

Molarity depends on volume, and volume changes with temperature (liquids expand on heating) — so
Molarity changes with temperature. Molality depends on mass, which doesn't change with
temperature — so Molality is temperature-independent. This is why molality is preferred for
colligative property calculations.
 4 Solubility

DEFINITION
Solubility of a substance is the maximum amount of it that can be dissolved in a specified amount of
solvent at a specified temperature. It depends on the nature of solute, nature of solvent, temperature,
and (for gases) pressure.

The general rule governing solubility is:

GOLDEN RULE
“Like dissolves like” — polar solutes dissolve readily in polar solvents (e.g. salt, sugar in water), while
non-polar solutes dissolve in non-polar solvents (e.g. naphthalene, wax in benzene/petrol).

4.1 Solubility of a Solid in a Liquid

When excess solid solute is added to a solvent, some solute dissolves and the process continues till dynamic
equilibrium is reached between the dissolved and undissolved solute:
Solute + Solvent <===> Solution (rate of dissolution = rate of crystallisation)

KEY TERMS
Saturated solution — no more solute can dissolve in it at that temperature; it is in dynamic
equilibrium with undissolved solute.
Unsaturated solution — more solute can still be dissolved in it at that temperature.
Supersaturated solution — contains more solute than a saturated solution can normally hold (an
unstable, temporary state).

Effect of Temperature (by Le Chatelier's principle):

If dissolution is… Effect of increasing temperature

Endothermic (absorbs heat) Solubility INCREASES with rise in temperature

Exothermic (releases heat) Solubility DECREASES with rise in temperature

Effect of Pressure: Since solids and liquids are practically incompressible, pressure has negligible/no effect
on the solubility of solids in liquids.

NEET TRAP
Don't confuse this with gases! Pressure matters a LOT for gas solubility (see Henry's Law below) but
has virtually no effect for solid solubility.
 4.2 Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid
Gases dissolve in liquids too (e.g. O2 and CO2 in water, essential for aquatic life). Their solubility depends
strongly on the nature of the gas, temperature, and pressure.

LAW — HENRY'S LAW

The partial pressure of a gas in the vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas
dissolved in the solution:

p = KH × x
where p = partial pressure of the gas, x = mole fraction of gas in solution, KH = Henry's law constant
(different for every gas-solvent pair, depends on temperature).

NEET TIP
Higher KH → Lower solubility of the gas at a given pressure (they are inversely related). Also, KH
increases with temperature for most gases — which is why gas solubility falls as the liquid gets
warmer.

Effect of Temperature:
Dissolution of a gas in a liquid is an exothermic process. So, as per Le Chatelier's principle, increasing
temperature decreases gas solubility. This is why dissolved oxygen escapes when water is boiled, and why
aquatic organisms prefer cooler, well-oxygenated water.

Effect of Pressure:
As pressure increases, more gas molecules are forced into the liquid, so gas solubility increases with
pressure (directly, as per Henry's Law).

REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS OF HENRY'S LAW

• Soda/soft drink bottles: CO2 is sealed under high pressure to increase its solubility; the fizz
appears when the bottle is opened and pressure drops.
• Deep-sea/scuba diving: Increased pressure underwater raises N2 solubility in blood. Ascending too
fast releases this N2 as bubbles, causing decompression sickness/“the bends”.
• High altitude: Low partial pressure of O2 in air lowers its concentration in the blood, causing
altitude/anoxia sickness (weakness, inability to think clearly).

QUICK REVISION SUMMARY

• Solution = homogeneous mixture; solute (less) + solvent (more).
• 9 types of solutions based on physical states of solute & solvent.
• 7 ways to express concentration: mass %, volume %, mass/vol %, ppm, mole fraction, molarity,
molality.
• Molality ≠ affected by temperature; Molarity IS affected by temperature.
• Solid in liquid solubility: unaffected by pressure; temperature effect depends on whether dissolution
is endo/exothermic.
• Gas in liquid solubility: governed by Henry's Law (p = KHx); increases with pressure, decreases with
temperature.